Hutton: Fundamentals of

Finite Element Analysis

2
Per Castanglianos rst theorem,
U
e

= T =
JG
L
which is exactly the relation shown by strength of materials theory. The reader may think
that we used circular reasoning in this example, since we utilized many previously known
results. However, the formulation of strain energy must be based on known stress and
strain relationships, and the application of Castiglianos theorem is, indeed, a different
concept.
For linearly elastic systems, formulation of the strain energy function in
terms of displacements is relatively straightforward. As stated previously, the
strain energy for an elastic system is a quadratic function of displacements. The
quadratic nature is simplistically explained by the facts that, in elastic deforma-
tion, stress is proportional to force (or moment or torque), stress is proportional
to strain, and strain is proportional to displacement (or rotation). And, since the
elastic strain energy is equal to the mechanical work expended, a quadratic func-
tion results. Therefore, application of Castiglianos rst theorem results in linear
algebraic equations that relate displacements to applied forces. This statement
follows from the fact that a derivative of a quadratic term is linear. The coef-
cients of the displacements in the resulting equations are the components of the
stiffness matrix of the system for which the strain energy function is written.
Such an energy-based approach is the simplest, most-straightforward method for
establishing the stiffness matrix of many structural nite elements.
(a) Apply Castiglianos rst theorem to the system of four spring elements depicted in
Figure 2.10 to obtain the system stiffness matrix. The vertical members at nodes 2
and 3 are to be considered rigid.
(b) Solve for the displacements and the reaction force at node 1 if
k
1
= 4 N/mm k
2
= 6 N/mm k
3
= 3 N/mm
F
2
= 30 N F
3
= 0 F
4
= 50 N
EXAMPLE 2.6
Hutton: Fundamentals of
Finite Element Analysis
2. Stiffness Matrices,
Spring and Bar Elements
Text The McGrawHill
Companies, 2004
2.4 Strain Energy, Castiglianos First Theorem 43
F
2
F
4
k
2
k
2
k
1
k
3
1
2 3
4
Figure 2.10 Example 2.6: Four spring elements.
I Solution
(a) The total strain energy of the system of four springs is expressed in terms of the
nodal displacements and spring constants as
U
e
=
1
2
k
1
(U
2
U
1
)
2
+ 2
_
1
2
k
2
(U
3
U
2
)
2
_
+
1
2
k
3
(U
4
U
3
)
2
Applying Castiglianos theorem, using each nodal displacement in turn,
U
e
U
1
= F
1
= k
1
(U
2
U
1
)(1) = k
1
(U
1
U
2
)
U
e
U
2
= F
2
= k
1
(U
2
U
1
) + 2k
2
(U
3
U
2
)(1) = k
1
U
1
+ (k
1
+ 2k
2
)U
2
2k
2
U
3
U
e
U
3
= F
3
= 2k
2
(U
3
U
2
) + k
3
(U
4
U
3
)(1) = 2k
2
U
2
+ (2k
2
+ k
3
)U
3
k
3
U
4
U
e
U
4
= F
4
= k
3
(U
4
U
3
) = k
3
U
3
+ k
3
U
4
which can be written in matrix form as
_
_
_
_
k
1
k
1
0 0
k
1
k
1
+2k
2
2k
2
0
0 2k
2
2k
2
+k
3
k
3
0 0 k
3
k
3
_

_
_

_
U
1
U
2
U
3
U
4
_

_
=
_

_
F
1
F
2
F
3
F
4
_

_
and the system stiffness matrix is thus obtained via Castiglianos theorem.
(b) Substituting the specied numerical values, the system equations become
_
_
_
_
4 4 0 0
4 16 12 0
0 12 15 3
0 0 3 3
_

_
_

_
0
U
2
U
3
U
4
_

_
=
_

_
F
1
30
0
50
_

_
Eliminating the constraint equation, the active displacements are governed by
_
_
16 12 0
12 15 3
0 3 3
_
_
_
_
_
U
2
U
3
U
4
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
30
0
50
_
_
_
which we solve by manipulating the equations to convert the coefcient matrix (the
Hutton: Fundamentals of
Finite Element Analysis
2. Stiffness Matrices,
Spring and Bar Elements
Text The McGrawHill
Companies, 2004
44 CHAPTER 2 Stiffness Matrices, Spring and Bar Elements
stiffness matrix) to upper-triangular form; that is, all terms below the main
diagonal become zero.
Step 1. Multiply the rst equation (row) by 12, multiply the second equation (row) by
16, add the two and replace the second equation with the resulting equation
to obtain
_
_
16 12 0
0 96 48
0 3 3
_
_
_
_
_
U
2
U
3
U
4
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
30
360
50
_
_
_
Step 2. Multiply the third equation by 32, add it to the second equation, and replace
the third equation with the result. This gives the triangularized form desired:
_
_
16 12 0
0 96 48
0 0 48
_
_
_
_
_
U
2
U
3
U
4
_
_
_
=
_
_
_
30
360
1240
_
_
_
In this form, the equations can now be solved from the bottom to the top, and it will be
found that, at each step, there is only one unknown. In this case, the sequence is
U
4
=
1240
48
= 25.83 mm
U
3
=
1
96
[360 + 48(25.83)] = 9.17 mm
U
2
=
1
16
[30 + 12(9.17)] = 5.0 mm
The reaction force at node 1 is obtained from the constraint equation
F
1
= 4U
2
= 4(5.0) = 20 N
and we observe system equilibrium since the external forces sum to zero as required.
2.5 MINIMUM POTENTIAL ENERGY
The rst theorem of Castigliano is but a forerunner to the general principle of
minimum potential energy. There are many ways to state this principle, and it has
been proven rigorously [2]. Here, we state the principle without proof but expect
the reader to compare the results with the rst theorem of Castigliano. The prin-
ciple of minimum potential energy is stated as follows:
Of all displacement states of a body or structure, subjected to external loading,
that satisfy the geometric boundary conditions (imposed displacements), the dis-
placement state that also satises the equilibrium equations is such that the total
potential energy is a minimum for stable equilibrium.
Hutton: Fundamentals of
Finite Element Analysis
2. Stiffness Matrices,
Spring and Bar Elements
Text The McGrawHill
Companies, 2004
2.5 Minimum Potential Energy 45
We emphasize that the total potential energy must be considered in applica-
tion of this principle. The total potential energy includes the stored elastic poten-
tial energy (the strain energy) as well as the potential energy of applied loads. As
is customary, we use the symbol for total potential energy and divide the total
potential energy into two parts, that portion associated with strain energy U
e
and
the portion associated with external forces U
F
. The total potential energy is
= U
e
+ U
F
(2.51)
where it is to be noted that the term external forces also includes moments and
torques.
In this text, we will deal only with elastic systems subjected to conservative
forces. A conservative force is dened as one that does mechanical work
independent of the path of motion and such that the work is reversible or recov-
erable. The most common example of a nonconservative force is the force of
sliding friction. As the friction force always acts to oppose motion, the work
done by friction forces is always negative and results in energy loss. This loss
shows itself physically as generated heat. On the other hand, the mechanical
work done by a conservative force, Equation 2.37, is reversed, and therefore
recovered, if the force is released. Therefore, the mechanical work of a conserv-
ative force is considered to be a loss in potential energy; that is,
U
F
= W (2.52)
where W is the mechanical work dened by the scalar product integral of Equa-
tion 2.37. The total potential energy is then given by
= U
e
W (2.53)
As we show in the following examples and applications to solid mechanics
in Chapter 9, the strain energy term U
e
is a quadratic function of system dis-
placements and the work term W is a linear function of displacements. Rigor-
ously, the minimization of total potential energy is a problem in the calculus of
variations [5]. We do not suppose that the intended audience of this text is
familiar with the calculus of variations. Rather, we simply impose the minimiza-
tion principle of calculus of multiple variable functions. If we have a total poten-
tial energy expression that is a function of, say, Ndisplacements U
i
, i =1, . . . , N;
that is,
= (U
1
, U
2
, . . . , U
N
) (2.54)
then the total potential energy will be minimized if

U
i
= 0 i = 1, . . . , N (2.55)
Equation 2.55 will be shown to represent N algebraic equations, which form the
nite element approximation to the solution of the differential equation(s) gov-
erning the response of a structural system.
Hutton: Fundamentals of
Finite Element Analysis
2. Stiffness Matrices,
Spring and Bar Elements
Text The McGrawHill
Companies, 2004
46 CHAPTER 2 Stiffness Matrices, Spring and Bar Elements
Repeat the solution to Example 2.6 using the principle of minimum potential energy.
I Solution
Per the previous example solution, the elastic strain energy is
U
e
=
1
2
k
1
(U
2
U
1
)
2
+ 2
_
1
2
k
2
(U
3
U
2
)
2
_
+
1
2
k
3
(U
4
U
3
)
2
and the potential energy of applied forces is
U
F
= W = F
1
U
1
F
2
U
2
F
3
U
3
F
4
U
4
Hence, the total potential energy is expressed as
=
1
2
k
1
(U
2
U
1
)
2
+ 2
_
1
2
k
2
(U
3
U
2
)
2
_
+
1
2
k
3
(U
4
U
3
)
2
F
1
U
1
F
2
U
2
F
3
U
3
F
4
U
4
In this example, the principle of minimum potential energy requires that

U
i
= 0 i = 1, 4
giving in sequence i = 1, 4, the algebraic equations

U
1
= k
1
(U
2
U
1
)(1) F
1
= k
1
(U
1
U
2
) F
1
= 0

U
2
= k
1
(U
2
U
1
) + 2k
2
(U
3
U
2
)(1) F
2
= k
1
U
1
+ (k
1
+ 2k
2
)U
2
2k
2
U
3
F
2
= 0

U
3
= 2k
2
(U
3
U
2
) + k
3
(U
4
U
3
)(1) F
3
= 2k
2
U
2
+ (2k
2
+ k
3
)U
3
k
3
U
4
F
3
= 0

U
4
= k
3
(U
4
U
3
) F
4
= k
3
U
3
+ k
3
U
4
F
4
= 0
which, when written in matrix form, are
_
_
_
_
k
1
k
1
0 0
k
1
k
1
+2k
2
2k
2
0
0 2k
2
2k
2
+k
3
k
3
0 0 k
3
k
3
_

_
_

_
U
1
U
2
U
3
U
4
_

_
=
_

_
F
1
F
2
F
3
F
4
_

_
and can be seen to be identical to the previous result. Consequently, we do not resolve the
system numerically, as the results are known.
EXAMPLE 2.7
Hutton: Fundamentals of
Finite Element Analysis
2. Stiffness Matrices,
Spring and Bar Elements
Text The McGrawHill
Companies, 2004
References 47
We nowreexamine the energy equation of the Example 2.7 to develop a more-
general form, which will be of signicant value in more complicated systems to
be discussed in later chapters. The systemor global displacement vector is
{U} =
_

_
U
1
U
2
U
3
U
4
_

_
(2.56)
and, as derived, the global stiffness matrix is
[K] =
_
_
_
k
1
k
1
0 0
k
1
k
1
+2k
2
2k
2
0
0 2k
2
2k
2
+k
3
k
3
0 0 k
3
k
3
_

_ (2.57)
If we form the matrix triple product
1
2
{U}
T
[K]{U} =
1
2
[ U
1
U
2
U
3
U
4
]

_
_
_
k
1
k
1
0 0
k
1
k
1
+2k
2
2k
2
0
0 2k
2
2k
2
+k
3
k
3
0 0 k
3
k
3
_

_
_

_
U
1
U
2
U
3
U
4
_

_
(2.58)
and carry out the matrix operations, we nd that the expression is identical to the
strain energy of the system. As will be shown, the matrix triple product of Equa-
tion 2.58 represents the strain energy of any elastic system. If the strain energy
can be expressed in the form of this triple product, the stiffness matrix will have
been obtained, since the displacements are readily identiable.
2.6 SUMMARY
Two linear mechanical elements, the idealized elastic spring and an elastic tension-
compression member (bar) have been used to introduce the basic concepts involved in
formulating the equations governing a nite element. The element equations are obtained
by both a straightforward equilibrium approach and a strain energy method using the rst
theorem of Castigliano. The principle of minimum potential also is introduced. The next
chapter shows how the one-dimensional bar element can be used to demonstrate the nite
element model assembly procedures in the context of some simple two- and three-
dimensional structures.
REFERENCES
1. Budynas, R. Advanced Strength and Applied Stress Analysis. 2d ed. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1998.
2. Love, A. E. H. A Treatise on the Mathematical Theory of Elasticity. New York:
Dover Publications, 1944.
Hutton: Fundamentals of
Finite Element Analysis
2. Stiffness Matrices,
Spring and Bar Elements
Text The McGrawHill
Companies, 2004
48 CHAPTER 2 Stiffness Matrices, Spring and Bar Elements
3. Beer, F. P., E. R. Johnston, and J. T. DeWolf. Mechanics of Materials. 3d ed.
NewYork: McGraw-Hill, 2002.
4. Shigley, J., and R. Mischke. Mechanical Engineering Design. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 2001.
5. Forray, M. J. Variational Calculus in Science and Engineering. New York:
McGraw-Hill, 1968.
PROBLEMS
2.12.3 For each assembly of springs shown in the accompanying gures
(Figures P2.1P2.3), determine the global stiffness matrix using the system
assembly procedure of Section 2.2.
Figure P2.1
Figure P2.2
Figure P2.3
2.4 For the spring assembly of Figure P2.4, determine force F
3
required to displace
node 2 an amount = 0.75 in. to the right. Also compute displacement of
node 3. Given
k
1
= 50 lb./in. and k
2
= 25 lb./in.
Figure P2.4
2.5 In the spring assembly of Figure P2.5, forces F
2
and F
4
are to be applied such
that the resultant force in element 2 is zero and node 4 displaces an amount
F
3
k
1
k
2
1 2 3

k
1
k
2
k
3
1 2 4

3
k
N2
k
N1
N 1 N
k
3
k
3
k
1
k
2
1 2 3
4
k
1
k
2
k
3
1 2 4 3
Hutton: Fundamentals of
Finite Element Analysis
2. Stiffness Matrices,
Spring and Bar Elements
Text The McGrawHill
Companies, 2004
Problems 49
= 1 in. Determine (a) the required values of forces F
2
and F
4
, (b) displacement
of node 2, and (c) the reaction force at node 1.
Figure P2.5
2.6 Verify the global stiffness matrix of Example 2.3 using (a) direct assembly and
(b) Castiglianos rst theorem.
2.7 Two trolleys are connected by the arrangement of springs shown in Figure P2.7.
(a) Determine the complete set of equilibrium equations for the system in the
form [K]{U} = {F}. (b) If k = 50 lb./in., F
1
= 20 lb., and F
2
= 15 lb., compute
the displacement of each trolley and the force in each spring.
Figure P2.7
2.8 Use Castiglianos rst theorem to obtain the matrix equilibrium equations for the
system of springs shown in Figure P2.8.
Figure P2.8
2.9 In Problem 2.8, let k
1
= k
2
= k
3
= k
4
= 10 N/mm, F
2
= 20 N, F
3
= 25 N,
F
4
= 40 N and solve for (a) the nodal displacements, (b) the reaction forces at
nodes 1 and 5, and (c) the force in each spring.
2.10 Asteel rod subjected to compression is modeled by two bar elements, as shown
in Figure P2.10. Determine the nodal displacements and the axial stress in each
element. What other concerns should be examined?
Figure P2.10
1 2 3
12 kN
0.5 m 0.5 m
E 207 GPa A 500 mm
2
k
1
k
2
1 2 3
k
3
4
k
4
5
F
2 F
3
F
4
F
2
F
1
k
2k
2k
k
k
1
k
3
30 lb./in. k
2
40 lb./in.
F
4
k
1
k
2
1 2 3
k
3
4
F
2
Hutton: Fundamentals of
Finite Element Analysis
2. Stiffness Matrices,
Spring and Bar Elements
Text The McGrawHill
Companies, 2004
50 CHAPTER 2 Stiffness Matrices, Spring and Bar Elements
2.11 Figure P2.11 depicts an assembly of two bar elements made of different
materials. Determine the nodal displacements, element stresses, and the
reaction force.
Figure P2.11
2.12 Obtain a four-element solution for the tapered bar of Example 2.4. Plot element
stresses versus the exact solution. Use the following numerical values:
E = 10 10
6
lb./in.
2
A
0
= 4 in.
2
L = 20 in. P = 4000 lb.
2.13 Aweight Wis suspended in a vertical plane by a linear spring having spring
constant k. Show that the equilibrium position corresponds to minimum total
potential energy.
2.14 For a bar element, it is proposed to discretize the displacement function as
u(x) = N
1
(x)u
1
+ N
2
(x)u
2
with interpolation functions
N
1
(x) = cos
x
2L
N
2
(x) = sin
x
2L
Are these valid interpolation functions? (Hint: Consider strain and stress
variations.)
2.15 The torsional element shown in Figure P2.15 has a solid circular cross section
and behaves elastically. The nodal displacements are rotations
1
and
2
and the
associated nodal loads are applied torques T
1
and T
2
. Use the potential energy
principle to derive the element equations in matrix form.
Figure P2.15

2
, T
2

1
, T
1
L
R
A
1
4 in.
2
E
1
15 10
6
lb./in.
2
L
1
20 in.
A
2
2.25 in.
2
E
2
10 10
6
lb./in.
2
L
2
20 in.
1 2
3
20,000 lb.
A
1
, E
1
, L
1
A
2
, E
2
, L
2