The Limits of The Limits of Abstraction

A Review of Kit Fines The Limits of Abstraction, 2002, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Summary of Contents
Kit Fine's recent The Limits of Abstraction, an extended version of his [1998] paper,
contains four chapters. The first two deal with philosophical aspects of abstraction, while the
latter two provide the formal framework for a general theory of abstraction. Here we focus on
the philosophical material, and, given the depth and complexity of the material, cannot attempt
even a superficial summary of the entirety of the philosophical material. Thus, we content
ourselves with sketching the contents. Two particular issues will then be examined in greater
detail.
A theory of abstraction is, broadly construed, any account that reconstructs mathematical
theories using second-order abstraction principles of the form:
xFx = xGx E(F, G)
(We ignore first-order abstraction principles such as Frege's direction abstraction.) The function
() occurring on the left-hand side of the biconditional provides objects corresponding to the
concepts serving as the arguments of the function, and the identity conditions for the objects so
introduced (the abstracts) are given by the equivalence relation E. The most notorious instance
of a second-order abstraction principle is Frege's Basic Law V:
BLV: xFx = xGx (x)(Fx Gx)
which, infamously, is inconsistent.
There has been a resurgence of interest in abstractionism. Neo-Fregeans have
abandoned BLV in favour of (presumably consistent) abstraction principles, each delivering a
particular mathematical theory. For example, Hume's Principle:
Nx:Fx = Nx:Gx F G
[F G abbreviates the second-order formula asserting the equinumerousity of F and G]
allows one to reconstruct second-order Peano arithmetic. Examining how far such a piecemeal
approach to foundations can take us is currently an active and fruitful research project. Fine's
approach is different. Instead of worrying over the acceptability of particular abstraction
principles, or formulating principles that allow for the reconstruction of his favourite
mathematical theories, Fine provides a general account of abstraction.
The first chapter, "Philosophical Introduction'', is less an introduction than a dense
examination of philosophical difficulties facing abstractionism, including worries about how to
view the set theory used in the study of abstraction principles. Another issue discussed

necessary and sufficient conditions for the identity of abstracts arising from distinct abstraction
principles is a variation of the traditional Caesar Problem. Fine also argues against the idea
that abstraction principles can be understood in terms of reconceptualization, an argument we
return to in the next section.
The second chapter (the principal addition to the original [1998] paper) concentrates on
the use of Frege's Context Principle (CP) as the underlying justification of abstraction
principles. Fine argues that CP is incapable of providing a "vindication" of abstraction
principles thought of as contextual definitions and, furthermore, it conflicts with his proposed
solution to the Caesar Problem. He also provides insightful discussions of interrelated issues,
including referential determinacy and predicativity. Fine's interpretation of the Context Principle
will be the topic of the third section of this review.
Next, Fine examines the proof theory and semantics of abstraction principles,
thoroughly examining the conditions under which a particular abstraction principle is, or a
collection of abstraction principles are, satisfiable, and determining the general conditions under
which an abstraction principle is inflationary on a domain. Of particular interest is Fine's notion
of hyperinflation the idea that (with suitable constraints in place regarding the identity of
abstracts arising from distinct abstraction principles) a collection of abstraction principles might
together imply the existence of 'too many' objects even though no one of the principles does so
individually.
In the final chapter, Fine formulates a general theory of abstraction, i.e. a formal theory
describing the domain(s) containing all abstracts obtained through the application of acceptable
abstraction principles. At the end he sketches how one can reconstruct arithmetic, analysis, and
set theory within such a system and proposes some directions for future work.
Reconceptualization
In Chapter 1 Fine considers the idea that abstraction principles be understood as
instances of reconceptualization. Unlike traditional implicit definition, and unlike applications
of the Context Principle (on which more below), definition by reconceptualization centers, not
on reference, but on sense as Fine puts it, this approach "rests on the idea that new senses may
emerge from the reanalysis of a given sense" (p. 35)
Ignoring problems with consistency, we can view BLV as stipulating that the sense of the
(open) sentence on the right-hand side:
(A)

(x)(Fx Gx)

is identical to the sense of the (open) sentence on the left-hand side:

xFx = xGx

The 'recarving' of content involved in moving from (A) to (B) is taken to endow the extension
operator () with a sense. Fine flags a number of issues crucial to the success of definition by
reconceptualization:
Does the method work? Various questions should be distinguished here. Can
we obtain a unique sense for the number operator in this way? Can we obtain at
least one sense, even if not a unique sense? And, in each case, what is required
by way of justifying the definition? (p. 38)
Fine argues that reconceptualization fails to deliver at least part of the goods, i.e. it fails to
provide a unique sense for the operators in question. Since Fine's argument for this claim is
difficult, it is worth providing in full:
Let us adopt the following abbreviations:
(A)
(x)(Fx Gx)
(B)
(C)

xFx = xGx
(x)(x = xFx x = xGx)

(D)

x(x = xFx) = x(x = xGx)

Then on the view under consideration, (B) should have the same sense as (A)
and (D) the same sense as (C). Now presumably (C) should also have the same
sense as (B). Indeed, it is hard to see how a criterion of synonymy could be so
tolerant as to allow the synonymy of (B) to (A) (or of (D) to (C)) and yet not
tolerant enough to forbid [sic] the synonymy of (C) to (B). If this is right, it
follows that (A) has the same sense as (D). But then if the sense of the operator
that is given through reconceptualization is unique, the sense of xFx will be the
same as the sense of x(x = xFx) which is presumably not so. (p. 40, emphasis
added)
We grant that "xFx" and "x(x = xFx)" have different senses, since (assuming that extensions
behave like sets) the referent of the latter, but not the former, is guaranteed to have exactly one
member. The question, however, is how Fine's argument is meant to reach the false conclusion
that "xFx" and "x(x = xFx)" have the same sense.
The argument comes in two parts. First, all of (A) through (D) have the same sense.
Second, it follows from this that "xFx" and "x(x = xFx)" have the same sense. Neither claim
is immune to doubt.
First, although (B) and (A) have the same sense through reconceptualization (as do (D)
and (C)), the claim that (B) and (C) have the same sense can be challenged. There are two
reasons one might think that (B) and (C) have the same sense (neither of which is explicitly
considered by Fine). First, one might think that logically equivalent formulae (such as (B) and
(C)) have the same sense. Within higher-order logic this is tremendously dubious secondorder formulations of the Axiom of Choice and Zorn's Lemma are provably equivalent but,
intuitively, have different senses. Second, one might argue that (B) and (C) have the same sense
based on both their logical equivalence and their 'closeness' in terms of logical form (as

measured, perhaps, by the shortest proof of equivalence in some privileged deductive system).
Notable among the problems with the 'closeness' approach is that sameness of sense becomes a
vague matter.
Having noted the assumption, we grant, for the sake of argument, that (A) through (D)
have the same sense. It remains to determine how Fine reaches the conclusion that "xFx" and
"x(x = xFx)" share a sense as well.
It is tempting to conclude that Fine's argument consists merely in moving from the
sameness of sense of the identity statements (B) and (D) to the sameness of sense of the
corresponding terms. The notion of reconceptualization makes such a move questionable at
best. Reconceptualization allows formulae with significantly different logical structures to have
the same sense. As a result, two identities (such as (B) and (D)) might have the same sense, but
the explanation of this synonymy goes via an intermediate step (in this case (C)) with a different
logical form. This intermediate step makes the similarity of logical form between (B) and (D),
in a sense, accidental after moving from (B) to (C) there is nothing in the structure or sense of
(C) that requires us to (re-)reconceptualize so as to obtain (D). As a result, the sameness of
sense of identities need not depend on the sameness of the sense of their components.
We can see that this simplistic reading is a mis-interpretation of Fine by attending to the
two underlined parts of the argument. First, in adopting this interpretation we must read the
underlined occurrence of "(A)" as a typo, since the problematic identity between senses is not
between (A) and (D), but (B) and (D). Second, we must view as irrelevant to the argument what
was meant to be its crucial premise "the sense of the operator that is given through
reconceptualization is unique" yet the argument is meant to be a reductio on this claim. The
simplistic interpretation requires only that each of four formulae involved have the same
(unique) sense, it does not require that the operators occurring within these formulae do so as
well.
Adopting this reading of Fine's position is unfortunately an easy mistake. The
presentation of the argument is overly brief and, in addition, the wealth of typos elsewhere in the
book provides some indirect support for the hypothesis that "(A)" is a typo here. We had
ourselves adopted the simplistic interpretation (as had many of our friends and colleagues) until
a opportune conversation with Fine himself, to whom thanks are due.
Taking the wording of the argument at face value, the identity of sense that causes the
trouble is that between (A) and (D). Adopting the abbreviation:
@xFx

x(x = xFx)

we can rewrite (D) as:

Since (D*) is just the result of substitution of (explicitly defined) definiens for definiendum,
(D) and (D*) presumably have the same sense.
The problem is now apparent: We have two operators, ( and @) both of which result
from reconceptualization of (A). Thus, if the sense of an operator given by reconceptualization
is unique, "xFx" and "@xFx" (i.e. "x(x = xFx)") must have the same sense (and thus the
same reference).
We can avoid Fine's conclusion, however, by noting that "@", unlike "", does not
obtain its sense solely through reconceptualizition of (A). In reconceptualizing, we laid down
BLV in order to provide a sense for . If, in addition, we had adopted:
BLV*: @xFx = @xGx (x)(Fx Gx)
as a distinct instance of definition by reconceptualization, we would be forced to conclude that
"" and "@" have the same sense. Had we taken this route, with "@" as a primitive whose
sense was provided directly by BLV*, there would be no reason to think that @xFx is the
singleton of xFx (or more generally that "@xFx" and "xFx" could not have the same sense).
Crucially, in Fine's argument "@" is not defined directly through reconceptualization,
but is instead a complex operation built up out of a simpler one. "@" obtains its sense as a
function of the sense of "" in virtue of being explicitly defined in terms of "". The fact that
(D*) and (B) have the same sense as (A) should not fool us into thinking that the operator in
(D*) obtained its sense in the same way as the operator in (B).
Fine's argument against reconceptualization, even if unsuccessful, does pinpoint certain
crucial assumptions underlying the view. In particular, if we grant that logically equivalent
statements have the same sense (and we need not do so), the equivalence relation expressed by
"sameness of sense through reconceptualization" must be strictly stronger than that expressed
by "sameness of sense" the former carves up the linguistic world more finely than the latter.
Although two formulae that have the same sense through reconceptualization will obviously
have the same sense, crucially there will be formulae that have the same sense but which do not
stand in the "sameness of sense through reconceptualization" relation. We do not see why this
is all that bitter a pill, but will leave its defence for another time.
The Context Principle
Fine argues at length against the Neo-Fregean use of the Context Principle in the second
chapter. He writes that:
The 'context principle' can be regarded as an attempt to vindicate... contextual
definitions. (p. 55)
After sketching the content of the Context Principle, Fine devotes a number of sections to
demonstrating that justifying abstraction principles in terms of CP fails to solve a number of

deep philosophical problems. We shall have something to say regarding these objections
below. Before doing so a short examination of Fine's taxonomy of definitions is in order.
Paraphrasing Fine, implicit definitions are definitions whose success depends on
prerequisite knowledge of the truth of the corresponding Ramsey sentence we have to know
that the definition is satisfiable before we can successfully deploy it. This requirement, however,
is not in place for creative definitions no prior knowledge of the truth of the Ramsey sentence
is demanded, rather the "objects are introduced into the discourse" in virtue of the definition.
It is important to distinguish an epistemic from an ontological understanding of creative
definitions. The former entails merely that we dont have to know that the Ramsey sentence is
true in order to successfully put forward the definition (it is still required that the Ramsey
sentence is, in fact, true). The success of such a definition provides justification for believing in
the truth of the relevant Ramsey sentence. The latter, ontological reading involves the idea that it
is in virtue of a successful definition that the objects exist, i.e. it 'creates' the objects and 'adds'
them to the domain. On this conception, prior to putting forth the definition the corresponding
Ramsey sentence might be false, while the success of the definition guarantees its (subsequent)
truth. This distinction is especially important since the epistemological reading is distinctive of
the Neo-Fregean project.
Fine introduces a further genus, contextual definitions (p.60), which are bridge
principles introducing new vocabulary by fixing their truth-conditions in terms of previously
understood vocabulary. Abstraction principles are one species of contextual definition. As
before, it is reasonable to distinguish standard or implicit contextual definitions, where success
involves prior knowledge of the truth of the Ramsey sentence, from creative contextual
definitions, where this constraint is not in place. Again, it is the latter (on its epistemic reading)
that is of interest to the Neo-Fregean.
We now turn from definitions to the use of the Context Principle in their justification.
The Context Principle traces back to Frege's [1884] Grundlagen der Arithmetik, where he
observes that:
... one has to ask for the meaning of words in the context of sentences, not in
their isolation. (Grundlagen, p. x).
The Context Principle is obtained by replacing "words" with "singular terms" and identifying
meanings with referents. If what is distinctive about the occurrence of singular terms in
sentences, as opposed to those same terms in isolation, is the truth value of the sentence, it
follows that the reference of singular terms is tied to the truth values of sentences in which they
occur.
Again, we can distinguish an epistemic from an ontological reading. The former
understanding is akin to a minimalist conception of reference, spelling out constraints for
successful reference. The latter is more substantial in that the objects come into existence in

virtue of CP (and the truth of appropriate sentences). Once again, it is the former, epistemic
reading which is relevant to the Neo-Fregean project.
How, according to Fine, can the Context Principle be regarded as justifying
creative/contextual definitions? One way of understanding Fine is that it is a consequence of
CP that the usual order of explanation of identity statements is reversed:
Instead of saying that the sentence t = t is true in virtue of the fact that the term
t refers to a given object x and that object is identical with itself, we say that the
term t refers in virtue of the fact that the sentence t = t is true where this latter
fact is itself explained without appeal to the reference of t. (p. 68)
This line of thought can be extrapolated to creative/contextual definitions. For example, instead
of stating that Hume's Principle is true because numerical terms of the form "Nx:Fx" refer, and
that the various referents stand in appropriate relations to one another, we say that the numerical
terms refer, and that the referents (numbers) stand in certain relationships to each other, because
particular instances of HP are true.
Fine further fleshes out the idea that CP, in conjunction with the truth of appropriate
sentences, secures the reference of abstraction terms:
...the apparently linguistic behaviour of the terms endows them with the potential
to refer, a potential that will be realized when the appropriate non-linguistic facts
obtain. Thus referential potential is the counterpart, within the framework of CP,
to an identifying sense within the standard Fregean model of reference. (p. 58)
Unfortunately, Fine nowhere explicitly tells us what these "non-linguistic facts" are.
At first glance one is tempted to identify the non-linguistic facts relative to HP with the
commitments incurred by the corresponding Ramsey sentence. If the justification of
creative/contextual definitions via CP required prior knowledge of the Ramsey sentence,
however, then any creative definitions made on the basis of CP would collapse into standard
implicit definitions (Fine does think that creative definitions justified via CP collapse into
something like implicit definitions, but his reasons for thinking so are rather more subtle).
A different interpretation is that, given an instance of HP, the non-linguistic facts in
question are the commitments of the (epistemologically) more basic right hand side of the
biconditional, i.e. a one-to-one correspondence between concepts. The existence of such a
correspondence guarantees, via the definition, the truth of the relevant identity claim regarding
abstracts, which in turn entails, on the basis of CP, the reference of the number operator. Thus,
CP only applies to definitions which are already successful (and thus true).
Once this is clarified, it becomes clear that much of Fine's critical examination of the
Context Principle as a "vindication" of creative/contextual definitions misses the mark. CP,
properly understood, is not intended to "vindicate" creative/contextual definitions in the sense of
providing a guarantee that such definitions are successful Basic Law V has taught us this
much nor does it account for the constraints on the success of individual creative/contextual
7

definitions (interestingly, the third chapter of Fine's book contains by far the most extensive
investigation of this issue in the literature). Rather, CP is mobilized in order to secure the
reference of numerical (and other) terms occurring in contextual definitions; the definitions
themselves are justified by other means (perhaps through reconceptualization). The NeoFregean, however, does not (or at least should not) expect CP itself to do this justificatory work.
Hence, most of the problems Fine subsequently raises for CP are unsurprising, at least in the
sense that one would expect some such problems. Fine's identification and discussion of the
particular difficulties facing creative/contextual definition is nonetheless immensely valuable.
As a result we see no reason for abandoning CP, which seems rather benign in its epistemic
version.
Fine, however, delivers a second threat to the Context Principle, by arguing that CP is
incompatible with his solution to the Caesar Problem. This objection, if successful, would be
more worrying, since presumably the solutions to various problems confronting
creative/contextual definitions should be jointly consistent. Although limitations on space
prevent a full discussion here, we feel that this second strategy also fails to be convincing
(mainly on dialectial grounds, because there are other extant attempts at such a solution that are
compatible with CP, and Fine gives no reason to reject those). Hence, we think that Fine fails to
provide a decisive strategy against CP, and (on its epistemic reading) it emerges from his twopronged attack alive and kicking.
Conclusions
Although, as noted above, Fine ultimately decides against the Context Principle as a
possible means for justifying creative/contextual definitions, Fine is not averse to the possible
success of such definitions in general. On the contrary, he explicitly accepts that creative
definitions (understood ontologically) can provide a satisfactory foundation for mathematics.
His view, procedural postulationalism, is based on the idea that:
... instead of stipulating that certain statements are to be true, one specifies
certain procedures for extending the domain to one in which the statements will
in fact be true. These procedures can be stated without invoking an abstract
ontology; they achieve referential determinacy; and their legitimacy does not
depend upon the prior knowledge that the objects which are to be introduced into
the domain already exist. (p. 100)
Unfortunately, this positive view is only mentioned four times (pp. v, 36, 56, 100), with the
remainder devoted to discussing and developing various problems concerning more traditional
theories of abstraction. As a result, the book is somewhat disappointing, since one cannot but
wonder how Fine's procedural postulationism will deal with the diverse and rather sophisticated
problems raised in the text. Thus, the reader is likely to feel some frustration while waiting for
the planned sequel, which promises to provide the conclusion to this abstractionist story.

Setting aside this minor disappointment, and notwithstanding our particular gripes
surveyed above, the text is essential reading for anyone interested not only in abstractionist
philosophies of mathematics, but the philosophy of mathematics and language in general. The
philosophical chapters display a consistently high level of rigour and insight (with a
corresponding level of difficulty) when discussing familiar topics, usually providing new
perspectives on old problems. Additionally, the new philosophical problems raised are valuable
and thought provoking, and promise to be the basis for much philosophical discussion to come.
The later chapters on formal topics are equally essential, insofar as they drastically alter the
landscape of formal work on abstraction principles and demonstrate the relative lack of serious
mathematical work on this subject prior to Fine's book. A philosopher of our acquaintance
recently noted that it is difficult to refer to a typical 'Fine' view without sounding like one is
approving, but in this instance our overall assessment would have to be that this is, indeed, a
'Fine' book.
References:
Fine, K [1998], "The Limits of Abstraction", in The Philosophy of Mathematics Today:
Proceedings of an International Congress in Munich, M. Schirn (ed.), The Mind
Association, Oxford, Oxford University Press.
Frege, G. [1884], Grundlagen der Arithmetik, Verlag von Wilhelm Koebner, Breslau.

Roy T. Cook
rtc1@st-andrews.ac.uk
Philip Ebert
pae1@st-andrews.ac.uk
Arche: The AHRB Centre for the Philosophy of Logic, Language, Mathematics, and Mind
School of Philosophical and Anthropological Studies
University of St. Andrews
St. Andrews, Fife, Scotland