From the Paperback Study Guide

Introduction
1. Our differences as humans include our personalities, interests, and cultural and
family backgrounds.
2. Our similarities as human beings include our common biological heritage, our
shared brain architecture, our abilty to use language, and our social behaviors.
3. A fundamental question in psychology deals with the extent to which we are shaped
by our heredity, called our nature, and by our life history, called our nurture.
Behavior Genetics: Predicting Individual Differences
1. Researchers who specifically study the effects of genes on behavior are called
behavior geneticists.
2. The term environment refers to every nongenetic influence.
3. The master plans for development are stored in the chromosomes. In number, each
person inherits 46 of these structures, 23 from each parent. Each is composed of a
coiled chain of the molecule DNA.
4. If chromosomes are the books of heredity, the words that make each of us a
distinctive human being are called genes.
5. The complete instructions for making an organism are reffered to as the human
genome. Human traits are influenced by many genes acting together in gene
complexes.
6. To study the power and limits of genetic influences on behavior, researchers use
twin and adoption studies.
7. Twins who developed from a single egg are genetically identical. Twins who
developed from different fertilized eggs are no more genetically alike than siblings
and are called fraternal twins. In terms of the personality traits of extraversion and
neuroticism, identical twins are more alike than are fraternal twins.
8. Divorce rates are more similar among identical twins than among fraternal twins.
9. Through research on identical twins raised apart, psychologists are able to study the
influence of the environment.
10. Studies tend to show that the personalities of adopted children do not closely
resemble those of their adoptive parents.
11. Adoption studies show that parenting does matter. For example, adopted children
often score higher than their biological parents on intelligence tests.
12. The term that refers to the inborn personality, especially the childs emotional
excitability, is temperament, which does endure over time.
13. From the first weeks of life, difficult babies are more irritable, intense, and
unpredictable. In contrast, easy babies are
Notes
Premise one: womean are more relational
Premise two: Men are more recreational
Premise three: Natural selection explains differences
-humans are living fossils
Men prefer women who are:
young
healthy
smooth skin
youthful shape
waist narrower than hips
Women prefer men who:

healthy
dominant
mature
bold
affluent
potential long-term mating

GENDER DEVELOPMENT
a.
Gender similarities and differences
45/46 chromosomes are unisex
woman has 70% more fat, 40% less muscle, 5 inches shorter, endures puberty
sooner, outlives men by 5 years
women are twice as vulnerable to depression and at 10 times greater risk for eating
disorders
men are 4x more likely to commit suicide or suffer autism, alcoholism, colorblindness, hypergender (kids), and antisocial personality disorder (adults)
b. Gender and Agression
mean are more agressive than women
agressive gender gap pertains to physical and not verbal
violent crime rates illustrate difference
murder men-to-women ratio 9:1 in US and 7:1 in Canada
hunting, fighting, warring=mens activities
men express more support for war
Iraq example-51% of men and 34% of women supported war
c. Gender and Social Power
men-dominant, forceful, independent
women-deferential, nurturing, independent
men are socially dominant in most societies
within leadership: men are directive, autocratic
within leadership: women are democratic and more welcoming of subordinates
participation in decision making
Enriched Environments
if you listened to Mozart in the womb, then you are smarter
Rosenzweigs more toys environment
brain cell of enriched rat is much more developed than brain cell of impoverished rat
massages/touch can affect brain development
practicing something like music a lot develops neural connections and muscle
memory
Impoverished Environments
use it or lose it
preschool cant make up for lost knowledge in childhood
if you dont practice talking within the first few years of your life, youll never be able
to talk
Do Parents Matter?
make a difference in political attitudes, religious beliefs, and manners
parents only make about a 10% difference
parent nurture is like nutrition
o parents can only help you to a certain level
o can bring you up to a level where you are able to fully function, cant enrich
you beyond

Peer Influence
parents dont have much influence on teens smoking, peers do
some influence on drinking because if theres a lot of alcohol at home, teens are
more likely to drink
parents can shape peer influence based on where they choose to live, etc.
Culture Influence on Development
norms-rules for accepted and expected behavior, an understood rule
o how you hold utensils, how you dress, how you greet people
o personal space
Individualist vs. Collectivist Societies
individualist cultures emphasize personal achievements
Western European/American are individualist
Asian cultures are collectivist
Asian ads are less likely to offer personal choice
Gender
gender identity: the gender you identify with
sexual identity: what turns you on, can differ from your gender identity
Social Learning Theory: theory that we learn social behavior by observing and
imitating and by being punished/rewarded
Gender Schema Theory: theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of
what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly
schema means concept
young children are gender detectives
Learning outcomes gender development
males and females are similar in genetic makeup
differ in body fat, muscle, height, age of onset puberty, and life expectancy
men are more agressive
most men are socially dominant and have leadership positions
women are more concerned with making connections and caring for people
men emphasize freedom and self reliance
biological sex is determined by 23rd pair of chromosomes
XX=girl
XY=boy
Y=testosterone
sex related genes and horomones influence gender differences in behavior
culture shapes ideas about how men and women should behave
Prenatal Development
zygote: the fertilized egg; it enters a 2 week period of rapid cell division and develops
into an embryo
embryo: the developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization
through the second month
fetus: the developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth
teratogens: agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or
fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): physical and cognitive abnormalities in children
caused by a pregnant womans heavy drinking
o in severe cases, symptoms include noticeable face misproportions

What Do Babies Know?

their mothers voice
see light
see what we need to see and smell and hear well along with using sensory
equipment

Habituation-decreasing responsiveness with repeated stimulation

o as infants gain familiarity with repeated exposure to a visual stimulus, their
interest wanes and they look away sooner
habituated=bored
form 250,000 new nerve cells per minute during the first few months of life
trillions of neuron connections
maturation: biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior,
relatively uninfluenced by experience
if your brain isnt ready for you to walk, youre not ready to walk
schemas
cow=big doggie
assimilation
o if you dont know something, you try to fit it into categories of what you
already know
new category called farm animals after reading a book about them
dog and cat categories turn into one-house pets
every one of us is thinking rationally when we say stupid things
at a certain point, we are capable of throwing out those schemas and forming new
ones
assimilation becomes accomodation
assimilation: interpreting ones new experience in terms of ones existing schemas
accomodation: adapting ones current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new
info

Jean Piagets 4 Stages

A.
Sensorimotor Stage: 0-2
1. Object Permanence
get upset when you they cant see their toy, mother, etc.
you can sustain an image in your mind of mom, but if you dont hear/see/smell her,
you dont think shes alive
up to 8 months you dont have object permanence
B. Pre-Operational Stage: 2-7
1. Conservation of liquid and matter
they wouldnt understand that it is the same amount of liquid in both containers
2.

Egocentris
in hide and go seek, they assume if they cant see you then you cant see them
Julie do you have a brother? Yes. Does your brother have a sister? Well of course
not!
o cant identify yourself
buying a present for your parents-you would buy something that you like
think that the moon is following you around

3.

3.

C.
1.
2.

Symbolic Representation
trying to climb inside a tiny toy car

Concrete Operational Stage: 7-11

Understanding Conservation
Reversability of numbers
8+5=13
13-8=5
8x5=40
40/8=5
Still Descriptive
hands on history
class election
Republican and Democrat debate

D.
1.

Formal Operaitonal Stage: 12-adulthood

Conceptual thinking/Abstract thinking
define democracy, include the electoral process and role of political parties
thesis statement right/wrong leads into formal operational stage

Attachment Theory
Harry Harlow-monkey study
Baudry/Mary Ainsworth-strange situation
stranger anxiety
o 1. the child and the mother play together
o 2. a strange adult enters
o 3. the mother leaves the room
o 4. the stranger tries to interact with the child
o 5. the mother returns and the stranger leaves
o the reunion
o 6. the mother leaves the child alone
o 7. the stranger returns
o 8. the mother returns
o second reunion
secure attachment^
insecure attachment: harder to calm baby down, cries a lot longer
doesnt care when mom leaves
resiliency: you can bounce back/recover from setbacks-secure attachment
insecure attachment: not as comfortable with venturing off
secure attachment: likely to venture off and for example, study abroad in college
Erik Eriksons 8 Stages of Social Development (Neo-Freudian)
a.
basic trust vs. mistrust
b.
stranger anxiety
we continue to change throughout our life

Infancy
(to 1 year)

trust vs. mistrust

if needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense

of basic trust

Toddlerhood
(1 to 2 years)

autonomy vs.
shame and doubt

toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for

themselves, or they doubt their abilities

Preschool
(3 to 5 years)

initiative vs. guilt

preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans,

or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent

Elementary
School
(6 years to
puberty)

competence vs.
inferiority

children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to

tasks, or they feel inferior

Adolescene
(teen years
into 20s)

identity vs. role

confusion

teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing

roles and then integrating them to form a single identity,
or they become confused about who they are

Deprivation or Disruption of attachment

a.
the child abuser was abused
if the abuse had been restricted to early childhood, its manifestation as deliquency
waned by late adolescene
those who experience no sharp break from their abusive past are not so resilient
suffer other lasting wounds like nightmares, depression, substance abuse, binge
eating, agression
b. effects of child abuse/sexual abuse
women who suffered child sexual abuse that included intercourse have greater risks
of depression, anxiety, and alcohol abuse
c. benefits of adoption
children removed from foster mothers between 6 and 16 months initially had
difficulties eating, sleeping, and relating to their new mothers
o by age 10, they were fine
if adopted after age 2, greater risk for attachment problems
foster care that prevents attachment by moving a child through a series of foster
families can be very disruptive
d. pros and cons of daycare
high quality daycare does not disrupt attachment
high quality daycare=warm and supportive interactions with adults in a safe, healthy,
and stimulating environment
poor care=boring, unresponsive to childrens needs
family poverty coinsides with lower-quality daycare
Lawrence Kohlbergs Stages of Moral Reasoning
Preconventional Level
o selfish, egocentrism
o steal drug because you know youd be lonely without wife/if you knew you
wouldnt get caught
o dont steal the drug because youll go to jail
Conventional
o concrete operational
o Ill steal it because I dont want any friends to think I dont love my wife
o I cant steal drugs because my friends and relatives will think Im a theft
o how other people see you
o law and order
I cant steal the drug because its against the law to steal

Post conventional
o steal the drug because human life is more important than property (of a drug)
rights
o abstract thinking

Carol Gilligans Criticism

In a different voice 1972/1973
women were at conventional level because they were more interested in Heinzs
relationship with his wife, family, and friends
boys are more interested in making statements about justice
Aging and Intelligence
Phase I: Cross sectional studies-researchers test and compare people of various ages
older adults give fewer correct answers than do younger adults
you cant teach an old dog new tricks
companies established mandatory retirement policies and brought in young and
whom they thought were more capable employees
the decline of mental ability with age is part of the general aging process
this view went unchallenged for awhile
Phase II: study intelligence logitudinally-retesting the same people over a period of years
until late in life, intelligence remained stable
o did not decline with age as was previously thought
cross-sectional studies compared people from different eras, family types, education
levels
myth that intelligence sharply declines with age is put to rest
Phase III: crystallized intelligence vs. fluid intelligence
crystallized: history, stays solid until old age
fluid: chemistry, physics, math, knowledge decreases in old age
Recall vs. Recognition
recall-fill in the blank test
recognition-multiple choice test
older adults have a harder time with recall memory, need reminders for recognition
perspective memory-events trigger memories
o walking down street and see milk in someones house, it reminds you to buy
milk
retrieval clues
Mid-life crisis
man in late 40s leaves his wife and family for a young girlfriend and a sportscar
divorce is most common in 20s
most suicide in 70s/80s
social clock-socially preffered time of events like marriage, parenthood
life events are mostly based on chance encounters
Adulthoods Commitments
love and work are goals in adulthood
most societies center around monogamy
most people love their children more than their spouse
marriages are most likely to last if married after age 20, both educated, and share
similar interests
divorce rates are very high
lower divorce rate by doing a trial run

Dying

those who dont live together first are more likely to not get divorced
person who goes into trial marriage doesnt feel that marriage is as sacred of a vow
22% of unmarried adults reported being very happy
40% of married adults reported being very happy
5:1 ratio of positive to negative relations
willingness to compromise, listen
children can cause marriage conflict
empty nest when child leaves for college, leads to more happiness
50% of people get divorced and get remarried and are happier
who are you? revolves around your job
studies that conclude it doesnt matter what your job is, but the quality of your
experience
are you generating positivity?
college majors dont really correlate to what you do later in life
happiness is determined by work that fits your interest
when people are older than 65, they reflect on their lives
mid-life people experience self esteem, happiness, satisfaction
as you get older, amygdala doesnt respond as much to negative feelings
as you get older, more freinds/spouses die
death of a spouse is hardest to cope with
grief isnt as bad when youre older because it comes at a more accepted/expected
time

Continuity and Stages

Stability and Change
temperament stabilizes with age
as people grow older, personality gradually stabilizes
1. Dr. Matsuko's major research interest is the long-term effects of child-rearing practices on the
psychological adjustment of offspring. It is most likely that Dr. Matsuko is a(n) ________ psychologist.
a. cognitive
b. developmental
c. biological
d. psychodynamic
2. Nutrients and oxygen are transferred from a mother to her developing fetus through the
a. embryo.
b. ovaries.
c. teratogens.
d. placenta.
3. Infants' tendency to gaze longer at novel stimuli than at familiar ones provides compelling evidence
regarding their
a. self-concepts.
b. egocentrism.
c. stranger anxiety.
d. memory capacities.
4. The importance of schemas was most clearly highlighted by
a. Erikson's psychosocial development theory.
b. Piaget's cognitive development theory.
c. Harlow's attachment theory.
d. Kohlberg's moral development theory.

5. Two closed, pyramid-shaped beakers containing clearly identical amounts of a liquid are judged by
a child to hold different amounts after one of the beakers is inverted. The child apparently lacks a
a. sense of object permanence.
b. concept of conservation.
c. capacity for habituation.
d. secure attachment.
6. A child's realization that others may have beliefs that the child knows to be false best illustrates the
development of
a. object permanence.
b. egocentrism.
c. a theory of mind.
d. stranger anxiety.
7. The process of imprinting occurs during a brief developmental phase known as
a. menarche.
b. puberty.
c. menopause.
d. a critical period.
8. Although 3-year-old Adam happily explores the attractive toys located in the dentist's waiting room,
he periodically returns to his mother's side for brief moments. Adam most clearly displays signs of
a. secure attachment.
b. object permanence.
c. egocentrism.
d. conservation.
9. "I don't care whether you want to wash the dishes, you will do so because I said so!" This statement
is most representative of a(n) ________ parenting style.
a. preconventional
b. authoritative
c. formal operational
d. authoritarian
10. Mark believes that choosing to violate government laws is morally justifiable if it is done to protect
the lives of innocent people. Kohlberg would suggest that this illustrates ________ morality.
a. conventional
b. unconventional
c. preconventional
d. postconventional
11. Jessica acts so differently with her parents than with her girlfriends that she often thinks her
personality is completely phony. Erik Erikson would have suggested that Jessica is experiencing
a. egocentrism.
b. insecure attachment.
c. role confusion.
d. fluid intelligence.
12. A public initiation into adult responsibilities and status is called a
a. social clock.
b. critical period.
c. rite of passage.
d. formal operational stage.
13. Compared to a century ago, menarche occurs ________ in life and adult independence begins
________ in life.
a. later; later
b. earlier; earlier

c. later; earlier
d. earlier; later
14. A researcher who administers a personality test to the same children every 3 years as they
progress through school is conducting a(n) ________ study.
a. longitudinal
b. experimental
c. cross-sectional
d. chronological
15. Questions about the extent to which maladaptive habits learned in childhood can be overcome in
adulthood are most directly relevant to the issue of
a. continuity or stages.
b. fluid or crystallized intelligence.
c. stability or change.
d. nature or nurture.
1. For the unborn children of mothers who smoke heavily, nicotine is a(n)
a. agonist.
b. depressant.
c. teratogen.
d. hallucinogen.
2. By a week after birth, infants are able to distinguish between their mothers' and strangers'
a. faces.
b. voices.
c. body odors.
d. tender touches.
3. After Nadia learned that penguins can't fly, she had to modify her existing concept of birds. This best
illustrates the process of
a. conservation.
b. assimilation.
c. habituation.
d. accommodation.
4. During Piaget's sensorimotor stage, children acquire a
a. theory of mind.
b. concept of conservation.
c. sense of object permanence.
d. capacity for abstract reasoning.
5. Deficient social interaction and an impaired understanding of others' states of mind is most
characteristic of
a. autism.
b. menarche.
c. crystallized intelligence.
d. object permanence.
6. Marissa resents the burden and constraints of caring for her infant daughter and frequently ignores
her cries for attention. As a consequence, her daughter is most likely to display signs of
a. egocentrism.
b. accommodation.
c. insecure attachment.
d. conservation.
7. Compared with the children of authoritarian parents, the children of authoritative parents are
a. less likely to develop a sense of self-reliance and more likely to demonstrate social competence.

b. more likely to develop a sense of self-reliance and less likely to demonstrate social competence.
c. less likely to develop a sense of self-reliance and less likely to demonstrate social competence.
d. more likely to develop a sense of self-reliance and more likely to demonstrate social
competence.
8. Female breasts are to ________ as male testes are to ________.
a. menarche; menopause
b. menopause; menarche
c. secondary sex characteristics; primary sex characteristics
d. primary sex characteristics; secondary sex characteristics
9. Jarrud thinks he should obey his teachers only if they are carefully watching him. Kohlberg would
suggest that Jarrud demonstrates a(n) ________ morality.
a. conventional
b. unconventional
c. preconventional
d. postconventional
10. The sexual abuse of a very young child is so emotionally repulsive to most people that they
immediately recognize it as shamefully immoral. This best illustrates that moral judgments may reflect
a. habituation.
b. insecure attachments.
c. gut-level intuitions.
d. concrete operational thought.
11. The process of developing a sense of identity during adolescence was highlighted by
a. Erikson's psychosocial development theory.
b. Piaget's cognitive development theory.
c. Kohlberg's moral development theory.
d. Harlow's attachment theory.
12. A series of small strokes that progressively damage an older adult's brain is most likely to produce
a. menarche.
b. dementia.
c. crystallized intelligence.
d. Alzheimer's disease.
13. As adults age, they show the greatest declines in
a. fluid intelligence and in the memory capacities needed to recognize recently presented information.
b. fluid intelligence and in the memory capacities needed to recall recently presented
information.
c. crystallized intelligence and in the memory capacities needed to recognize recently presented
information.
d. crystallized intelligence and in the memory capacities needed to recall recently presented
information.
14. According to Erikson, older adults can most effectively cope with the prospect of their own death if
they have achieved a sense of
a. conventional morality.
b. object permanence.
c. conservation.
d. integrity.
15. Mark thinks that language development over the life span requires a slow but steady shaping
process. His belief is most directly relevant to the issue of
a. continuity or stages.
b. secure or insecure attachments.
c. fluid or crystallized intelligence.

d. cross-sectional or longitudinal studies.

1. An organism's complete set of genetic instructions is called the
a. heritability estimate.
b. gender schema.
c. double helix.
d. genome.
2. Compared with fraternal twins, identical twins are
a. less similar in their risk of developing Alzheimer's disease and less similar in risk of being
emotionally unstable.
b. more similar in their risk of developing Alzheimer's disease and more similar in risk of being
emotionally unstable.
c. equally similar in their risk of developing Alzheimer's disease and more similar in risk of being
emotionally unstable.
d. more similar in their risk of developing Alzheimer's disease and equally similar in risk of being
emotionally unstable.
3. Adoptive parents are LEAST likely to influence the ________ of their adopted children.
a. personality traits
b. religious beliefs
c. political attitudes
d. moral values
4. Intense and reactive infants become unusually anxious and aroused when facing new or strange
situations. This best illustrates the importance of
a. the X chromosome.
b. temperament.
c. personal space.
d. individualism.
5. In emphasizing that heredity's effects on behavior depend on a person's home environment,
psychologists are highlighting the importance of
a. the double helix.
b. gender schemas.
c. collectivism.
d. nature-nurture interactions.
6. Which of the following is a major source of genetic diversity?
a. personal space
b. gender typing
c. mutations
d. individualism
7. The prevalence of genetically predisposed traits that have a reproductive advantage is best
explained in terms of
a. gender typing.
b. natural selection.
c. behavior genetics.
d. gender schema theory.
8. It has been suggested that older men in all cultures tend to marry women younger than themselves
because men are genetically predisposed to seek female features associated with youthful fertility.
This suggestion best illustrates
a. social learning theory.
b. behavior genetics.
c. Freudian psychology.
d. an evolutionary perspective.

9. Premature babies are especially likely to gain weight if stimulated by

a. sound and music.
b. light and colors.
c. touch and massage.
d. movement and acceleration.
10. At a social gathering, Latin Americans may behave in a manner that North Americans consider
intrusive and overly expressive. This best illustrates the importance of being sensitive to differing
a. norms.
b. genomes.
c. gender identities.
d. behavior genetics.
11. Displays of self-effacing humility are most characteristic of those who value
a. individualism.
b. gender typing.
c. collectivism.
d. gender schemas.
12. Over the last century, Western parents have placed ________ priority on teaching children to
respect and obey parents and ________ priority on teaching them loyalty to their country.
a. decreasing; increasing
b. increasing; decreasing
c. decreasing; decreasing
d. increasing; increasing
13. Compared with males, females are more likely to base their sense of personal identity on their
a. gender.
b. social relationships.
c. educational accomplishments.
d. socially distinctive personality traits.
14. The acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role is called
a. sexual orientation.
b. behavior genetics.
c. gender typing.
d. gender identification.
15. Concepts of masculinity and femininity that influence our perceptions are called gender
a. types.
b. schemas.
c. roles.
d. complexes.
1. Studies of the relative impact of nature and nurture on human differences in aggressiveness best
illustrate the research efforts of
a. Freudian psychologists.
b. behavior geneticists.
c. evolutionary psychologists.
d. social learning theorists.
2. Chromosomes are composed of
a. schemas.
b. synapses.
c. neurotransmitters.
d. deoxyribonucleic acid.

3. Identical twins who have separate placentas are somewhat less similar than identical twins who
share a placenta. This best illustrates the influence of ________ on development.
a. prenatal environments
b. genetic predispositions
c. gender schemas
d. natural selection
4. Two individuals are most likely to differ in personality if they are
a. fraternal twins who were raised together.
b. identical twins who were raised apart.
c. fraternal twins who were raised apart.
d. identical twins who were raised together.
5. Adopted children are especially likely to have similar ________ if raised in the same home.
a. temperaments
b. gene complexes
c. personality traits
d. religious beliefs
6. Heritability refers to the extent to which trait variations among individuals are attributable to their
differing
a. ethnic identities.
b. gender roles.
c. schemas.
d. genes.
7. Identifying some of the specific genes that contribute to alcohol dependence would be of most direct
interest to
a. evolutionary psychologists.
b. molecular geneticists.
c. social learning theorists.
d. Freudian psychologists.
8. Evolutionary psychologists attribute the human tendency to fear snakes and heights to
a. gender schemas.
b. the X chromosome.
c. collectivism.
d. genetic predispositions.
9. Teens who smoke typically have friends who smoke. To avoid overestimating the impact of peer
pressure on teens' smoking habits, it would make the most sense to consider the impact of
a. natural selection on gender typing.
b. temperament on physical health.
c. smoking preferences on friendship choices.
d. personal space on connectedness.
10. By inventing customs and passing them on to their peers and offspring, chimpanzees exhibit the
rudiments of
a. temperament.
b. culture.
c. personal space.
d. individualism.
11. The dramatic increase in Americans' premarital sexual activity over the past half-century best
illustrates that sexual behavior is influenced by
a. temperament.
b. natural selection.
c. testosterone.

d. norms.
12. Defining one's identity in terms of one's extended family or work group is most closely associated
with
a. personal space.
b. individualism.
c. temperament.
d. collectivism.
13. A single ________ on the ________ chromosome plays a crucial role in the prenatal development
of the testes.
a. gene; X
b. gender schema; X
c. gene; Y
d. gender schema; Y
14. In the United States 30 years ago, men were expected to initiate dates and women to select
wedding gifts. This best illustrates aspects of
a. gender identity.
b. behavior genetics.
c. individualism.
d. gender roles.
15. Because he believes that crying is a feminine trait, 14-year-old George has difficulty admitting that
a movie makes him tearful. His experience best illustrates the impact of
a. sex chromosomes.
b. behavior genetics.
c. gender schemas.
d. personal space.