Science (2010-10-01)

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CONTENTS
Volume 330 Issue 6000
EDITORIAL
11
The Future of Russian Science
BOOKS ET AL.
36
Access Controlled
Georgii Georgiev and Eugene Sverdlov
R. Deibert et al., Eds., reviewed by D. Tambini
NEWS OF THE WEEK

18
Academy Rankings Tell You a Lot,
But Not Whos No. 1 in Any Field
20
Rival Teams Identify a Virus

Behind Deaths in Central China
21
From Sciences Online Daily News Site

Social Savvy Boosts the Collective
Intelligence of Groups
22
23
Indias Vision: From Scientic

Pipsqueak to Powerhouse
23
From the Science Policy Blog

Filling Gaps in Global
Biodiversity Estimates
24
25
EDUCATION FORUM
38
Complex Systems View of Educational
Policy Research
S. Maroulis et al.
PERSPECTIVES
40
Neutrophils Find Smoke Attractive
page 26
When Humans Arrived in the

New Guinea Highlands
C. Gosden
>> Report p. 78
Counting the Oceans Creatures,

Great and Small
43
How to STIMulate Calcium Channels

M. D. Cahalan
>> Reports pp. 101 and 105
44
A Balancing Act for Taxol Precursor

Pathways in E. Coli
T. Liu and C. Khosla
>> Report p. 70
Archaeologists See Big Promise

in Going Molecular
46
>> Science Podcast
47
A Dance of Extrasolar Planets

G. Laughlin
>> Research Article p. 51
49
LETTERS
33
Perennial Questions of Hydrology
and Climate
MosaicismSwitch or Spectrum?
B. R. Davis and F. Candotti
>> Report p. 94
IEEE International Conference on

Computational Intelligence and Games
Game-Miners Grapple With Massive Data
Killer Bots Are Getting Human
Smarts for Serious Games
Retrospective: George C. Williams

(19262010)
R. Dawkins
M. Georgescu and D. B. Lobell
BREVIA
Response
50
J. D. Glover et al.
A Positive Review for PLoS ONE

J. Zimmer
HIV/AIDS: Use Existing Funds Effectively

S. S. Alistar
35
J. Harris, Curator, reviewed by D. Pires
41
NEWS FOCUS
Growing Prospects for Life on Mars
Divide Astrobiologists
30
Age of Mammals
P. J. Barnes
>> Report p. 90
26
28
37
TECHNICAL COMMENT ABSTRACTS
page 37
High Frequency of Horizontal

Gene Transfer in the Oceans
L. D. McDaniel et al.
Viruslike particles enable lateral gene
transfer among marine microorganisms.
CONTENTS continued >>
COVER
DEPARTMENTS
An artists rendition of the Kepler-9 system in which

two Saturn-size planets transit the same star. The radii
of the planets are roughly 8% of the radius of the star,
which itself is 10% larger in radius than our Sun.
Timing variations in the transits of these planets provide
a signature of their gravitational interaction and can
be used to establish their masses. See page 51.
9
12
14
17
110
111
This Week in Science

Editors Choice
Science Staff
Random Samples
New Products
Science Careers
Image: NASA/Ames/JPL Caltech/T. Pyle
www.sciencemag.org
SCIENCE
VOL 330
1 OCTOBER 2010
CONTENTS
51
81
Kepler-9: A System of Multiple Planets

Transiting a Sun-Like Star, Conrmed
by Timing Variations
M. J. Holman et al.
Two Saturn-size planets show variations
in the times they take to transit their star
due to gravitational interaction.
>> Perspective p. 47
55
Piezo1 and Piezo2 Are Essential

Components of Distinct Mechanically
Activated Cation Channels
B. Coste et al.
Cation channel genes encode for a transducer
molecule that converts mechanical stimuli
into cell signaling.
84
86
63
88
90
Multiple Exciton Collection in a

Sensitized Photovoltaic System
Allosteric Supramolecular
Triple-Layer Catalysts
70
94
Isoprenoid Pathway Optimization

for Taxol Precursor Overproduction
in Escherichia coli
P. K. Ajikumar et al.
Engineered bacteria synthesize a precursor
to a potent cancer drug, raising prospects
for efcient production of analogs.
74
Reactivity of the Gold/Water Interface

During Selective Oxidation Catalysis
B. N. Zope et al.
Hydroxide at the metal/liquid interface
promotes the catalytic activity of gold
during the partial oxidation of alcohols.
78
pages 86 & 88
Human Adaptation and Plant Use

in Highland New Guinea 49,000 to
44,000 Years Ago
VOL 330
SCIENCE
Mitotic Recombination in Patients

with Ichthyosis Causes Reversion
of Dominant Mutations in KRT10
K. A. Choate et al.
Patches of normal skin in patients with a
rare skin disorder are due to cells that have
lost the disease-causing mutation.
97
Greater Neural Pattern Similarity

Across Repetitions Is Associated
with Better Memory
G. Xue et al.
Similarity in neural representations
is associated with better memory, as well as
conscious cognition.
101
The CRAC Channel Activator STIM1

Binds and Inhibits L-Type Voltage-Gated
Calcium Channels
105
The Calcium Store Sensor, STIM1,

Reciprocally Controls Orai
and CaV1.2 Channels
C. Y. Park et al.
G. R. Summerhayes et al.
Archaeological sites in the New Guinea
Highlands trace the arrival of modern
humans to nearly 50,000 years ago.
1 OCTOBER 2010
A Critical Role for LTA4H in Limiting

Chronic Pulmonary Neutrophilic
Inammation
R. J. Snelgrove et al.
Cigarette smoke promotes lung
inammation by hindering an enzyme that
degrades an immune cell chemoattractant.
H. J. Yoon et al.
A chloride ligand is used to control
the access of reactants to a rhodium
polymerization catalyst.
page 66
Pathogenomics of Culex quinquefasciatus

and Meta-Analysis of Infection Responses
to Diverse Pathogens
L. C. Bartholomay et al.
The genome of a third mosquito species
reveals distinctions related to vector
capacities and habitat preferences.
J. B. Sambur et al.
Generating more than one current carrier
per absorbed photon raises prospects for
improved solar-cell efciency.
66
Sequencing of Culex quinquefasciatus

Establishes a Platform for Mosquito
Comparative Genomics
P. Arensburger et al.
Universal Dynamical Decoupling of a

Single Solid-State Spin from a Spin Bath
G. de Lange et al.
The coherence time of single spins is extended
by a sequence of microwave pulses.
pages 43, 101, & 105
Cellodextrin Transport in Yeast

for Improved Biofuel Production
J. M. Galazka et al.
Reconstitution of a fungal transport system
allows yeast to grow on sugars derived from
cellulose.
REPORTS
60
Identifying the Driver of Pulsating Aurora

Y. Nishimura et al.
Correlations are found between aurora light
intensity and a type of electromagnetic wave
in Earths magnetosphere.
Y. Wang et al.
The sensor protein that monitors depletion
of intracellular calcium regulates two classes
of calcium entry channels.
www.sciencemag.org
CREDIT (BOTTOM PHOTO): JIM GATJANY/CDC
RESEARCH ARTICLES
CONTENTS
SCIENCEONLINE
SCIENCEXPRESS
SCIENCESIGNALING
SCIENCETRANSLATIONAL MEDICINE
www.sciencexpress.org
www.sciencesignaling.org
The Signal Transduction Knowledge Environment
www.sciencetranslationalmedicine.org
Integrating Medicine and Science
RESEARCH ARTICLE: Signaling from the

Endoplasmic Reticulum Activates Brassinosteroid
Signaling and Promotes Acclimation to Stress
in Arabidopsis
COMMENTARY: Why University-Industry

Partnerships Matter
Fossil Evidence for Evolution of the Shape

and Color of Penguin Feathers
J. A. Clarke et al.
A fossil penguin shows that the wing and feather
form evolved before distinctive microstructural
changes in the feathers.
10.1126/science.1193604
Evidence for a Collective Intelligence Factor

in the Performance of Human Groups
A. W. Woolley et al.
A metric for group performance on a battery of
cognitive tasks yields a group intelligence quantity:
collective intelligence.
10.1126/science.1193147
>> Science Podcast
Structure of a Eukaryotic CLC Transporter Denes

an Intermediate State in the Transport Cycle
L. Feng et al.
The structure of a chloride transporter and its
regulatory domain provides insight into
the ion-exchange mechanism.
10.1126/science.1195230
Polarized Myosin Produces Unequal-Size

Daughters During Asymmetric Cell Division
G. Ou et al.
Motor proteins help to produce developmentally
distinct daughter cells during development.
10.1126/science.1196112
TECHNICALCOMMENTS
Comment on The Human K-Complex
Represents an Isolated Cortical Down-State
F. Amzica
Full text at www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
full/330/6000/35-a
P. Che et al.
BR signaling may integrate stress responses
and growth processes to optimize growth under
challenging environmental conditions.
R. Lu and M. B. Goldberg
A new bacterial phosphatase that perturbs host-cell
signaling circuits highlights a class of pathogen
proteins that may serve as potent therapeutic targets.
X. Xu et al.
Imaging analyses and computer simulations suggest
that a G proteincoupled receptor and its G protein
associate only in the presence of ligand.
RESEARCH ARTICLE: Interfering with Resistance

to Smoothened Antagonists by Inhibition of the
PI3K Pathway in Medulloblastoma
RESEARCH ARTICLE: Molecular Mechanism

of Calcium Channel Regulation in the
Fight-or-Flight Response
PERSPECTIVE: -Adrenergic Regulation
of the L-Type Ca2+ Channel CaV1.2
by PKA Rekindles Excitement
J. W. Hell
Modulation of cardiac Ca2+ channels by protein
kinase A in the ght-or-ight response involves their
proteolytic processing and just the right amount of
anchoring protein AKAP.
PERSPECTIVE: SphingolipidsThe Oil on the

TRAFire That Promotes Inammation
G. Napolitano and M. Karin
Lipid second messengers are required for signaling
through tumor necrosis factor and Toll-like receptors.
Taken for Granted: Making Book

on Americas Universities
www.sciencecareers.org/career_magazine
Free Career Resources for Scientists
B. L. Benderly
A spate of recent books presents a wide range
of analysesand some common answersabout
what ails academe.
Expand Your Professional-Skills Training
Halos in images of supermassive black holes

reveal another possible big bang leftover.
E. Pain
Voluntary activities such as helping to organize
conferences offer early-career scientists opportunities
to gain new skills and broaden horizons.
Mating Games at Meerkat Manor
Science Careers Blog
Study with animal TV stars reveals the

sophisticated strategy of dominant females.
Science Careers Staff

Find advice, opinions, news, funding opportunities,
and links to other career-related resources.
The Sun Can Lob Curveballs

Scientists discover that some solar magnetic
storms will loop toward Earth.
www.sciencemag.org
SCIENCE
R. Larsen et al.
Heme from red blood cells released in septic shock
worsens organ dysfunction and increases the risk
of death, but can be overcome by a scavenger
of free heme.
SCIENCEPODCAST
www.sciencemag.org/multimedia/podcast
Free Weekly Show
Download the 1 October Science Podcast to hear about
the intelligence of groups, pioneering molecular
archaeology, your letters to Science, and more.
SCIENCEINSIDER
S. S. Cash et al.
Full text at www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/
full/330/6000/35-b
Primordial Magnetic Field May Permeate

the Universe
S. Buonamici et al.
Resistance of medulloblastoma to Smo antagonists
can be delayed or prevented by specic drug
combinations.
RESEARCH ARTICLE: A Central Role for Free

Heme in the Pathogenesis of Severe Sepsis
M. D. Fuller et al.
SCIENCECAREERS
www.sciencenow.org
Highlights From Our Daily News Coverage
PERSPECTIVE: Bacterial Exploitation

of Host Cell Signaling
RESEARCH ARTICLE: Coupling Mechanism

of a GPCR and a Heterotrimeric G Protein
During Chemoattractant Gradient Sensing
in Dictyostelium
Response to Comment on The Human

K-Complex Represents an Isolated Cortical
Down-State
SCIENCENOW
A. M. Boccanfuso
Optimizing the process by which discoveries
are translated to innovative products requires
enhanced links between academia and industry.
VOL 330
news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider
Science Policy News and Analysis
SCIENCE (ISSN 0036-8075) is published weekly on Friday, except the last

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1 OCTOBER 2010
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<< Avoiding Loss in a Quantum System

Single electron spins in solid-state environments have been explored as
candidates for quantum information storage and computation; however,
they often interact strongly with their surroundings and lose the stored
information on the time scale of pico- to milliseconds. Dynamical decoupling schemes have been introduced to undo the effects of this interaction by applying a sequence of control pulses that reverse the undesirable evolution of the system. De Lange et al. (p. 60, published online
9 September) tested several decoupling schemes on a nitrogen vacancy
center in diamond and found that a scheme with evenly spaced pulses with
double-axis decoupling could prolong the coherence time of an arbitrary
spin state up to 25-fold.
Extra Exoplanet?
CREDIT (TOP TO BOTTOM): TREMANI/DELFT UNIVERSITY OF TECHNOLOGY; SUMMERHAYES ET AL.
A planet is said to transit its star if it can be seen

to pass in front of the star; 19% of the known
extrasolar planets are transiting planets. A lone
planet will transit in an exactly periodic manner;
if other planets are present, however, variations in transit duration are expected because of
gravitational interactions. Holman et al. (p. 51,
published online 26 August; see the cover; see the
Perspective by Laughlin) report timing variations
in the transits of two exoplanets detected by the
Kepler space telescope. The planets have masses
similar to that of Saturn and transit the same Sunlike star. A third planet several times the mass of
Earth may also transit the star in an interior orbit.
Smoke Gets in Your Lungs

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD)
is a leading cause of death in the United States,
primarily caused by cigarette smoking. The
chronic inammation that leads to tissue damage and organ dysfunction in COPD is mediated
in large part by neutrophils, a type of granulocytic immune cell. Snelgrove et al. (p. 90,
published online 2 September; see the Perspective by Barnes) now provide an explanation for
why neutrophils stick around in the lung during
COPD. The neutrophil chemoattractant Pro-GlyPro (PGP) is a biomarker for COPD and promotes
neutrophil accumulation. The enzyme leukotriene
A4 hydrolase degrades PGP in mice, and its activity was reduced by cigarette smoke both in vivo
and in vitro. In contrast, during acute inuenza
infection in mice, leukotriene A4 hydrolase
functioned normally, allowing for PGP degradation and the resolution of inammation. Thus,
in COPD, cigarette smoking may lead to the
accumulation PGPwhich, in turn, could keep

neutrophils in the lung to drive inammation
and subsequent lung damage and dysfunction.
New Guineas Ancient

Colonies
Isolated by water, Australia
and New Guinea were some
of the last major parts of the
world colonized by modern
humans. Summerhayes et
al. (p. 78; see the Perspective by Gosden) describe an
archaeological site in the
highlands of New Guinea
that sheds light on this migration. The record
extends back to nearly 50,000 years ago and
thus represents one of the earliest known records.
Nuts and yams were widely consumed, and the
variety of stone tools discovered implies that the
early humans may have cleared forest patches to
promote the growth of useful plants.
circuit. Sambur et al. (p. 63) now show that,

when light-absorbing lead sulde nanoparticles
are carefully coupled to smoothly polished
titanium dioxide crystalline electrodes, such excess carriers can be transferred into the circuit
before collapsing.
Toward Microbial Taxol

Taxol, a minor chemical constituent of yew tree
bark, has provided a potent cancer treatment.
Production methods presently rely on plant
cell cultures. Ajikumar et al. (p. 70; see the
Perspective by Liu and Khosla) engineered
Escherichia coli cells to produce a key taxol
precursor, in which the polycyclic carbon skeleton is intact. The approach relied on optimizing the relative activity of two pathways, the
rst of which synthesized isoprenoid building
blocks that were then stitched together with the
second pathway. Accumulation of indole as a
by-product inhibited the isoprenoid pathway
an insight that should facilitate more efcient
engineered biosynthesis of a wide range of
commercially important isoprenoid derivatives.
Two for One

Solar cells often contain materials that absorb
a broad spectrum of light above a certain frequency threshold, or band gap. Unfortunately,
much of the energy contained in this light is
wasted, because any balance exceeding the
band gap tends to be dissipated as heat, rather
than harnessed into electric current. Recent
spectroscopic studies have shown that incident
photons with energy several multiples of the
band gap can transiently generate more than
one current carrier, but the excess carriers tend
to collapse before they can be diverted into the
www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 330
Indirect Oxidation
by Oxygen
Partial oxidation of alcohols to aldehydes and
ketones must avoid complete oxidation to carbon
dioxide and water. Zope et al. (p. 74) examined
the partial oxidation of ethanol and glycerol to
acids in alkaline aqueous solvents over gold and
platinum catalysts. Conversions were highest for
gold supported on titania, but studies with isotopically labeled molecular oxygen showed that
1 OCTOBER 2010
Continued on page 10
A M P L I F I C AT I O N // S U P E R M I X E S
Fast qPCR
results?
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This Week in Science

Continued from page 9
oxygen incorporated into the acid comes from hydroxide ions. Direct incorporation of oxygen did not
occur even for the platinum catalysts, despite the fact that oxygen can dissociate on this metal. Instead,
molecular oxygen appeared to regenerate hydroxide ions at the metal surface through the formation of
peroxide intermediates.
Auroral Chorus
Energetic particles that arrive from near-Earth space produce photon emissionsthe auroraas
they bombard the atmosphere in the polar regions. The pulsating aurora, which is characterized by
temporal intensity variations, is thought to be caused by modulations in electron precipitation possibly produced by resonance with electromagnetic waves in Earths magnetosphere. Nishimura et
al. (p. 81) present a detailed study of an event that showed a good correlation between the temporal
changes in auroral luminosity and chorus emissiona type of electromagnetic wave occurring in
Earths magnetosphere. The results points to chorus waves as the driver of the pulsating aurora.
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* U.S. patent 6,627,424.
Improving Yeast for Biofuel Production

The biofuels industry uses the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae to produce ethanol from sugars derived
from cornstarch or sugar cane. Plant cell walls are an attractive sugar source; however, yeast does not
grow efciently on cellulosederived sugars (cellodextrins). Galazka et al. (p. 84, published online 9
September) now show that a model cellolytic fungus Neurospora crassa relies on a cellodextrin transport
system to facilitate growth on cellulose. Yeast reconstituted with this transport system grew efciently on
cellodextrins, which could potentially improve the efciency of cellulosic biofuel production.
Gaining from a Loss

Mitotic recombination can cause a cell carrying heterozygous mutations in a tumor suppressor gene
to lose the wild-type copy of the gene, setting the cell on the pathway to uncontrolled growth. But
can mitotic recombination have benecial effects in other settingsthat is, lead to phenotypic correction of a diseased cell by facilitating loss of the disease-causing mutation? Choate et al. (p. 94,
published online 26 August; see the Perspective by Davis and Candotti) now nd evidence for this
type of event in a rare skin disease called ichthyosis with confetti (IWC). Patients with IWC display
severe scaling of the skin but have widespread patches of normal skin that reect clonal expansion
of revertant cells. The revertant cells showed loss of heterozygosity on chromosome 17q and, as a
result of mitotic recombination, these cells selectively lost dominant disease-causing mutations in
the keratin 10 gene (KRT10), but retained the wild-type copy of the gene.
One, Two, Three, Remember Me

@BioRadGenomics
Bio-Rad Genomics
When a stimulus (such as a word or a face) is presented for the second, third, or fourth time, do the
neural representations differ? And, if they do, are multiply represented stimuli remembered better?
These questions and related ones have fascinated psychologists for decades, but only recently has it
become feasible to begin tackling them using neuroimaging. Xue et al. (p. 97, published online 9
September) provide evidence that the greater the similarity in the patterns of neural activity during
encoding of the item, the greater the likelihood that the item will be remembered.
1 OCTOBER 2010 VOL 330 SCIENCE www.sciencemag.org
CREDIT: WANG ET AL.
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The STIM1 protein functions as a calcium sensor and regulates entry

of calcium into cells across the plasma membrane. When cell surface
receptors are stimulated and cause release of calcium from internal stores
in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), STIM proteins in the ER membrane
interact with the Orai channel pore protein in the plasma membrane to
allow calcium entry from the outside of the cell (see the Perspective by
Cahalan). Park et al. (p. 101) and Wang et al. (p. 105) now show that
STIM also acts to suppress conductance by another calcium channelthe voltage-operated CaV1.2
channel. STIM1 appeared to interact directly with CaV1.2 channels in multiple cell types, including
vascular smooth muscle cells, neurons, and cultured cells derived from T lymphocytes. The interaction
inhibited opening of the CaV1.2 channels and caused depletion of the channel from the cell surface.
EDITORIAL
The Future of Russian Science

Georgii Georgiev
is a professor at the
Institute of Gene
Biology, RAS, and
an adviser of the RAS.
E-mail: georgiev@
igb.ac.ru.
CREDITS: (LEFT TOP AND BOTTOM) ELENA LISYANSKAYA; (RIGHT) ISTOCKPHOTO.COM
Eugene Sverdlov
is a professor at the
Institute of Molecular
Genetics, RAS, and
an adviser of the RAS.
E-mail: edsverd@
gmail.com.
IN MAY, RUSSIAN PRIME MINISTER VLADIMIR PUTIN ADDRESSED THE GENERAL MEETING OF THE
Russian Academy of Sciences (RAS), describing plans to overhaul the countrys science and
innovation agenda and structure, with the goal of bolstering Russias economy and global
competitiveness. A major question is what role the RASthe largest and most prestigious
scientic institution in Russiawill have in these projects.
The RASs prestige is grounded in a rich history of major discoveries by its scientists, in
the thousands of Ph.D.s it has trained, in the Russian Nobel Prize winners who did their seminal work there, and in its many outstanding scientists and scholars who became professors at
various universities. Although recently the RAS has been attacked in both the Western and
Russian press for low efciency, it is hard to imagine how other organizations could assume
these multifaceted functions in the foreseeable future. Currently, there are plans to expand
universities and research centers and to integrate research, education,
and production activities through mechanisms that fail to include any
increased investment in the RAS, which received less funding in 2010
than in 2009. Yet a major reason for RASs low efciency is the despicable level of funding it has received for several decades, and it is difcult to see how its more than 50,000 scientists can help to drive the
nations transformation agenda without serious new support.
Consider the situation with respect to molecular biology. In Soviet
times, the RAS maintained a rather strong effort in molecular biology
research. But this almost perished after a sharp decrease in nancial
support in 1990 that triggered a massive emigration of well-educated
experienced specialists. However, a number of strong groups managed
to survive, largely by acquiring outside grants and establishing collaborations with Western research groups. After the funding of science in
Russia began to increase again, the Presidium of the RAS created the
program Molecular and Cellular Biology in 2003. This program supported about 100 of the
best Russian research groups with awards of up to $150,000 per year. The competition was
open to scientists who had emigrated, and many young researchers preferred to stay in Russia
or even return to join this effort. The recipients of these awards were selected mainly on the
basis of publications in highly rated international journals; as a result, between 2003 and 2009,
the program produced about 2000 papers in peer-reviewed international journals, including
the most reputable ones. Such results demonstrate that providing sufcient funding for strong
groups can revive effective scientic activity at RAS institutions throughout Russia. It is therefore disappointing that support for the program was reduced because of ination over the years,
and then suddenly cut by about a third in 2010, which could nullify all previous efforts.
Producing outstanding basic experimental science requires three pillars: talented scientists, adequate equipment, and favorable conditions for a researchers work and life. Many talented scientists still remain in Russia. However, the outmoded equipment in many institutes,
low salaries, and housing problems have been forcing many of the most talented to leave the
country. Admittedly, the RAS has suffered in the past from many shortcomings, such as a low
percentage of competitively distributed funding and the lack of an efcient mechanism for
selecting those research groups that are most worthy of support. But these shortcomings can
be xed through rather simple reforms. At the same time, the RAS can serve as an interface
between science and industry to further drive the development of Russian society. In his talk,
the prime minister emphasized several key points relevant to the role of the RAS in his plans
for improving the nations innovation capacity. Among them: The Academy has always been
and must remain a key institution of national and social development the eld of science
is based on a principle of competition scientists should have the opportunity to work at
state-of-the-art research centers. These are the right strategic ideas, and they should be imple Georgii Georgiev and Eugene Sverdlov
mented by building on RAS capacities.
10.1126/science.1196665
www.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 330 1 OCTOBER 2010
11
EDITORSCHOICE
EDITED BY GILBERT CHIN AND JAKE YESTON
CHEMISTRY
Breaking Methanol
Bird in the spotlight.
Chem. Sci. 1, 10.1039/c0sc00316f (2010).

BIOCHEMISTRY
Flexible Exchange Rates

The membrane-bound enzyme F-ATPase serves an
important function in almost all walks of life. It
makes ATP (from ADP and inorganic phosphate)
by converting the passage of protons down an
electrochemical gradient rst into mechanical
energy and thence into chemical energy. The
parts of the enzyme (red and yellow) that bind
ADP lie mostly outside the membrane, and three
such binding sites are converted sequentially
from open to loose to tight conformations. The
energy contained in the movement of protons is
extracted by forcing
them through a membraneembedded ring (brown)
of identical subunits,
each of which captures
a single proton on a
glutamate residue.
Turning this ring
rotates a central stalk
(blue, purple, and green)
at 6000 rpm, which drives
the cycle of conformational
changes. Watt et al. describe
the crystal structure of the
mitochondrial ring and
show that it contains eight
12
ECOLOGY
Round Midnight
Increasingly, articial light sources are found on the edges of urban areas, and Kempenaers
et al. have investigated the effect of nighttime illumination on bird behavior and reproduction. From a 7-year study of the reproductive behavior of blue tits, they found that female
birds laid eggs on average 1.5 days earlier when living in regions exposed to articial lighting
and that this effect was strongest in the birds nearest to the light sources. In addition, males
started singing earlier in the pre-dawn hours, especially if they were younger, and males in
lighted territories were more successful at extra-pair matings. The full human impact on the
behavioral ecology of these blue tits is not known, but the authors conclude that it may result
in differential selection for indicators of good genes among populations whose effects cannot
yet be determined. LMZ
Curr. Biol. 20, 10.1016/j.cub.2010.08.028 (2010).
subunits, leading to a ratio of eight protons for

three ATPs synthesized. What is puzzling is the
range of stoichiometries documented thus far,
with 10 to 15 subunits found in the F-ATPases
of fungi, bacteria, and chloroplasts. All of
these enzymes possess the canonical trio of
ADP-binding sites, which means that the
cost of each ATP varies from as little as
2.7 protons in animals to as many as 5
in microbes. GJC
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 107,
16823 (2010).
GENETICS
Not a Dogs Breakfast After All

Dogs have been our companions for thousands
of years. This long allegiance and our preferences for dogs with certain traits have led to an
1 OCTOBER 2010
VOL 330
SCIENCE
unmatched degree of morphological variation

and an opportunity for geneticists to unravel
how genes interact with selection to shape phenotypes. Recent work in this area has revealed
much about the genes underlying specic traits,
such as coat color, foreshortened limbs, and
hairlessness. Boyko et al. have examined variation at over 60,000 single-nucleotide polymorphisms in 80 dog breeds, African village dogs,
and wolves. Interestingly, they found that the
majority of variation among breeds was generated by just a few genomic regions of large
effect. For example, they identied only six
regions associated with body size, and ear oppiness was associated with just a single region.
They hypothesize that the small number of
regions controlling such a large degree of variation is probably due to the repeated bottlenecks
dogs went through in their evolution, rst
www.sciencemag.org
CREDITS (TOP TO BOTTOM): AF ARCHIVE/ALAMY; WATT ET AL., PROC. NATL. ACAD. SCI. U.S.A. 107, 16823 (2010)
Titanium dioxide (TiO2) is a highly abundant

material, and as such has been heavily investigated for widespread use of its photocatalytic
properties. One potential application of increasing importance is the direct use of sunlight to
generate hydrogen from water, a reaction that
proceeds more readily at TiO2 surfaces when
some methanol is mixed in. In this context, Zhou
et al. have explored the behavior of methanol
monolayers and submonolayers on TiO2 under
ultraviolet irradiation. Using both two-photon
photoemission spectroscopy and scanning tunneling microscopy, the authors present evidence
for photoinduced dissociation of the adsorbed
methanol via H transfer from the CH3O-H bond
to a bridge-bonded oxygen on the TiO2 surface.
Accompanying density functional calculations
support assignment of the photoemission signal
to perturbation of Ti d-orbitals by virtue of the
tetravalent metal ions interaction with the CH3O
radical co-product, which pushes the ion out of
plane. The temporal prole of the emission was
not mono-exponential, implicating heterogeneous kinetics. JSY

EDITORSCHOICE
when they were domesticated and then during

breed development. Genetic diversity measures
support this hypothesis, as all breeds displayed
much lower genetic diversity than either wolves
or village dogs. SNV
PLoS Biol. 8, e1000451 (2010).
MOLECULAR BIOLOGY
Getting Involved Locally

MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are small RNAs of around
22 nucleotides that bind to protein-coding messenger RNAs (mRNAs). They regulate function
in diverse cellular processes, particularly during
development and also in cancer. Understanding how miRNAs themselves are regulated is an
emerging area of interest. The cyclin-dependent
kinase inhibitor p27 negatively regulates the G1
to S phase transition of the cell cycle. Translation
of p27 mRNA is inhibited in many cancer cell
types by two miRNAs, miR-221 and miR-222.
However, p27 accumulates in nondividing (quiescent) cells, despite the presence of high levels of
miR-221 and miR-222, suggesting an additional
level of regulation. Kedde et al. have discovered
that the ability of these miRNAs to inhibit p27
is regulated by another RNA binding protein,
Pumilio-1. The binding site of Pumilio-1 in the
3 untranslated region of p27 is located close
to the binding sites for miR-221 and miR-222.
The authors found that Pumilio-1 binding could
recongure the local RNA structure, thereby
granting the two miRNAs access. They propose
that entry into the cell cycle of quiescent cells
involves phosphorylation of Pumilio 1, which
stimulates its binding to p27 mRNA, thereby
exposing the nearby miRNA binding sites. These
results suggest that specic binding proteins can
structurally remodel RNAs, like they do chromatin, in order to regulate function. HP
by other groups, none showed signs of dust. This

does not necessarily imply that these stars do not
host planetary systems; some of them are known
to be orbited by giant planets. The lack of dust
implies that some of these systems did not stop
at planetesimal growth but proceeded to giant
planet formation. They could be analogues of our
solar system, where there is very little cometary
dust left after the formation and evolution of the
gas giant planets. MJC
Mon. Not. R. Astron. Soc. 10.1111/j.17453933.2010.00936.x (2010).
APPLIED PHYSICS
Calling for a Quantum Hush

Coupling the mechanical and optical degrees of
freedom of a system, in for example an atomic
force microscope, provides the ability to measure displacements on exquisitely small length
scales and to image surface height variations of
just a single atom. As the systems are designed
with better sensitivity (as required for the
potential detection of gravity waves in large interferometers) noise can become an increasingly
dominant issue. This noise can arise from backaction, whereby the radiation pressure caused
by the probe light can perturb the motion of the
mechanical system. Optomechanical systems
are now entering a sensitivity regime where the
light and mechanical motion can be described
quantum-mechanically. In analogy to the
Si
Science
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features top-notch, peerreviewed, original research
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Subscribing to Science Signaling
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visit www.ScienceSignaling.org
Nat. Cell Biol. 12, 10.1038/ncb2105 (2010).
Chief Scientic Editor
Michael B. Yaffe, M.D., Ph.D.
ASTRONOMY
CREDIT: ISTOCKPHOTO.COM
Call for
Papers
Milky, Not Dusty
Too loud out there?
As many of us now learn at a young age, our solar

system hosts small planets close to the Sun and
giant planets farther out. What do the rst planetary systems that formed in our Galaxy look like?
Sheehan et al. used the Spitzer Space Telescope
to search for dust around stars that formed early
in the Milky Ways history. The stars they observed
are twice the age of our Sun. Detection of discs
of dust and debris around these stars would be a
sign that at least small planetary bodies formed
around them, because these discs are generated and maintained through collisions between
comets and asteroids. Of the total of 11 stars
observed by the authors and 11 others observed
operation of noise reduction headphones, which

record the ambient noise and then play it back
with the amplitude negated to prompt destructive interference, Tsang and Caves propose a
route to develop quantum noise cancellation for
applications in optomechanical sensor systems.
They break the problem down into a number of
components and in a owchart representation
deal with each component separately, introducing an anti-noise path. In their admittedly idealized system they show how such an approach
can deal with the back-action noise and should
lead ultimately to improved sensors. ISO
www.sciencemag.org
SCIENCE
Phys. Rev. Lett. 105, 123601 (2010).
VOL 330
1 OCTOBER 2010
Associate Professor, Department of Biology

Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Editor
Nancy R. Gough, Ph.D.

AAAS
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CREDITS (TOP TO BOTTOM): (TOP AND INSET) MICHELLE MARTIN; MATTHEW MAZZOTTA; (LEFT, TOP AND BOTTOM) COLEMAN, FRIEDMAN/COURTESY OF THE JACKSON LABORATORY; (RIGHT,TOP AND BOTTOM) FERRERA, WEATHERALL/COURTESY OF THE LASKER FOUNDATION
EDITED BY LAUREN SCHENKMAN
SHELL GAME
Its a common belief among English gardeners: Throw the snails over the wall, and theyll come
sliming back to eat your delphiniums another day. But common knowledge wasnt good enough for
Ruth Brooks, a 69-year-old gardening enthusiast in Devon whose study of the phenomenon won
BBC Radio 4s So You Want to Be a Scientist? amateur science contest in mid-September.
With guidance from David Hodgson, a population biologist at the University of Exeter whom the
BBC assigned as her mentor, Brooks designed two experiments. First, she collected snails from two
parts of her garden, marked them with nail polish, and set them down on a metal tray between
the two spots. (When her family, she jokes, saw
me sitting there with my bright-red nail varnish marking snail shells, they did think Id
sort of ipped.) As garden lore predicted, most
snails found their way back to their patch.
Then Brooks recruited people from around
Britain to swap a bucket of marked snails from
their own garden with a neighbor. Their reports
showed that snails home reliably up to about
30 meters. So to be safe, Brooks recommends dropping them off more than
100 meters away.
Brooks says she was delighted to
win, although its debatable whether
the prize, which came with no money, is
a reward at all: She has to write up her
results for publication in a journal.
Poop-Powered
The fuel of the future might be something we produce every day: excrement.
Last month at a park in Cambridge, Massachusetts, artist Matthew Mazzotta put the idea
to the test with a methane digester fueled by
a mechanical engineer at Kettering University

in Flint, Michigan, who oversaw a much larger
project to turn human waste into biogas. The real
question is whether waste can compete against
natural gas, a fuel whose price uctuates constantly, he says.
The microbes dont do so well in cold weather,
so on 25 September, Mazzotta had to power down
the digester until spring. In the meantime, he
hopes locals will think of a more creative way to
use the fuel: to light a shadow play, say, or to
brew tea at an eco-friendly teahouse.
for research in surface plasmon photonics. (See

http://science.thomsonreuters.com/nobel for the
full list.)
I really do my best not to think about it,
says Jeffrey Friedman of Rockefeller University
in New York City, who, besides making the list in
physiology or medicine, also won a Lasker Award
this year (see below). Like most scientists, he
prefers not to delve into Nobel hopefulness.
Lasker Awards
Breakthroughs in the biology of appetite and
blood vessel growth and a lifetime of work on
a blood disease have earned four scientists this
years Lasker Awards, considered the most prestigious prizes for biomedical research in the United
States. Since the Laskers were rst given out
65 years ago, 79 winners have gone on to
collect a Nobel Prize.
Douglas Coleman, who is retired from the
Jackson Laboratory in Bar Harbor, Maine, and
Jeffrey Friedman of Rockefeller University in
New York City share the basic research award
for discovering the hormone leptin, which helps
control appetite.
Napoleone Ferrara of Genentech in South
San Francisco, California, wins the clinical
award for his discovery of vascular endothelial
growth factor (VEGF), a protein critical to blood
vessel growth. Genentech has since developed
two drugs that target VEGF, one for macular
degeneration and the other for cancer.
A third award, recognizing special achievement, goes to David Weatherall of the University of Oxford in the United Kingdom, for
his decades of work on the inherited blood
disease thalassemia. Each award comes with
$250,000.
Nobel Predictions
dog dung. Passersby picked up after their pets

using biodegradable bags and threw the waste
into an oxygen-free tank. As the microbes inside
the dung broke it down, they released methane,
which then zipped out through a tiny pipe to
light up a gas streetlamp.
Machines like this arent limited to animal
droppings. Anything thats organic you can use
in these biodigesters, says Ahmad Pourmovahed,
Can analyzing citations predict Nobel Prize

winners?
As anticipation of the prize announcements
(which begin on 4 October) mounted last week,
Thomson Reuters released its annual list of
Citation Laureates, a roster of 21 potential
Nobelists chosen based on citations, awards won,
and the impact of their research. The recipe has
predicted at least one Nobel winner in 19 of
the past 21 years, although in some cases long
before the year the prize was awarded.
Among those tipped in 2010: in chemistry,
Patrick Brown of Stanford University for inventing the DNA microarray, and in physics, Thomas
Ebbesen of the University of Strasbourg in France
Coleman
Ferrara
Friedman
Weatherall
17
NEWS>>
Dispute over a
new killer virus
A vision for
Indian science
20
23
U . S . G R A D U AT E E D U C AT I O N
Academy Rankings Tell You a Lot,

But Not Whos No. 1 in Any Field
Perhaps it should be called the Mr. Potato
Head of graduate school rankings.
Remember how easy it was to alter the
appearance of that toys bland, tubular face
by sticking an ear or an eye in an unexpected
place? Well, the latest analysis of the quality of U.S. research doctoral programs by
the National Academies National Research
Council (NRC) can be manipulated in much
the same way. But the exercise is hardly
childs play.
This weeks release of the long-awaited
assessment, the f irst since 1995 and
3 years behind schedule, disgorges a massive
amount of information about 5100 doctoral
programs in 62 elds at 212 U.S. universities. More than a decade in the making, the
assessment is meant to reect the collective
wisdom of the U.S. research community on
what denes a top-quality graduate program.
In an era of increased accountability, its also
designed to address questions from students,
faculty members, university administrators,
elected officials, and the public about the
quality of any particular graduate program.
Yet that strengththe ability to serve as
many audiences as possiblemay also be
18
the assessments most controversial feature.

Those who simply want to know whos No. 1
in neuroscience, for example, or read a list of
the top 10 graduate programs in any particular eld will walk away disappointed after
massaging the reports Excel spreadsheets,
available at www.PhDs.org or www.nap.edu/
rdp. Thats because, like Mr. Potato Head,
the NRC assessment can look quite different
depending on your denition of best.
To be sure, NRC does rank programs
but oh so carefully. Instead of assigning a
single score to each program in a particular eld, the assessment ranks the program
on ve different scales. Each score is also
presented as a range of rankings reecting
the 5th and 95th percentiles of the scores it
received. The scales themselves are based on
20 characteristics (see table, p. 19) that the
NRC panel deemed appropriate for a quantitative assessment. Two are supposed to portray the overall quality of the programone
derived from a reputational survey (the R
scale), the other from a quantitative analysis
(the S scale). Three others rely on subsets
that address important dimensions of quality: research activity, student support and
1 OCTOBER 2010
VOL 330
SCIENCE
outcomes, and diversity. The report itself

highlights the uncertainties generated by
such an exercise by calling the results illustrative rankings [that] are neither endorsed
nor recommended by the NRC as an authoritative conclusion about the relative quality
of doctoral programs.
Given all those caveats, some university
administrators are taking the rankings with
more than a grain of salt. Were pleased
with how well our own programs ranked,
says Patricia Gumport, dean of the graduate
school at Stanford University. But we have
concerns about the methodology. So were
not planning to use the range of rankings.
Its easy to see the source of Gumports
concern by looking at what the assessment
says about Stanfords anthropology department, to pick just one example. The department is ranked between 13th and 47th on
the R scale and between 3rd and 9th on the
S scale. In addition, it falls between 3rd and
14th on research activity, between 1st and
43rd on student support and outcomes, and
between 12th and 33rd on diversity.
Its diff icult to draw meaningful
conclusions about the relative quality of
programs from these ranges of rankings,
says Gumport with impressive understatement. Instead, she and her deans plan to mine
the database to compare the performance
of the universitys 47 programs on one
or more characteristics, or to see how a
particular Stanford program stacks up
with its peers around the country on those
characteristics.
Thats exactly what NRC hopes will
happen. We wanted to give people the
chance to create rankings based on variables
that they thought were important, says
Charlotte Kuh, the NRC staffer who has lived
and breathed the $6.7 million assessment
since it was launched in 2004 and who has
made countless presentations to the graduate school community since then on its progress or lack thereof. Thats especially true
for different audiences, she adds: While
faculty have certain values, students may be
worried about other things. For example,
www.sciencemag.org
CREDIT: MICHAEL CONROY/AP PHOTO
Number one? Duke was crowned the best mens

college basketball team after winning the 2010 tournament, but where does its graduate program in
chemistry rank? The new assessment of U.S. doctoral
programs deliberately avoids a denitive answer.
CREDIT: (TABLE) NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL, 2010
an undergraduate whos thinking of becoming a microbiologist can nd out how long it

takes students at University X to complete
their Ph.D. degrees, or what share of graduates from University Y nd academic jobs.
Likewise, an engineering dean interested in
increasing the number of women or minority faculty members and students can compare the gender and racial diversity of her
programs with those of others.
The absence of a single score separates
NRCs rankings from those done by several
other organizations, in particular, U.S. News
and World Report, whose inuential annual
assessments of the best universities emulate those for college sports teams by offering the type of ordinal ranking that readers
seem to crave. We felt it was more responsible to be accurate, say Jeremiah Ostriker,
a professor of astrophysics and former provost at Princeton University who chaired
the committee that carried out the assessment. Thats especially the case if a small
change in a range of rankings could make
one school seem better than another.
To understand why one number is never
enough, you need to understand how the
panel went about its business. Asked by the
National Academies to prepare a data-based
assessment, the committee rst whipped up
a batch of 20 program characteristics. Then
it served up those characteristics in two different ways.
The first involved asking 87,000 faculty members to weigh the importance of
each characteristic. Then it applied those
weights, in combination with data on those
measures from institutions, faculty members, and students, to rate each one of 4838
programs in 59 elds. (It collected data but
did not rate three elds that fell below a
minimum size and frequency.) Thats the S,
or quantitative, ranking.
The second method asked 8000 faculty
members to rank the overall quality of up to
15 programs in their eld. Then NRC used
a regression analysis to determine the perceived weights that each faculty member
used in rating each program. It did this 500
times, selecting a different set of raters each
time. Thats the R, or reputational, ranking.
That process differs markedly from the
1995 assessment, which ranked programs
based directly on their reputations. This
time around, we were not interested in the
How to look for

life on Mars
Beyond ancient
DNA
26
28
WHAT COUNTS THE MOST?

Publications per allocated faculty member
Cites per publication
% of faculty members with grants
% of interdisciplinary faculty members
% non-Asian minority faculty members
% female faculty members
Awards/honors per allocated faculty members
Average GRE-Q score
% first-year students with full support
% first-year students with portable fellowships
% non-Asian minority students
% female students
% international students
Average number of Ph.D.s, 200206
% completing degree in 6 years
Time to degree
% students in academic positions
Student work space
Health insurance
Student activities offered
Pieces of the whole. The NRC report
asked faculty members to weigh the
relative importance of these 20 characteristics in determining a quality
graduate program.
reputations per se, explains Ostriker. Reputations suffer from many aws, including a
halo effect, time lag, and so on.
The panel intended to combine the R
and S rankings into a single ranking, for
simplicitys sake, he says. But a National
Academies review panel blew the whistle
on that approach. They said we were actually measuring slightly different things and
that they should be kept separate, explains
Kuh. Ostriker says that readers can combine
them by following a formula given in the
appendix of a second volume, on the panels methodology. Its more confusing, but
logically, I have to agree with the reviewers, he says.
The committee also took the review panels advice to broaden the condence level
of each ranking from 50% to 90% (that is,
to say there is a 90% chance that the quality
of a given program falls within a particular range of rankings). At a 50% condence
level, the two rankings for a given program by denition overlapped only half the
www.sciencemag.org
SCIENCE
VOL 330
time, an outcome that Ostriker says reviewers found confusing. On the other hand, as
Gumport points out, divergent scores like
those for Stanfords anthropology program
cast additional doubt on the NRC exercise.
One curious nding in this years assessment is the correlation between a programs
quality and its size. Faculty members did not
put that characteristic high on their list, says
Kuh. But, as in 1995, it shows up strongly in
the rankings themselves. What is it that size
does? Kuh asks. I think it makes the program more visible. Its more likely to place
students in other programs, and people from
that institution have more articles in the literature, which may make readers think, Say,
this must be a pretty good program. But the
data show theres also a downside to size, she
adds, with students from larger programs taking a longer time to earn their degrees.
The age of the data has attracted much
criticism. Many university ofcials say
the datacollected during the
200506 academic yearno longer present an accurate picture of
many programs. Weve had 462
new faculty hires and 325 departures in the past 3 years, Gumport
notes, a signicant proportion of
the 1900-member faculty.
But the panel disag rees.
Ostriker notes that the rankings are based in
part on 5-year averages and says he doubts
moving the time frame forward by a few
years would have made much of a difference. In addition, the NRC questionnaire
found that 80% of the faculty members
had worked at their programs for at least
8 years. That points to a huge level of stability, says Kuh.
For all the datas richness, however, panel
members say they should not be used to
determine the fate of a particular program.
None of the results dictates any decision,
but they should stimulate discussion on
why you are where you are, says Richard
Wheeler, vice provost at the University of
Illinois, Urbana-Champaign.
NRC hopes to update the database if it
can raise sufcient funds to continue the
project. In the meantime, says Ostriker,
universities are encouraged to collect and
disseminate new information about their
graduate programs.
1 OCTOBER 2010
JEFFREY MERVIS
19
INFECTIOUS DISEASES
Rival Teams Identify a Virus

Behind Deaths in Central China
BEIJINGWhen Xue-jie Yu came to China
last year to probe a lethal fever outbreak,

everyoneYu includedassumed he
would provide damning testimony against a
known suspect. Every summer for 3 years,
hundreds of people in central China came
down with an illness characterized by high
fever and gastrointestinal (GI) distress.
Many victims bled profusely, and an alarming number of the sickrough estimates
are as high as 30% in some areasdied. By
early 2007, scientists at the Chinese Center
for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)
here fingered the killer as human granulocytic anaplasmosis (HGA), an emerging bacterial infection from tick bites. But
to Yu, an expert on tick-borne diseases at
the University of Texas Medical Branch in
Galveston, things didnt add up.
The fatality rate was too high, Yu says,
and in his experience it was rare for HGA
patients to have GI symptoms. Working at
the Chinese CDCs National Institute of
Communicable Disease Control and Prevention (NICDC) here, Yu tested blood samples
for Anaplasma phagocytophilum, the HGA
bacteriumand came up empty. Last December, his team identied a new kind of bunyavirus, a family that includes infamous
members such as hantavirus and Rift Valley
fever virus. The nding, in a paper submitted to The New England Journal of Medicine
(NEJM), unmasks a dangerous new emerging
virusnot a bacterial outbreakand explains
why antibiotics failed to stop it.
Behind the scenes, however, a erce argument has broken out over who discovered the
virus. This summer, a Chinese CDC team led

by hantavirus expert Li Dexin, director of the
agencys Institute of Virology, also uncovered a bunyaviruspossibly the same one
Yus group identied. They have submitted
a deeper analysis of the pathogen, including
complete RNA sequences of 11 strains, to
The Lancet. Yu charges Lis group with trying to rob him of the discovery; Li says Yus
viral sequence is incomplete and that his team
identied the virus as the killer.
Several key questions are disputed or
unanswered. For starters, researchers do not
know how lethal the virus is. The mortality
rate may be high in China in part because clinics often prescribe the steroid dexamethasone
to bring down high fevers; steroids suppress
the immune system, which usually worsens
infections. Scientists also differ on whether
the virus should be handled in a biosafety
level 3 facilityreserved for dangerous
pathogensor in less secure laboratories.
And although the infection shows a seasonal
pattern associated with tick-borne diseases
cases begin in early spring and peak in midsummer before tapering off by autumnthe
vector is still a mystery.
One indisputable fact is that the emerging
disease has claimed scores of livesmostly
of farmersin Chinas heartland. The rst
documented outbreak was in 2006, in Anhui
Province. At that time, a team led by NICDC
Director Xu Jianguo, Chinese CDCs chief
bacteriologist, rushed to Anhui. Using PCR
they found A. phagocytophilum DNA in the
blood of one patient who died and in family members and hospital staff who became
infected. HGA had been recognized in the

United States in 1990 and in Europe in 1997;
Xus group reported Chinas rst cases in the
19 November 2008 issue of The Journal of the
American Medical Association.
Curiously, however, none of the patients
recalled having been bitten by ticks. And when
outbreaks recurred in 2007 and 2008, the disease did not respond to antibiotics. Thinking
it might have an unusual Anaplasma variant
on its hands, NICDC in 2009 invited Yu as a
short-term visiting researcher under the 1000
Talents Program, which brings overseas scientists to China.
That summer, the pathogen surfaced in
Henan and Hubei provinces. In June, Yu
went to Hubeis capital, Wuhan, to collect
blood samples from patients. They did not
look like typical HGA cases, he says. After
he failed to detect A. phagocytophilum, Yu
says he urged Chinese CDC scientists to
consider a viral pathogenbut researchers
there atly rejected the idea. Yu persisted
and spotted virus particles that December
in cell culture using electron microscopy.
Then in February, he says, a member of his
Texas lab, Yan Liu, cracked the code of the
viral genome. Two days after he informed
scientists at the Chinese CDC about his
ndings, he says, his 1000 Talents afliation with NICDC was terminated.
Chinese CDC Director Wang Yu was
intrigued by Xue-jie Yus ndings and invited
him to share them at a 15 April meeting at
CDC headquarters to plot strategy for studying the disease. Among the attendees were Li
and CDC virologist Liang Mifang; they found
Yus presentation unconvincing. He said he
isolated a bunyavirus, but he had gotten just
fragments, says Liang. Yu conrms that the
virologists were dismissive: Li tried to deny
the importance of my work, Yu says. Yu and
his colleagues have named the virus Dabie
Into the hot zone. Xue-jie Yu (left, in blue shirt) looks on as farmers check a dog for ticks; forest-hugging farms (right) were hard hit by the emerging virus (inset).
20
1 OCTOBER 2010
VOL 330
SCIENCE
www.sciencemag.org
CREDITS: COURTESY OF XUE-JIE YU/ UNIVERSITY OF TEXAS MEDICAL BRANCH; (INSET) COURTESY OF LI DEXIN/CHINESE CDC
NEWS OF THE WEEK
NEWS OF THE WEEK

Mountain virus after the range that straddles
the borders of Hubei, Anhui, and Henan provinces where they collected samples. But Yu
was not invited back to China this summer to
continue his research. I am the rst scientist
to discover the viral pathogen for an emerging
infectious disease who has no access to study
the virus and the disease anymore, he says.
In May, the Chinese CDC set up surveillance for the pathogen in Henan and Hubei
provinces. The disease ared up in four other
provinces as well, and Lis team collected
blood and serum from all six affected provinces. They amplied viral RNA sequences
and from more than 500 clones linked 14 to
bunyavirus. They also isolated bunyavirus in
cell culture and sequenced 11 strains. They

have named it severe febrile and thrombocytopenic syndrome (SFTS) virus and have
classied it in the phlebovirus genus of bunyavirus. Lis group also detected the virus in 35
patients from three provinces. Its solid work.
They clearly show that a new virus is causing
disease, says a U.S. scientist who has seen the
data and asked to remain anonymous.
But the rival claim didnt sit well with
Xue-jie Yu. When he heard that Lis team
had submitted its ndings to The Lancet, he
sent an e-mail to the journal accusing Li of
poaching his discovery. Liang says thats not
true: All data in our manuscript belong to us,
not anyone else, she says. On 17 Septem-
ber, The Lancet asked Lis group to withdraw

the paper and resubmit it after settling the
authorship dispute.
The squabbling has put Wang, the Chinese CDCs director, in an awkward position.
There is no doubt, he says, that Xue-jie Yu
discovered the novel bunyavirus. While
noting that Yus results are not as rich as
Lis teams, Wang says, everyone knows
what a scientic breakthrough is, and what is
accumulating work. After the NEJM paper
is published, he hopes, other papers can go
smoothly. But it may take Wangs best diplomatic skills to get any collaboration on the
emerging virus to go smoothly.
RICHARD STONE
ScienceNOW
From Sciences Online Daily News Site
CREDITS (TOP TO BOTTOM): MATJAZ KUNTNER; LUKE TORRIS
Strong as Silk
The silk produced by a Madagascar spider that spins webs as large as 2.8 square meters is
the toughest biomaterial yet discovered, according to a new study in PLoS ONE.
Ingi Agnarsson, an entomologist at the University of Puerto Rico in San Juan, and
colleagues collected Darwins bark spiders (Caerostris darwini) from Madagascars AndasibeMantadia National Park and brought them to a nearby greenhouse where the spiders
could spin fresh webs. When the researchers compared Darwins bark spiders silk with
other spiders silk, they found that it ranked near the top in terms of strength and was
twice as elastic as any other known spider silk, making it the toughest known biological
material. Understanding the properties of spider silk could help engineers synthesize
even tougher, lighter-weight materials, the researchers say. http://scim.ag/strong-silk
Primordial Magnetic Field

Two physicists say they have found an
extremely weak magnetic eld stretching
across the universe, a possible remnant of the
big bang. If scientists conrm the nding, it
could help reveal the origins of magnetism in
the cosmos.
Physicists Shinichiro Ando of the California Institute of Technology in Pasadena
and Alexander Kusenko of the University of
California, Los Angeles, knew that a vast magnetic eld could scatter high-energy photons
emitted by distant supermassive black holes,
blurring the resulting telescope images. The
effect would be too minuscule to see in a
single image, so the pair created a composite
image from data on 170 different black holes
collected by the Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope. When they compared the composite
with the product of a mathematical model
that assumed no such eld exists, the two
images didnt match.
Their calculations, published in The Astro-
physical Journal Letters, suggest that the magnetic eld responsible for the discrepancy has
about one-quadrillionth the strength of Earths.
Although the researchers speculate that the
eld is a vestige of the big bang, others caution
that it will require additional modeling to determine its source. http://scim.ag/mag-eld
Viking Village
A team of archaeologists announced last week
the discovery of a Viking settlement near the
village of Annagassan, 70 kilometers north of
Dublin. It could be the long-lost town of Linn
Duchaill, one of two Irish outposts described
in medieval accounts. The other, Dbh Linn,
became Dublin.
Annagassan lmmaker Ruth Cassidy and
archaeological consultant Mark Clinton began
searching for the town in 2005 and had almost
given up when they came across an area ideal
for building and repairing ships. A survey
turned up a series of defensive ditches not typical of Irish construction, convincing the local
www.sciencemag.org
SCIENCE
VOL 330
Louth County Museum to fund an excavation.

In just 3 weeks, the team found 200
objects, including evidence of carpentry,
smelting, and ship repair, and hacked coins,
which Clinton says were a typical calling card
of the Vikings.
Other Viking experts are cautiously optimistic that the settlement is Linn Duchaill but
say it needs to be solidly dated before the case
is closed. http://scim.ag/lost-village
Read the full postings, comments, and more at
http://news.sciencemag.org/sciencenow.
1 OCTOBER 2010
21
Social Savvy Boosts the Collective

Intelligence of Groups
People who are good at solving one type
of brainteaser tend to excel at a variety of
mental calisthenicssupport, many psychologists say, for the concept of general
intelligence. A study published online this
week in Science (www.sciencemag.org/cgi/
content/abstract/science.1193147) extends
this concept to groups of people, arguing
that groups have a collective intelligence
that predicts their performance on a range
of collaborative tasks.
The researchers, led by Anita Woolley,
an organizational psychologist at Carnegie
Mellon University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, reached this conclusion after studying
699 people working in small groups. They
also investigated why some groups appear
to be smarter than others. Surprisingly, the
average intelligence of the individuals in
the group was not the best predictor of a
groups performance. The degree to which
group members were attuned to social cues
and their willingness to take turns speaking
were more important, as was the proportion
of women in the group.
This paper really takes all the lessons of
100 years of psychometric research on individual intelligence and applies it in a novel
way to look at group decision-making, says
Richard Haier, a neuroscientist at the University of California, Irvine, who studies
intelligence. You can get a lot of interesting
ideas out of this.
In the rst part of the study, Woolley and
colleagues at the Massachusetts Institute of
Technology recruited 120 people from the Boston area and randomly assigned them to teams
of three. Whereas most previous research has
focused on what makes certain teams excel at a
22
given type of task, Woolley says she wanted to

look instead at whether a teams performance
on one task generalizes to others.
Teams worked on a variety of tasks, including brainstorming to come up with possible
uses for a brick and working collaboratively
on problems from a test of general intelligence called Ravens Advanced Progressive
Matrices. These problems involve evaluating
several shapes arranged in a grid and identifying the missing item that would complete the pattern. The groups also worked on
more real-world scenarios, such as planning
a shopping trip for a group of people who
shared a car. The researchers scored these
tests according to predetermined rules that
considered several factors (awarding points
when shoppers got to buy items on their list,
for example). Each participant also took an
abbreviated version of the Ravens test as a
measure of individual intelligence.
These experiments showed that a groups
performance on any one task did in fact
predict its performance on the others. That
suggests that groups have a consistent collective intelligence, Woolley says. She and
colleagues calculated a c factor for each
group, based on its performance across tasks,
a direct parallel to the much-debated general
intelligence factor, g. Neither the average
intelligence of group members nor the intelligence of its smartest member correlated
with the groups performance.
To investigate further, Woolley and colleagues recruited another 579 people from
Boston and Pittsburgh and assigned them
to groups of two to ve members. This time
the researchers did nd a weak correlation
between both the average and the high-
1 OCTOBER 2010
VOL 330
SCIENCE
www.sciencemag.org
GREG MILLER
CREDIT: ISTOCKPHOTO.COM
P SYC H O LO G Y
est individual intelligence of members of

a group and its collective intelligence. But
other factors were stronger predictors. One
was the group members average score on a
test that required them to infer what was on
another persons mindwhether they were
annoyed or worried, for instanceby looking at a photograph cropped to show just
the eyes. That suggests that social sensitivity is a key ingredient of successful teams,
Woolley says. The researchers found that
the degree to which members took turns
speaking also predicted their performance.
The proportion of women in a group also
correlated with collective intelligence, but
Woolley says much of this effect can be
explained by the gender difference in social
sensitivity: women tend to have more of it.
The careful, empirical experiments
are a welcome addition to the literature on
teams, which is dominated by observational
studies, says Brian Uzzi, a sociologist at
Northwestern University in Evanston, Illinois. He agrees with the authors conclusion
that the collective intelligence of groups
may be more amenable to improvement than
general intelligence in individuals, which
most research suggests is difcult to change.
Coaching to improve social perceptiveness
and turn taking, or selecting individuals with
those tendencies, might make for smarter
groups, for example.
Research on how the gender composition of teams affects their performance
has a long and controversial history, says
Katherine Phillips, an organizational behaviorist at Northwestern. Some studies have
found that women improve teams by virtue of
their social acuity, whereas others have found
that women are more likely to remain quiet
and let others have their say in team discussions, sometimes to the detriment of the team.
In the current experiments, women may have
been more likely to speak up because none of
the group members had particular expertise
in the problems at hand, Phillips says.
However, the random makeup of the
groups may limit the reach of the ndings,
cautions Linda Gottfredson, a sociologist who
studies intelligence at the University of Delaware, Newark. She notes that the groups were
composed of strangers. It is possible that
turn taking in conversation was so important
for that reason, she says. They did not know
how bright and sensible the others were. In
a more typical workplace setting, Gottfredson
says, individuals would be more familiar with
their teammates and know whom to listen to
and encourage to speak. In that case, she says,
the members individual intelligence may be a
more important factor than turn taking.
NEWS OF THE WEEK

SCIENCE POLICY
Indias Vision: From Scientic

Pipsqueak to Powerhouse
NEW DELHIIn 1930, Indian physicist C. V.
Raman won a Nobel Prize for his discovery

of inelastic photon scattering, known as the
Raman effect. The phenomenon became
a powerful tool for analyzing matterbut
it was other countries that used the basic
knowledge to invent Raman scanners. That
still causes heartburn here. In a new report,
a blue-ribbon panel cites Raman as one egregious example of Indias systemic failure to
capitalize on basic research ndings.
Volume of publications
(compared with 1981=100)
250
200
150
100
1981
CREDITS (TOP TO BOTTOM): ADAPTED FROM GLOBAL RESEARCH REPORT - INDIA, THOMSON REUTERS, U.K. (OCTOBER 2009); PALLAVA BAGLA
Japan
France
Germany
World
U.K.
India
1986
1991
1996
2001
2006
False positive? Although India is grabbing a larger

share of scientific publications, a panel led by
chemist C. N. R. Rao argues that Indias scientic
stature is shrinking.
The report, released last week by Prime

Minister Manmohan Singh, offers a stinging
indictment of Indias scientic frailties, noting that science here is severely hampered by
oppressive bureaucratic practices and inexible administrative and nancial controls.
Titled India as a Global Leader in Science,
the vision document also offers a blueprint
for strengthening Indian scienceone that
will require heaps of money to implement.
We would need to redouble our efforts
and hope that the ideas in the vision document will inspire the scientic community,
Singh said in releasing the report. The rst of
its kind, the report is getting mixed reviews.
Goverdhan Mehta, an organic chemist at the
University of Hyderabad and past president
From the Science

Policy Blog
of the International Council for Science in

Paris, says the recommendations are sound.
If India is to become a formidable force,
incremental approaches will just not work.
One needs to leapfrog, Mehta says. Others
are unimpressed. It is a very environmentfriendly document since it has recycled so
many old ideas, scoffs one senior scientist.
Commissioned by Singhs office, the
panel, led by the chair of the prime ministers
scientific advisory council, C. N. R. Rao,
a chemist at Jawaharlal Nehru Center for
Advanced Scientic Research in Bangalore,
atly declares in its report that India is yet to
become a major force in global science.
Indeed Indias relative position in the world
of science has declined in the last twenty
years. It blames inadequate investment in
science both by the government and by industry. That has led to a disconnect between
basic research labs and industry, says chemical engineer Raghunath A. Mashelkar, now
president of the Global Research Alliance
in Pretoria. The paradigm of science being
born in India but products being born overseas has to be overturned, he says.
To begin to contribute signicantly to
world science, the report says, Indias share
of scientific papers should rise from the
present 2% or so to something like 10%
over the next 10 years. It also urges Indian
researchers to claim more intellectual property: The panel calls for a 10-fold increase in
international patents owned by Indians, from
1900 in 2007 to about 20,000 by 2020. And
training scientists should get a major boost:
India should produce about 30,000 science
Ph.D.s a year by 2025, up from 8420 in 2006.
To meet those targets, the government should
double science spending by 2020, the panel
says. It also seeks a $250-million-a-year venture capital fund to develop basic research
ndings. And the panel calls for the creation
of a National S&T Council along the lines of
the U.S. National Research Council to help
India address urgent issues such as water,
energy, and food security.
We will seriously try to implement the
vision, Indias Science Minister Prithviraj
Chavan told Science. Any new funding initiatives would be considered in the 2011 budget.
Rao is not optimistic. I feel a bit depressed
and discouraged by the state of Indian science, he says.
www.sciencemag.org
Government lawyers asked an appeals court

to suspend a federal judges ruling that froze
federally funded research on human embryonic stem cells. The three-judge panel had
tough questions for both sides, but at press
time, the court had not yet ruled on whether
to allow research to continue while the case
proceeds. http://scim.ag/stem_hearing
Weeks after it emerged that four papers
written by prominent gene therapy expert
Savio Woo had been retracted and two
postdocs subsequently red, two more
papers have been retracted. Mount Sinai
School of Medicine in New York City has
cleared Woo of wrongdoing, and several
papers on his techniques have not been
retracted. http://scim.ag/New_Woo_papers
The outgoing chair of the science committee in the U.S. House of Representatives
says he wishes he had pushed harder to
pass the reauthorization of the America
COMPETES Act, which supports increased
U.S. spending on research and science
education. But Representative Bart Gordon
(DTN) still hopes the Senate will take up
the House-passed version in the lame-duck
session after next months elections. Meanwhile, top U.K. science ofcials have lobbied the British government to avert spending cuts expected to be part of next years
budget, to be released 20 October.
http://scim.ag/competes_late
http://scim.ag/UKcuts
Chinese police have detained a top surgeon
in an investigation into the assaults on a
critic of medical research and an investigative journalist. Xiao Chuanguo, chief urology
surgeon at Tongji Hospital in Wuhan, was
detained in connection with attacks on misconduct watchdog Fang Shimin and reporter
Fang Xuanchang. http://scim.ag/XiaoDetained
Scientists can entice the public to donate
to their work on a new philanthropy site
called SciFlies. Started by a veteran political
fundraiser and scientist with experience as an
entrepreneur, the site hopes to raise funds for
grants as large as $100,000 to support scientists in all elds. http://scim.ag/sci_donate
For more science policy news, visit http://
news.sciencemag.org/scienceinsider.
PALLAVA BAGLA
SCIENCE
VOL 330
1 OCTOBER 2010
23
NEWS OF THE WEEK

C O N S E R VAT I O N
Data deficient. Biologists use this term to

describe a species for which too little is known
to determine its conservation status. Its a
problem at a global scale as well, as scientists
try to assess whether biodiversity loss has
been stemmed since the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) was enacted almost
20 years ago. Scientists, who hope to get new
conservation targets approved later this month
(Science, 10 September, p. 1272), have had
comprehensive information on just a few
groups of organisms, such as birds and mammals, but not on some important large groups
Over the past 2 years, other research teams

have been applying this approach to poorly
understood groups of animals. For both
plants and animals, researchers plan to look at
these same sets of species periodically to see
how the groups are faring and thus how well
humans are protecting biodiversity.
The new index is a response to growing
frustrations with the International Union for
Conservation of Natures (IUCNs) Red List
of Threatened Species, which is an ongoing tally of which species are known to be in
trouble. Its data are used to tell how well the
CBD is working. The Red List now contains
entries on about 45,000 species; birds, mammals, amphibians, and corals are especially
well-documented.
Those groups are relatively easy to track
because each contains a small number of species (say, several thousand)
and many experts are studying them
especially birds and mammals. The
worlds 10,000 avian species have
been sampled six times since the early
1970s, for instance, providing enough
information to conclude that birds are
slightly worse off now than they were
then. But for many of the rest of the
biospheres 1.75 million known plants,
fungi, and animals, the ratio of species
to experts is much less favorable. Who
can do a detailed analysis of the range,
Taking stock. By sampling various groups, including (clockwise distribution, and ecology of each of
from left) lycophytes, snowdrops, the 380,000 estimated plant species,
and cycads, researchers have for example, or 75,000 butteries, just
determined the conservation once, let alone periodically to gure
status of plants as a whole.
out the trends?
In 2005, IUCN recruited experts
especially plants. Because they are so criti- to see whether a statistical sampling techcal to the survival of other species, we think nique, applied to a particular group of ora
plants may be more representative of whats or fauna, could ll the voidand if so, just
happening to the whole of biodiversity, says how small the sample could be. Its like a
Eimear Nic Lughadha of the Royal Botanic poll; you want to know with which degree of
Gardens, Kew, in the United Kingdom.
certainty you can determine trends through
Earlier this week, researchers led by Nic time, says Jonathan Baillie, a zoologist
Lughadha helped ll this data gap by using at the Zoological Society of London who
an innovative statistical approach called the helped develop this index.
Sampled Red List Index. By taking a ranA sampled approach would work only if
dom sample of the known species in various experts could draw on a comprehensive list of
plant groups, such as ferns, and compiling species in that group. Using plants and birds as
existing information on just that subset, test cases, statisticians decided they needed a
they have concluded that 22% of all plant minimum sample size of 1500. That was large
species are threatened. Previous estimates enough so that the protocol would work even
had ranged between 20% and 80%, making if 40% of the randomly selected species were
it difcult for policymakers to know how bustswith no conservation data available.
much they should emphasize plants in their
Kew took on plants, finishing the new
conservation strategies.
analysis just in time for this months U.N. Bio-
24
1 OCTOBER 2010
VOL 330
SCIENCE
diversity Summit. Working with Kew geographic information system specialist Steve
Bachman and volunteers, Nic Lughadha and
her collaborators looked at ferns and their
relatives, conifers and cycads, and also the
monocots, the 75,000-strong group of owering plants that includes grasses, palms, and lilies. They did not have a comprehensive list for
the remainder of owering plants, formerly
known as the dicots, but determined they
could study 1500 legumesa major dicot
subgroupas stand-ins.
For some of these randomly picked species,
the researchers had little to go on, so there was
a mad scramble to track down any information about their distribution and ranges, says
Neil Brummitt, now with the Natural History
Museum in London. Often, they had to rely on
labels on herbarium specimens to get a sense
of how a plants range and distribution, for
instance, changed through time.
Other groups estimates of the risk of
extinction were based primarily on studies of a small group of plants or plants in
a particular geographic location, says Nic
Lughadha, who adds that the new index provides the rst global picture of how plants
are doing: in short, about the same as mammals, but worse than birds.
The new technique has already provided
insights into the worlds fauna. Freshwater
crabs and sh, two data-decient groups,
are at higher risk than their marine counterparts. And some trends are emergingsuch
as the potential advantage of having wings.
Researchers already knew that birds are better off than mammals and amphibians; similarly, the newly examined dragonies are
in less danger than craysh and crabs. It
really has improved our knowledge of some
of these groups immensely, says IUCNs
Craig Hilton-Taylor.
The index approach has its limitations.
By not doing the whole group, you have less
information to direct conservation priorities
at the local level, says Hilton-Taylor. And
because selection is random, some highly vulnerable species may be left out, says Sacha
Spector, an ecologist with the environmental
organization Scenic Hudson in Poughkeepsie, New York. Even so, he thinks the sampled
approach is providing a broad picture of whats
happening: It will be extremely successful in
jump-starting the biological research world
[for] doing more assessments and protecting
the species that were under the radar before.
www.sciencemag.org
ELIZABETH PENNISI
CREDITS: (BOTTOM LEFT) MARTIN CHEEK, RBG KEW; (TOP AND RIGHT) RBG KEW
Filling Gaps in Global Biodiversity Estimates
NEWS OF THE WEEK

N E W S M A K E R I NT E RV I E W: I A N P O I N E R
many of those sorts of discoveries.

The census found life everywhere we
looked, and it is much more complex and
interconnected than we expected. Probably
the other [key nding] is that we humans
have had far more impact on the oceans than
we had imagined.
Counting the Oceans Creatures,

Great and Small
In a massive undertaking, 2700 scientists
from 80 nations have spent the past 10 years
compiling everything known about life in
the worlds oceans: from extinct denizens
to present-day biota to what future ecosystems might look like. Next week, participants will gather in London to celebrate the
fruits of their labors: the rst ever Census of
Marine Life (CoML).
Launched in 2000 with funding from the
Alfred P. Sloan Foundation, CoML gathered
some 16 million records into accessible databases. Fieldwork by CoML contributors has
added another 2600 publications, including
6000 or so new species, raising the number
of known marine species to over 240,000
about 25% of the total presumed to exist.
The $670 million effort has been good
value for dollar spent, says Ian Poiner,
chief executive of the Australian Institute of
Marine Science in Townsville. The tropical
marine ecologist was involved in the census
from the beginning and has chaired the scientic steering committee since 2008. Although
CoML is a milestone, many questions about
ocean life remain unanswered, Poiner notes:
The age of discovery is still with us.
DENNIS NORMILE
CREDIT: AIMS
Q: Has CoML achieved its goals?

I.P.: The census has three key points of focus:
One is diversity, or what lives in the ocean;
the distribution, where that life is found; and
then the abundance, how much life is there.
On top of that we looked at what changes
have occurred and forecast what [ocean life]
might look like in the future.
I think we dealt with diversity very well;
distribution and abundance are much more
difcult. There is still much to be done, particularly on abundance.
Q: Do you have an idea of what kinds of
species are still out there?
I.P.: When you plot the accumulated number of
species over time, its still going upward with
no hint of leveling out. Census researchers
estimate there will be at least a million species
and possibly many more. We know less about
the smaller things than the bigger things. And
marine microbes are another story. Probably
90% of the ocean biomass will be microbes.
Q: Why is it important to identify those
species?
Q: The CoML is regularly mentioned in the

comic strip Shermans Lagoon. Was that
part of your public outreach efforts?
I.P.: We encouraged and supported it. Its
one way to communicate the importance
of ocean life. But it is only one of many
avenues weve used to enhance the general
recognition of the importance of our oceans.
National Geographic will also publish a twosided wall map depicting the major ndings
of the census.
Q: Is census data being used to understand
the impact of the Gulf of Mexico oil spill?
I.P.: The short answer is yes. We released last
year the rst comprehensive compilation of
the biodiversity of the Gulf of Mexico. Sadly,
it was timely. It has been and will continue to
be used to understand the impact of the Gulf
of Mexico oil spill.
The census found life everywhere

we looked, and it is much more
complex and interconnected than
we expected.
IAN POINER
I.P.: Most ecologists view biodiversity as a
measure of the health of biological systems.
What are all the species doing out there and
whats their role in ocean ecosystems? Those
questions remain to be sorted out. Getting
a better handle on biodiversity and understanding [the implications] of declines in
biodiversity and species invasions are things
we need to know to effectively manage our
oceans for both conservation and for economic benet.
Q: Aside from the sheer numbers, what are
the most signicant ndings?
I.P.: Things like discovering animals that
live without oxygen in the deep Mediterranean. On the Great Barrier Reef, probably
a third to a half of the soft corals are new
to science. One of the iconic species of the
census is the yeti crab from the Pacic near
Easter Island. It is not only a new species
but a new genus and a new family. There are
www.sciencemag.org
SCIENCE
VOL 330
Q: Who else will use census data?

I.P.: Census data are already being used for
the upcoming Convention on Biodiversity,
both by countries reporting their ocean biodiversity and in looking at options for the
management of our high seas. [This information] will be used much more extensively
in the future. An example is the Great Barrier Reef; it is a large area and one of the
most iconic places in the world. The management and zoning and systems to maintain protected areas and multiple-use areas
are dependent on the information that has
been collected in the census.
Q: What comes next?
I.P.: The census was very much a bottom-up
process where the marine science community came together to identify challenges
and identify ways to collaborate. Now we
are using those networks to help us determine where to go in the future.
This census is the first of, hopefully,
many. With the technologies [CoML has]
developed, were now in a much stronger
position to continue discovery and exploration and to monitor changes in ocean biological patterns. Challenges [include] getting
the balance between discovery and monitoring right and demonstrating the effective use
of that information in assessing and managing our oceans.
1 OCTOBER 2010
25
NEWSFOCUS
Growing Prospects
For Life on Mars
Divide Astrobiologists
As discoveries on Mars, including warm spells and salty
soil, raise the chances of nding life there, scientists
consider how best to look for it within their budget
THE MICROSCOPIC, WORMY-LOOKING

things found in a meteorite blasted off Mars
certainly reinvigorated NASAs search for
extraterrestrial life in the 1990s. But the
critterlike sightings and almost all of the
other evidence for ancient life claimed for
the martian meteorite have since faded away.
Replacing them in recent years is a string of
encouraging discoveries on Mars, including
pervasive ice just beneath polar soils, waterwrought minerals of every sort, and soil
benign enough to grow asparagus.
Mars has met all requirements to support life, says planetary scientist and astrobiologist Bruce Jakosky of the University of
Colorado, Boulder. Life is possible. But as
the planetary science community draws up its
prioritized list of missions for the next decade,
astrobiologists have split over the next logical
step in the search for life on Mars.
Many researchers are content to follow
NASAs lead as it cautiously moves from
following the water in search of likely
habitable or once-habitable environments
to following the carbonthat is, looking
for chemical traces of ancient life. Others are
not so patient. Its time to search for life by
searching for life, says astrobiologist Carol
Stoker of NASAs Ames Research Center
(ARC) in Mountain View, California. The
direct detection of lifeliving, dormant, or
recently deceasedshould be a high priority, she and others say. The planetary science
26
decadal survey now being drafted and to be

released next March will determine whether
theyre right.
a northern ocean at about the time life was

getting started on Earth. Spectra returned by
orbiters in the past decade showed that liquid
water on early Mars stayed around long enough
A life-friendlier planet
to corrode rock into alteration minerals under
The search for martian life took a body blow life-friendly conditions. And the Mars rover
in the late 1970s, when life-detection experi- Spirit found ancient minerals produced by hot
ments on the Viking 1 and Viking 2 landers ground waters, much as happens in the lifefailed to stir up clear signs of either living crea- infested hot springs of Yellowstone.
tures or lifeless organic debris. Mars seemed
Closer to modern times, wateralbeit
to be dead, as dead as an eons-old, hyperarid, frozenis turning up in all manner of places.
incredibly cold landscape would appear to be. In recent years, orbiting instruments have spied
It wasnt long, however, before things widespread ice just beneath the surface soils
started looking up again. Orbital observations of Mars: centimeters down in polar regions
from Viking onward revealed ever more evi- and meters down in immobile glaciers at middence that water gushed across the surface of latitudes. But that water might not always have
early Mars, forming lakes and perhaps even been frozen. Marss wobbling on its axis would
have warmed parts of the planet. Orbitally induced climate cycles mean that
Mars has become a far more interesting place than we thought, says astrobiologist David Des Marais of ARC. The
fresh-looking gullies of Mars, for example, may have been gushing meltwater
in the not-so-distant geologic past.
With things looking up for biology on Mars, NASA sent the Phoenix
lander to a landing site in the martian
Arctic that turned out to be relatively
life-friendly. We believe we have
a habitable environment in modern
times, says Stoker, who is on the PhoeStymied. The Viking landers found no signs of life.
nix team. The site is not necessarily
1 OCTOBER 2010
VOL 330 SCIENCE www.sciencemag.org
CREDITS (TOP TO BOTTOM): NASA/JPL-CALTECH/UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA/TEXAS A&M UNIVERSITY; NASA/JPL-CALTECH/UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA
Looking good. Phoenix found

water ice and benign living conditions in the martian Arctic.
CREDITS (TOP TO BOTTOM): THOMAS A. DUTCH SLAGER/NASA/JPL/CALTECH; NASA/JPL/UNIVERSITY OF ARIZONA; NASA/JPL; NASA
NEWSFOCUS
growing organisms today, she says,
ering a rover that would collect likely
but over the past 10 million years dursamples for eventual return to Earth
ing warm conditions, life could have
and detailed laboratory analysis for
survived and perhaps thrived.
ancient life.
To put a number on that assertion,
A search for ancient life has plenty
Stoker and 12 co-authors published a
of supporters. A majority [of astrosemiquantitative analysis of the Phoebiologists] would say ancient life will
nix sites potential habitability online Following the carbon. The Curiosity rover, due for launch next be easier to nd than present-day life,
16 June in the Journal of Geophysical year, will minutely analyze any organic matter it nds.
says Jakosky. To find present-day
Research-Planets (JGR). They considlife, researchers have to first idenered the likelihood of four factors essential most Mars-like soil available, one from the tify a likely site, he says. Then they would
for life. One is liquid water. Phoenixs discov- heart of the Atacama Desert of Chile con- have to choose which measurements would
ery of carbonate requires liquid water in the taining a trace of organic matter. When they detect alien life. In hindsight, Viking scienpast to produce the mineral, they noted. The added a bit of perchlorate before the heat- tists erred in designing their life-detection
high concentration of perchlorate salt found ing, in line with the Phoenix discovery, they experiments for microbes accustomed to
by Phoenix offers a means of forming brines duplicated the Viking results: no volatilized Earths most benign conditions. And rulthat could remain liquid even at todays tem- organics, some carbon dioxide, and the same ing out microbial contamination from Earth
peratures. And even without brines, orbitally two chlorinated methane compounds.
would be challenging. Although going after
induced warming could have allowed liquid
The simplest explanation is that there present-day life could yield the most prowater in the recent past.
was perchlorate and organic matter in the found result, says Jakosky, it would be
Phoenixs perchlorates could also serve as Viking soil samples, says McKay. When very risky. The odds are against it even if
an essential energy source for microbes with heated, the perchlorate would have oxidized life is present.
a taste for such chemicals, the group said. most of the organic matter to carbon
Nutrients such as nitrogen and phosphorus dioxide and chlorinated a small amount
blow in on dust. And environmental condi- of it. If the Viking soil did contain
tions, such as the Phoenix-measured pH, are organic matter, it could have come from
benign. All that makes martian high latitudes lifeless meteorites and cosmic dust that
more tantalizing, says atmospheric chem- rains onto Mars. But we did dispel the
ist Sushil Atreya of the University of Michi- idea that theres no point in searching
gan, Ann Arbor.
for molecular traces of life in martian
organic matter, McKay says.
A lively Mars, ever?
An even more tantalizing hint of possible Go for it?
current life showed up in 2003. Research- All the upbeat developments have
ers reported f inding traces of methane some astrobiologists raring to go. The
gas in the atmosphere of Mars, first in theme has been Follow the water,
spectroscopic observations returned by says Stoker, but we understand enough
Mars Express and then in telescopic obser- to take the next step. That step would
vations from Earth. A lifeless, subsurface be attempting to directly detect active
water-rock reaction called serpentinization or dormant present-day life. The probcould be the source, but living, methane- ability of identifying life is higher for
belching microbes would work, too.
modern than for ancient life, says
Another encouraging sign just came Stoker. The best approach, McKay
from the laboratory. Astrobiologist Rafael says, is to send modern biochemical
Navarro-Gonzlez of the National Autono- sensors to Mars capable of directly
mous University of Mexico in Mexico City detecting complex biomolecules like
Getting closer? Viking (left)
and his colleagues report in a paper in press DNA from living or dormant organfound no life, but apparent
in JGR their terrestrial version of the Viking isms. Such a prospect has made some
recent water flows (top) and
methane (above) hint at it.
search for organic matter on Mars. In the astrobiologists impatient to do someViking experiments, a martian soil sample thing directly relevant to the search for
was heated to 500C and the resulting gases life, says McKay, rather than taking more
A committee of the National Research
analyzed. Instead of organics from the soil, pictures of rocks.
Council is now balancing the odds of sucViking detected only carbon dioxide and two
NASAs astrobiology plans for Mars are cess of the two approaches against the availchlorinated methane compounds. The latter geared much more toward ancient life than able funding in the United States as it nishes
were considered to be contaminants brought present-day life, notes Jakosky. In 2011, the rst draft of the Planetary Science Decadal
from Earth, even though they did not appear NASA will send the Mars Science Labora- Survey. Its prioritized list of missions for 2013
when the experiment was run without soil tory, now dubbed Curiosity, to follow the to 2022 is exciting and actually implementwhile Viking was in space.
carbon at a low-latitude site. In a joint 2016 able, says committee chair Steven Squyres of
Navarro-Gonzlez and his colleagues, effort with the European Space Agency, it Cornell University. How lively its missions to
including Christopher McKay of ARC, reran will send the Trace Gas Orbiter to check on Mars will be remains to be seen.
RICHARD A. KERR
the Viking experiments in the lab using the the methane. And for 2018, NASA is considwww.sciencemag.org SCIENCE VOL 330
1 OCTOBER 2010
27
NEWSFOCUS
Archaeologists See Big Promise

In Going Molecular
Creative applications for ancient DNA emerge at a meeting, where researchers also
described studies of other preserved molecules, including ancient RNA and proteins
COPENHAGENAs a eld, ancient DNA
is getting, well, old. Its been more than
2 decades since scientists began analyzing
fragments of preserved DNA from tissues
that are hundreds, or even tens of thousands, of years old (Science, 17 November 2006, p. 1068); the approach arguably
reached a climax earlier this year with the
unveiling of the draft nuclear genomes of a
4000-year-old Eskimo and a 38,000-yearold Neandertal.
Yet last months International Symposium
on Biomolecular Archaeology (ISBA)
a biennial meeting devoted to studies of
isotopes and DNA in ancient biological
materialsrevealed that ancient DNA
research is poised to undergo a new kind
of growth spurt. Flooded with data from
next-generation sequencing technologies,
researchers are now exploring a host of new
applications and addressing an ever-wider
circle of questions about ancient ecologies,
human behavior, and lifestyle. Theyre probing ancient medical practices by extracting
DNA from Roman herbs, for example.
Some are moving beyond isotopes and
DNA to probe new classes of ancient molecules, using ancient RNA to study gene
activity and identifying ancient species with
bits of collagen from fossil bones. Everyone is in a rush to nd the next methodology, says bioarchaeologist Greger Larson of
Durham University in the United Kingdom.
We are all testing things very quickly without knowing how successful any will be.
28
Preserved RNA in seeds could be a

boon to studies of ancient plant domestication, as levels of mRNAs reect changes in
gene activity that may be as important to the
process as changes in protein-coding DNA
sequences. A plants RNA profile differs
from tissue to tissue, but Gilberts team suspects that seeds, as a crucial developmental
stage, nonetheless will offer key insights.
Gilberts is not the only team that has discovered the protective power of seeds; a
group led by Robin Allaby of the University of Warwick in the United Kingdom has
isolated RNAs from ancient Egyptian barley seeds and hopes to identify a variety of
RNAs that regulate gene activity.
Seed of an idea
Take ancient RNA, for example. Few thought
it made sense to even look for DNAs cousin
in ancient biological samples, because RNA is
much more fragile than DNA. But M. Thomas
Gilbert of the University of Copenhagens
new Centre for Geogenetics (an ambitious
ancient DNA lab funded by the Danish gov- ZooMSing in on collagen
ernment and ofcially launched at the start RNA may be considered fragile, but the bone
of the meeting) became intrigued years ago protein collagen is among the best survivors
when he read of a date palm germinating from of the ravages of time. RNA can last hundreds
a 2000-year-old seed from the ancient Jewish of years, and DNA tens of thousands, but colfortress of Masada. To Gilbert, that suggested lagen apparently sometimes survives for milthe ancient seed still harbored RNA and that lions of years in a bone. Thats why Michael
other old seeds might as well. At
Buckley of Bournemouth Unithe meeting, Gilberts colleague
versity, while working in the labSarah Fordyce reported that they
oratory of Matthew Collins of the
have been able to sequence many sciencemag.org
University of York, both in the
Podcast interview
RNAs, including the messenU.K., spearheaded a technique to
with author
ger RNAs (mRNAs) made when John Travis.
use collagen fragments, or pepgenes are transcribed, from Chiltides, to identify the species of
ean and North American maize seeds that are nondescript bits of bone. Called ZooArchaemore than 700 years old. We think we can do ology by Mass Spectrometry (ZooMS), the
ancient transcriptomics, she says.
method relies on subtle differences among
Seeds are a good source for ancient RNA, species in the amino acid sequence, and thus
because they have evolved to keep genetic mass, of collagen. For less than $10 a test, scimaterial intact under harsh conditions. Seeds entists may one day be able to take any bit
are particularly valuable objects for studies of fossilized bone and identify the genus, or
of ancient nucleic acids, says Matti Leino even species, it came from, says Buckley.
of the Swedish Museum of Cultural History (Collins has nicknamed collagen the bar
in Stockholm, whose own group recently code of death because it can identify fossequenced DNA in historical seed collections sils, whereas DNA is sometimes used as a bar
and found evidence challenging the impor- code to identify living species.)
tance of a mutation hypothesized to be central
Collinss team has so far demonstrated
to wheat domestication.
ZooMSs ability to identify a wide range of
1 OCTOBER 2010
Online
CREDITS (LEFT TO RIGHT): GIOVANNI LATTANZI/ARCHART.IT; MATTI W. LEINO/SWEDISH MUSEUM OF CULTURAL HISTORY
A R C H A E O LO G Y
CREDITS: (TOP, LEFT TO RIGHT) ROBERTO FORTUNA/THE NATIONAL MUSEUM OF DENMARK; CHARLOTTE OSKAM; (BOTTOM) MATTHEW COLLINS
NEWSFOCUS
fossil animal bones. It can even distinguish

between ancient sheep and goat bones, a notoriously difcult problem that has blurred the
picture of how people domesticated each animal. Collinss group is now building up a database of collagens amino acid sequences that
more fully spans the animal kingdom. ZooMS
is fast and cheap and can be a real neat way
to ID species, says Gilbert. And it has other
potential uses, such as identifying the collagen sequence of extinct species for which no
DNA has been isolated, helping better place
those animals within an evolutionary tree.
Every couple of weeks, we think of
something new to do with it, says paleobiologist Ian Barnes of Royal Holloway, University of London, who has begun to collaborate
with Collinss group.
Other researchers suspect that the future
of ancient proteomics may involve more
than just collagen, as theres increasing evidence that many proteins in bones and in
other biological materials can survive for
long periods, at least in a fragmented form
that can be analyzed by mass spectroscopy.
Collinss team is trying to extend the ZooMS
technique to keratin proteins, to analyze animal hair and feathers used by ancient peoples, for example.
An ancient pharmacopeia
As the proteomics researchers looked to the
future, ancient DNA researchers presented
a few new tricks of their own. Botanist
Alain Touwaide of the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C., studies ancient
pharmacological texts to understand how
ancient people treated illnesses. But a sunken
1st century Roman shipwreck containing
a host of medical items, including pill-like
objects still dry in waterproof clay cylinders, offered him an unusual chance to verify those documents. Touwaide suspected
that the pills or tablets, which may have been
applied to skin rather than ingested, were
medicines composed of ground-up plants,

so he recruited Smithsonian ancient DNA
expert Robert Fleischer to analyze two tablets provided by an Italian museum.
At the meeting, Fleischer reported that he
has indeed found chloroplast DNA in the tablets, so far identifying 10 different types of
plants, including celery, carrots, and hibiscus. Touwaide hopes ultimately to match
the tablets contents to one of his texts and
identify its possible therapeutic use. It would
be the rst time that ancient medicines are
analyzed and then interpreted on the basis of
ancient scientic literature, he says. The
New tricks for old DNA. Researchers are analyzing ancient DNA from (left to right) medicines in
Roman containers, seed collections, Viking wool
textiles, and eggshells of extinct birds.
Orlando of the Centre for Geogenetics says

he likes the idea of getting access to ancient
pill recipes using DNA. This approach can
be really powerful.
Other ISBA presentations extended ancient
DNA studies to new types of preserved biological specimens. For example, Charlotte
Oskam and Michael Bunce of Murdoch University in Perth, Australia, have developed
a method to tease out DNA
Peptide Mass Fingerprint sequences from fossil eggshells. Theyre using it to identify smashed and burned shell
COLLAGEN
SHEEP
fragments left by the hunters
Trypsinn
who colonized New Zealand
about 700 years ago. These
people apparently drove large
ightless birds such as the moa
Trypsinn
to extinction, and identifying
the species and quantity of
GOAT
eggs at each site may suggest
COLLAGEN
how quickly this happened.
And Luise Brandt in Gilberts
group reported the rst success
at obtaining DNA from ancient
Separating the sheep from goats. A new technique can distin- wool textiles; researchers had
guish species of even closely related fossil bones using slight dif- worried that wool processing
ferences in masses of collagen fragments.
destroyed genetic material.
The technique could reveal
results Rob has gotten are something Ive where the wool came from, illuminating early
been dreaming of for 35 years. Touwaide trade routes for textiles.
predicts that such work will ultimately offer
ISBA is a young conference, begun in
a new direction for drug discovery. Were only 2004, and to date it has always been held
doing applied history, he says.
in Europe. But in 2012 it moves to China,
Researchers in Copenhagen noted that whose representatives lobbied hard to host
Fleischer hasnt yet gotten long enough the meeting. For China, an ancient country
DNA sequences to identify every plant in with an increasing passion for cutting-edge
the tablets to the species level, and some science, biomolecular archaeology is apparworry about contamination. But many were ently an irresistible combination.
JOHN TRAVIS
impressed. Ancient DNA researcher Ludovic
1 OCTOBER 2010
29
MEETINGBRIEFS>>
IEEE INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE ON COMPUTATIONAL INTELLIGENCE AND GAMES | 1821 AUGUST 2010 | COPENHAGEN
Game-Miners Grapple
With Massive Data
After describing his methods with dozens of

mathematical formulae, Christian Thuraus
next slide shows the result. It looks like a
pile of ne metal dust in a magnetic eld,
revealing the invisible lines of force. This
plot comes from the kind of data set that
social scientists dream about: a flawless
digital record of the social behavior of more
than 10 million people interacting in a highly
controlled setting over a 4-year period. But
Thurau, a computer scientist at the Fraunhofer Institute for Intelligent Analysis and
Information Systems in Bonn, Germany,
never observed any of his research subjects,
at least not in person. He harvested the data
from World of Warcraft (WoW), the wildly
popular online fantasy game.
Its called game-mining: digging for

insights on human behavior in the terabytesized data logs generated by computer games.
You have over 10 million people playing
World of Warcraft about 4 hours per day,
7 days a week, says Jaideep Srivastava, a
computer scientist at the University of Minnesota, Twin Cities. And thats on average;
some play 80 hours per week!
Because players interactions are automatically recorded in WoW and many similar virtual worlds, researchers can use these
massively multiplayer online games as natural laboratories. But the data are a challenge
to interpret. Thuraus WoW study is a case in
point. His goal was to reveal the evolution of
WoWs guilds, the groups that players volun-
Killer Bots Are Getting Human

It was standing room only in the computer lab as intense violence played
out on a giant screen. The game was Ultimate Tournament 2004, the
classic multiplayer rst-person shooter. But not all of the avatars blasting
at each other were controlled by humans. Half of them were bots programmed by scientists in the room, nervously monitoring their programs
for crashes. This was the third annual 2K BotPrize, a competition to create articially intelligent game-playing agents that can fool a judge into
believing they are human.
The contest is a variation on a classic test, rst proposed in 1950 by
computing pioneer Alan Turing, in which a judge has a conversation with
a human and a computer and must decide which is which. The Turing test
still defeats articial intelligence (AI) 60 years later; machines largely
remain terrible conversation partners.
Action-based video games can offer an alternative Turing test. They
30
1 OCTOBER 2010
tarily form with each other to socialize, share resources, and slay monsters.
Just the basic demographic information
associated with the guilds amounted to
192 million 70-dimensional data points
that represent information on the levels,
skills, and activities of the players. How do
we make sense of that? asks Thurau.
After failing with the classical techniques
for nding patterns in high-dimensional data
sets, he turned to a mathematical tool called
archetype analysis, developed in the 1990s for
physics and economics research. The original
method failed at rst because its computing
time grows exponentially with the size of the
data set, but Thurau devised a mathematical
shortcut. The method works by identifying
the most extreme data pointsin this case,
the guilds that are most different from each
otherand describes the rest of the guilds as
combinations of these archetypes. It turns
high-dimensional data into something that
makes sense to humans, says Thurau.
dont require speech, they provide a highly constrained environment but

are still a challenge for AI, says Philip Hingston, the computer scientist
at Edith Cowan University in Perth, Australia, who organized the contest.
The rules are simple: Avatars controlled by humans and bots are dropped
in a complex environment littered with weapons. Its kill or be killed. Each
round, some of the human playersthe judgesmust decide which of
their opponents are machine-controlled, based solely on their behavior.
The team that designed the bot best at fooling the judges wins the $5000
prize and a trip to Australia, funded by the game company 2K.
This years prize was scooped by Conscious Robots, a team of Spanish
computer scientists. Its bot represents a leap forward for game AI, says
Hingston, because the team used machine consciousness, a technique
rarely applied because of its complexity. Rather than just mimicking
human behaviorssuch as using imperfect aim or introducing randomness into running routesthe teams bot was designed to think like a
human. In our approach, we try to effectively integrate several cognitive
CREDITS (LEFT TO RIGHT): WORLD OF WARCRAFT; CHRISTIAN THURAU
Science, attack! Plotting data (above) from

guilds in World of Warcraftthis one (left)
is named Sciencerevealed the social evolution in that virtual world.
CREDITS (TOP TO BOTTOM): RESCUESIM/WWW.VSTEP.NL; COURTESY JORGE MUOZ AND RAL ARRABALES MORENO
NEWSFOCUS
The output was an eight-dimensional
shadow of the WoW data, projected as a
simple 2D plot, that evolves over the course
of the 4-year period of the study (see gure,
p. 30). For the most part, says Thurau, the
results confirm many researchers hunches
about the social behavior of WoW players.
Only a small fraction of guilds are active, those
run by highly organized, ambitious groups of
players. In spite of the staggering fraction of
their lives spent in the game, most players are
casual rather than hardcore, he says.
Game-mining isnt just for multiplayer
games. A team led by Georgios Yannakakis,
a computer scientist at the IT University of
Copenhagen, described player behavior in
Tomb Raider: Underworld, a single-person
game in which a gun-toting female archaeologist steals artifacts from ruins. They analyzed
data from 10,000 players on the Xbox Live
network, covering 35 different variables such
as the use of weapons, the rate of progress,
and whether it was tigers, traps, or other hazards that killed them. Their aim was to train
a computer to predict the level at which any
given player will eventually quit the game out
of frustrationone of the hopes of the game
industry is to create personalized games that
adapt to each players abilities and interests.
The computer wasnt perfect at foretelling the players fates, but it was far better
than random. Just by observing how people
played the rst two levels of the game, it could
predict with 77% accuracy where they would
give up. Much of that prediction power
came from counting the number of seconds
players took to navigate a single obstacle, the
jellysh-lled ush tunnel. Yannakakis says
the accuracy should improve as he tracks more
players for the training, as well as obtaining
ner granularity in the data, such as players
J.B.
exact routes of movement.
The humans are dead! A Spanish

team (right) won this years 2K BotPrize.
Smarts for Serious Games

You are a reghter. As a blaze spreads across goal of extinguishing a re but can switch to
the factory, a paint canister goes off like a helping an injured comrade if no one else is
bomb. There are still panicked workers to be near. An NPCs awareness of what the games
cleared. And to make matters worse, one of player and the other agents are doing is cruyour crew is injured. How do you proceed?
cial, Westra says, because reghting requires
Dont worry, its just a game. But playing it teamwork. One reghter must turn on the
could save lives. Games with ulterior motives pump while another keeps doors closed to
such as teaching or training peopleknown prevent drafts that feed the re; yet another
among researchers as serious gamesare must operate the hose.
on the rise, providing a cheap and safe suppleIn early testing of the system, the AI
ment to on-the-job training. But serious games architecture shows promise. Not only does it
face big problems because of their simple make NPCs act reasonably, Westra says, but
programming, says Joost Westra, a computer the entire game can also now adapt to differscientist at Utrecht University in the Nether- ent users. Beginners take on only simple jobs
lands. In a real re, there can be hundreds of while NPCs take care of the rest; expert playpeople making unpredictable decisions all
around you. Yet the nonplayer characters
(NPCs) in the games usually follow tightly
scripted behaviors, so unless you play
exactly as the programmer expects, NPCs
behave like confused robots. Another aw
in serious games is that they use fixed
scenarios or simple rules to determine the
course of the game, says Westra. Expert
users can quickly estimate how the game
will react to their actions but still must
play through the easy levels to reach their Trial by re. A so-called serious game trains rescue
proper level. The result, he says, is disen- workers at a factory blaze.
gagement, boredom, and possibly quitting
the game before that level is reached.
ers must learn to command a crew in complex
To x these problems, Westra created a situations. A game needs to be built with this
new architecture for serious games that uses architecture from the beginning, says Westra,
articial-intelligence (AI) techniques similar who plans to design a bush re team trainto those in some of the latest video games. He ing game with collaborators in Turkey.
focused on a game called RescueSim, a seriThis is the future of serious games, says
ous game for reghters. Rather than follow- Kyong Jin Shim, a computer scientist at the
ing scripts, Westras code turns each NPC into University of Minnesota, Twin Cities, who is
an autonomous agent with its own nuanced developing such a system for training U.S.
goals, responding to events as they happen. soldiers. We need smarter agents and inJ.B.
An NPC reghter, for example, will have the game characters.
skills, like attention and learning, says Ral Arrabales Moreno, a computer scientist at the University Carlos III of Madrid. The bot has a set of
innate behaviors that are regulated by a higher control system, similar
to the role of a conscious mind. It was incorrectly identied as human
by the judges 32% of the time. By comparison, one human player was
incorrectly identied as a machine 35% of the time. There is only a
slender gap between the humans and bots now, says Hingston.
There has been signicant progress since the 2009 competition,
says Simon Lucas, a computer scientist at the University of Essex in the
United Kingdom and one of the human players in the contest. Besides
creating more engaging computer-controlled opponents for massmarket video games, the goal is to create better AI agents for serious
games that simulate natural disasters and other complex problems
(see above). Lucas predicts that a bot will be fully indistinguishable
from human players within the next 2 years.
JOHN BOHANNON
1 OCTOBER 2010
31
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COMMENTARY
Filtering and
blocking
A high arrival
Tackling Taxol
production in bacteria
36
41
44
LETTERS I BOOKS I POLICY FORUM I EDUCATION FORUM I PERSPECTIVES
LETTERS
edited by Jennifer Sills
Perennial Questions
of Hydrology and Climate
Deep root systems. Perennials such as switchgrass deserve further study.
THE POLICY FORUM BY J. D. GLOVER ET AL. (INCREASED FOOD AND

ecosystem security via perennial grains, 25 June, p. 1638) highlights
environmental advantages of perennial relative to annual bioenergy
crop systems but omits potentially important consequences related
to hydrology and climate. They categorize greater perennial leaf area
index and rooting depth (relative to annual crops) as utiliz[ing] more
precipitation, but the work cited provides no evidence for increased
rainfall recycling.
The direct climate impact of land-use change associated with bioenergy expansion (such as a shift from annual to perennial cropping
systems) has received little attention. The impacts of changing fundamental biogeophysical surface properties associated with bioenergy crops may have signicant implications for local and regional
climate (1). Changes to local hydrology caused by large-scale perennial systems may be complex, and thus require careful evaluation. For
CREDIT: WIKIMEDIA COMMONS
Response
WE AGREE WITH GEORGESCU AND LOBELL THAT
the effects of perennial bioenergy crops on
hydrology and climate must be considered.
However, our Policy Forum focused on the
advantages of developing perennial grain
crops (1), not bioenergy crops that can displace staple food crops.
We did not propose, as Georgescu and
Lobell claim, a mechanism by which perennial crops utilize a greater portion of natural precipitation than annual crops. We also
did not propose that perennial crops more
efficiently produce biomass per amount of
precipitation-derived water that is transpired.
Shifting from annual to perennial food crops
would likely have important consequences
for how water is managed in agricultural
landscapes, just as shifting from perennialdominated native vegetation to annual crops
has had dramatic, but generally detrimental,
impacts. For example, the conversion of native
forests to annual wheat production in southwest Australia disrupted the native hydrologic
cycle, resulting in the rise of subsurface salts
to the surface (2). Scientists there believe that
example, the drawdown of soil water (2) and enhanced evapotranspiration from perennial relative to annual cropping systems (3) could lead
to long-term depletion of the soil-water column, as well as changes
in clouds and rainfall in downwind locales. Quantifying local and
remote consequences for hydrology and climate resulting from a shift
from annual to perennial bioenergy crops is therefore required if longterm sustainability of biomass production is to be attained.
M. GEORGESCU1* AND D. B. LOBELL2
1
School of Mathematical and Statistical Sciences and Center for Environmental Fluid Dynamics, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ 85287, USA. 2Department of Environmental Earth
System Science and Program on Food Security and the Environment, Stanford University,
Stanford, CA 94305, USA.
*To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: Matei.Georgescu@asu.edu
References
1. M. Georgescu, D. B. Lobell, C. B. Field, Geophys. Res. Lett. 36, L21806 (2009).
2. J. D. Glover et al., Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 137, 3 (2010).
3. G. Hickman, A. VanLoocke, F. G. Dohleman, C. J. Bernacchi, GCB Bioenerg. 2, 157 (2010).
perennial grain crops could correct hydrologic

imbalances by using more subsurface water,
thereby reducing salinization while producing high-value crops (3). In areas of the world
where annual crops often use only 10 to 30%
of precipitation for transpiration (4), a shift to
perennial food crops could increase the inltration of precipitation into the soil by improving soil surface conditions (5), increase moisture retention in the soil by improving soil
physical characteristics, and increase soil
moisture available to deep root systems (6).
Perennial grain crop adoption would likely
be advantageous in terms of climate change as
well. Greater soil carbon storage and reduced
input requirements mean that perennials have
the potential to mitigate global warming. For
example, perennial cropping systems have
been shown to have net negative greenhouse
gas emissions, whereas annual cropping systems tend to result in net positive greenhouse
gas emissions (7). With more of their reserves
protected belowground and with access to
more soil moisture, perennials may also be
more resilient to temperature increases predicted by some climate change models (8).
Adding grains to the inventory of available perennial crops would give farmers more
choices in what they can grow and where,
while sustainably producing high-value food
crops for an increasingly hungry planet (9).
J. D. GLOVER,1* J. P. REGANOLD,2 L. W. BELL,3
J. BOREVITZ,4 E. C. BRUMMER,5 E. S. BUCKLER,6
C. M. COX,1 T. S. COX,1 T. E. CREWS,7 S. W. CULMAN,8
L. R. DEHAAN,1 D. ERIKSSON,9 B. S. GILL,10
J. HOLLAND,11 F. HU,12 B. S. HULKE,13
A. M. H. IBRAHIM,14 W. JACKSON,1 S. S. JONES,15
S. C. MURRAY,14 A. H. PATERSON,16 E. PLOSCHUK,17
E. J. SACKS,18 S. SNAPP,8 D. TAO,12
D. L. VAN TASSEL,1 L. J. WADE,19 D. L. WYSE,20 Y. XU21
1
The Land Institute, Salina, KS 67401, USA. 2Department of
Crop and Soil Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA. 3Sustainable Ecosystems-Agricultural
Production Systems Research Unit, Commonwealth Scientic
and Industrial Research Organization (Australia), Toowoomba,
QLD 4350, Australia. 4Department of Evolution and Ecology,
University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA. 5Institute of
Plant Breeding, Genetics, and Genomics, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA. 6U.S. Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS) and Institute
for Genomic Diversity, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY 14853,
USA. 7Environmental Studies, Prescott College, Prescott, AZ
86301, USA. 8Kellogg Biological Station, Michigan State
University, Hickory Corners, MI 49060, USA. 9Department
of Plant Breeding and Biotechnology, Swedish University of
1 OCTOBER 2010
33
LETTERS
Agricultural Sciences, Alnarp, Sweden. 10Wheat Genetic and
Genomic Resources Center, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA. 11USDA-ARS Plant Science Research
Unit, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695,
USA. 12Food Crops Research Institute, Yunnan Academy of
Agricultural Sciences, Kunming 650205, China. 13USDA-ARS
Sunower Research Unit, Northern Crop Science Laboratory,
Fargo, ND 58105, USA. 14Department of Soil and Crop Sciences, Texas A & M University, College Station, TX 77843,
USA. 15Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, Washington
State University, Mount Vernon, WA 98273, USA. 16Plant
Genome Mapping Laboratory, University of Georgia, Athens,
GA 30602, USA. 17Ctedra de Cultivos Industriales, Facultad
de Agronoma, Universidad de Buenos Aires, C1417DSE Buenos Aires, Argentina. 18Department of Crop Sciences, University of Illinois, Urbana, IL 61801, USA. 19Charles Sturt University, E. H. Graham Centre for Agricultural Innovation, Wagga
Wagga, NSW 2678, Australia. 20Department of Agronomy and
Plant Genetics, University of Minnesota, St. Paul, MN 55108,
USA. 21Global Maize Program, International Maize and Wheat
Improvement Center, Apartado 0660, Mexico D.F., Mexico.
*To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
glover@landinstitute.org
References
1. National Research Council, Toward Sustainable Agricultural Systems in the 21st Century (The National Academies,
Washington, DC, 2010).
2. E. C. Lefroy, R. J. Stirzaker, Agrofor. Syst. 45, 277 (1999).
3. L. W. Bell et al., Crop Pasture Sci. 61, 679 (2010).
4. J. S. Wallace, Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 82, 105 (2000).
5. J. D. Glover et al., Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 137, 3 (2010).
6. R. D. Connolly et al., Austral. J. Soil Res. 36, 1057 (1998).
7. G. P. Robertson et al., Science 289, 1922 (2000).
8. R. Brown et al., Agric. Ecosyst. Environ. 78, 31 (2000).
9. D. L. Van Tassel et al., Evol. Appl. 3, 434 (2010).
A Positive Review
for PLoS ONE
IN HER NEWS FOCUS STORY FREE JOURNALS
grow amid ongoing debate (20 August,
p. 896), J. Kaiser cites unnamed critics who
accuse PLoS journals, particularly PLoS
ONE, of publishing nearly all submissions,
regardless of scientic value, simply to make
as much money as possible.
These claims constitute a serious attack
against open access publishing in general
and against PLoS ONE in particular. As a
member of the editorial board of PLoS ONE,
I must say that, at least in my eld (immunology), it is simply not true that the journal accepts bad science. Most of the papers
I handle as an academic editor are of high
quality and could qualify for acceptance by
more conventional high-impact journals.
At times, negative results are published,
as they could be very important for other
scientists in the eld. If I am an expert in
the eld and totally convinced by the data
of a manuscript, then I act as the reviewer
and accept it (with any relevant suggestions
for improvement). If I have doubts, I send
NEW Women in Science Booklet
Science and the LOral Foundation present
it out for peer review. If the paper is too

weak, I reject it. This is exactly what editors
of conventional journals do. PLoS ONE is
a serious journal that aims to render wellperformed science accessible to everybody.
JACQUES ZIMMER
Laboratory of Immunogenetics and Allergology, CRPSant, Luxembourg, L-1526, Luxembourg. E-mail: jacques.
zimmer@crp-sante.lu
HIV/AIDS: Use Existing

Funds Effectively
THE ARTICLES IN THE SPECIAL SECTION ON HIV/
AIDS: Eastern Europe (9 July, p. 159) omitted
one important point: Considering the current
economic downturn and limited resources
available, it is particularly important to optimally use existing funds for HIV prevention
and treatment. Economic studies such as
cost-effectiveness analyses can inform decisions regarding the best resource allocation
between available interventions. Research
analyzing the public health and economic
impacts of diseases and their interventions
has become an essential tool for decisionmakers; these results help them choose the
Call for
Papers
Science
Translational
Medicine
Integrating Medicine and Science
Submit your manuscripts for
review in the following areas
of translational medicine:
In partnership
This booklet
with
is brought to
you by the AAA
S/Science Busin
ess Office
Read inspiring
inspiring proles
proles of
of women
women
making a difference in biology.
ScienceCareers.org/LOrealWIS
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1 OCTOBER 2010
Cardiovascular Disease
Neuroscience/Neurology/
Psychiatry
Infectious Diseases
Submit your research at
Cancer
www.submit2scitranslmed.org
Health Policy
Bioengineering
Chemical Genomics/
Drug Discovery
Other Interdisciplinary
Approaches to Medicine
ScienceTranslationalMedicine.org
LETTERS
most effective epidemic control programs
while considering budget constraints.
To date, only a few scholarly articles have
evaluated the cost-effectiveness of HIV interventions in Russia and Ukraine, in marked
comparison to the scores of studies published
on HIV in Africa. Scarce scientic informa-
tion may lead to inappropriate use of limited resources and further hamper efforts to
contain the threat of a generalized HIV epidemic. Sound scientic evidence for the costeffectiveness of debated interventions (such
as opioid substitution therapy) could be a
strong argument to accelerate adoption of
More attention from the research community should be directed toward studies of HIV
in Eastern Europe. SABINA STEFANIA ALISTAR
TECHNICAL COMMENT ABSTRACTS
Comment on The Human K-Complex Represents an Isolated Cortical

Down-State
Department of Management Science and Engineering,

Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA. E-mail:
ssabina@stanford.edu
Florin Amzica
Cash et al. (Reports, 22 May 2009, p. 1084) argue that the human K-complex, a dening characteristic of slow-wave
sleep, is a unipolar electroencephalogram (EEG) wave reecting a simple neuronal hyperpolarizing event. We disagree
with this conclusion and point to several confounding aspects of the study.
Full text at www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/330/6000/35-a
Response to Comment on The Human K-Complex Represents an Isolated

Cortical Down-State
Sydney S. Cash, Eric Halgren, Nima Dehghani, Andrea O. Rossetti, Thomas Thesen, ChunMao
Wang, Orrin Devinsky, Ruben Kuzniecky, Werner Doyle, Joseph R. Madsen, Lornd Eross,
Pter Halsz, George Karmos, Richrd Csercsa, Lucia Wittner, Istvn Ulbert
Our study conrmed the hypothesis of Amzica and Steriade that the human K-complex (KC) shares neural mechanisms
with so-called slow oscillation between periods of intense neuronal ring and silence but found that the KC can occur
independently of this oscillatory activity. We agree with Amzica that the KC often has multiple components but contend
that the major component is surface-negative and corresponds to the cortical down-state.
Full text at www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/330/6000/35-b
Come meet your groups newest member,

the GEICO Gecko. AAAS members could get
an additional discount on car insurance.
Call or click for your FREE quote.
these programs. Studies on scaling up

antiretroviral therapy, such as the case
of injection drug users in Saint Petersburg, Russia (1), show that the interventions that reach injection drug users also
prevent a substantial number of infections
in the general population.
Reference
1. E. F. Long et al., AIDS 20, 2207 (2006).
Letters to the Editor

Letters (~300 words) discuss material published
in Science in the previous 3 months or issues of
general interest. They can be submitted through
the Web (www.submit2science.org) or by regular
mail (1200 New York Ave., NW, Washington, DC
20005, USA). Letters are not acknowledged upon
receipt, nor are authors generally consulted before
publication. Whether published in full or in part,
letters are subject to editing for clarity and space.
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1 OCTOBER 2010
35
BOOKS ET AL.
CYBERSPACE
Damian Tambini
lmost 600 years on, it seems clear that

Gutenbergs invention of the printing
press was a crucial factor in the rise
of democracy in Europe and the decline of
the old order of church and monarchy. Movable type and mechanized printing led to an
explosion of free expression that was key to
the emergence of modern pluralist democracy. Many claim that the historical impact of
the Internet will be of a similar magnitude,
that it will lead to an inevitable undermining of authoritarian regimes and the spread
of democracy around the globe. In the words
of early enthusiast John Gilmore, The Net
interprets censorship as damage and routes
around it (1).
But judging by the research and contributions gathered in Access Controlled, we

will have to wait many more years before the
nature of the impact of the Internet on dictatorship and democracy becomes clear. The
authors provide an alarming range of evidence
to support the view that authoritarian regimes
are becoming ever more adept at controlling and censoring Internet communication.
The volume raises a chilling possibility: that
the early commentators were correct about
the magnitude of the impact of the Internet
on democracythey just got the direction
wrong. Could authoritarian regimes, and also
democratic governments working with private companies, be perfecting a new form of
authoritarianism, working with the grain of
Internet communication and exploiting the
intimate entwining of online communication
with the everyday lives of citizens?
The research collected in the volume is
the product of a path-breaking interuniverThe reviewer is at the Department of Media and Communications, London School of Economics and Political Science,
London WC2A 2AE, UK. E-mail: d.tambini@lse.ac.uk
CREDIT: JANE GOWAN (CITIZEN LAB)/COURTESY MIT PRESS
Caught in the Net
36
contained linguistic and cultural

environment with well developed and highly popular search
engines, Web portals, social
Ronald Deibert, John Palfrey,
network sites, and free e-mail
Rafal Rohozinski, and Jonathan
services. Deibert and RohoZittrain, Eds.
sity collaboration: the
zinski describe Russian InterMIT Press, Cambridge, MA,
OpenNet Initiative. For
net control as a third-generation
2010. 633 pp. $50, 37.95. ISBN
the past ve or so years,
approach that combines soft
9780262014342. Paper, $25, 18.95.
researchers around the
censorship and state-sanctioned
ISBN 9780262514354. Information
world led by the Citizen
moderation.
Revolution and Global Politics.
Lab at the University of
Access Controlled contains
Torontos Munk Centre
a sobering array of detailed and
for International Studies and Harvards Berk- methodically gathered information, particuman Center for Internet and Society have larly on the ltering and blocking practices of
been attempting to reverse engineer a record formerly authoritarian countries. If there is a
of the search terms and content forms that problem with the volume, it is that the subtlety
have been censored or ltered out of Internet of the third-generation controls makes them
communication. The book, a follow-up to the much harder to dene. Many of the criticisms
editors earlier Access Denied (2), explores in directed at third-generation techniques on
detail their ndings, which are also available RuNet could also be leveled at licensed broadon www.opennet.net.
casters in established democracies. And as the
The contributors make abundantly clear list of practices makes clear, third-generation
that power has now followed people onto methods include controls imposed by private
the Internet and has established a permanent actors (is this still censorship?) and denial-ofgarrison. First-generation controls, such as service attacks that are often the work of indiChinese-style national filtering schemes, vidual hackers rather than states. It is true that
were discussed at length in the OpenNet Ini- states are becoming more subtle and are using
tiatives previous reports and are still widely these private enforcement agencies. Nonethedeployed in the more authoritarian countries. less, it is important to be precise about what
They involve developing databases of search constitutes censorship and to clearly disterms and content keywords that are deemed tinguish between, for example, blocking or
threatening by the regime. These are removed direct prior censorship of political content and
from search results and from served informa- notice and takedown of child abuse sites. Simtion at key choke points in the Internet archi- ply lumping both into the category of bad centecture. By conducting searches from within sorship doesnt convince.
these jurisdictions, OpenNet researchers have
Finding a normative terrain upon which to
found evidence of these practices in dozens of assess the impact of the Internet may simply
countries, most notoriously China and Saudia be too huge a taskas the Internet becomes
Arabia. As Ronald Deibert and Rafal Roho- embedded in every aspect of social life, old
zinski note in their introductory chapter, sec- terms (even privacy and censorship)
ond- and third-generation controls are more come under strain. To set up the debate in
subtle and exible. Through outsourcing or terms of the value opposition between freeprivatizing, governments may have third par- dom (generally good) and censorship (always
ties restrict what type of information can be bad) is politically useful but perhaps not anaposted, hosted, accessed, or communicated lytically helpful.
online. The authors discuss a variety of conSo in addition to the excellent mapping
trol techniques, including the infiltration work in Access Controlled, there is a more
and exploitation of computer systems by tar- theoretical task to be completed: that of reasgeted viruses and the employment of distrib- sessing the value and meaning of the conceputed denial-of-service (DDoS) attacks, sur- tual lexicon for dealing with issues of expresveillance , legal takedown notices, stiing sion, censorship, and rights. In the era of mass
terms-of-usage policies, and national infor- media, an act of prior government censorship
mation-shaping strategies. Such measures (through, for example, intimidating publishreflect a maturation of methods resulting ers or journalists, breaking presses, or refusfrom a growing colonization of cyberspace by ing a broadcasting license) was relatively easy
states and other actors.
to detect and identify. Subtle legal distinctions
In Russia, where the leading Web portal have been honed that limit state censorship
Yandex claims a readership greater than all the and identify justied and necessary restriccombined popular daily newspapers, much tions. But in the converged Internet world,
Internet use is focused on the RuNet: a self- censorship is becoming much more difcult
Access Controlled
The Shaping of Power, Rights,
and Rule in Cyberspace
BOOKS ET AL.
to identify and condemn. This explains some
of the conceptual strains in this volume. As
the Net continues to entangle power, rights,
and rule in coming years, it is crucial that
research monitors not only the technical and
legal controls over Internet communication
but also the normative and theoretical frameworks we use to evaluate them.
Mystery mammal. An interactive display explains

how this previously unknown paleoparadoxiid species
was found, interpreted, and exhibited.
References and Notes

1. Quoted in P. Elmer-Dewitt, Time 142 (24), 62 (6 December 1993).
2. R. Deibert, J. Palfrey, R. Rohozinski, J. Zittrain, Eds.,
Access Denied: The Practice and Policy of Global Internet
Filtering (MIT Press, Cambridge, MA, 2008).
10.1126/science.1196184
MUSEUMS: MAMMALS
panels remind them of the characteristics that

dene mammals. These set the stage for presenting the evolution of mammalian diversity.
Debra Pires
Beyond the cheetahs, the hall
opens up to reveal a sample of
Age of Mammals
ho doesnt rememexceptional taxidermy and skelber the first time John Harris, Curator
etal specimens from the museNatural History Museum
they entered a
ums collections. To help place
of Los Angeles County,
natural history museum and
the evolutionary diversication
Los Angeles, CA.
dropped their jaw at a large,
in context, an elevated display
www.nhm.org/site/explorearticulated skeleton of some
introduces three ideas at the
exhibits/permanentmegamammalmost likely
heart of the exhibition: Contiexhibits/age-of-mammals
a mastodon, mammoth, or
nents move. Climates change.
African elephantthat
Mammals evolve. A video
greeted them in the rotunda? I have fond depicts shifting patterns of land masses,
memories of museum visits from my youth ocean currents, weather, and environments
that transported me to locations around the through the Cenozoic. The exhibition artfully
world, revealing the fauna and ora charac- ties the effects of past climate variation on
teristic of often exotic sites. Museums of sci- mammalian evolution to our current concerns
ence and natural history have come a long about climate change.
way since the days of static dioramas, and
Interactive kiosks included in each major
the new Age of Mammals hall at the Natu- section of the exhibition allow visitors to
ral History Museum of Los Angeles County examine changes in habitats over time,
does not disappoint. It inspires the wonder I explore the relationships among different
felt when I was younger while incorporating groups of mammals, learn more about the
an accurate depiction of mammalian evolu- morphology and behavior of the animals,
tion that visitors of all ages can grasp.
and quiz themselves about mammalian biolAlthough mammals have existed for over ogy. The displays and interactive media seem
200 million years, the exhibit concentrates on quite effective at conveying information.
the Cenozoic (the Age of Mammals) and Even those who have never had a course in
mammalian diversication over the past 65 evolution will probably nd the phylogenetic
million years. The hall in the museums newly tree of mammals easy to understand. As an
restored historic 1913 wing may seem small, educator, I was encouraged by watching chilbut the curators have really packed a punch dren between the ages of 6 and 12 work on a
into the space. When visitors rst enter, they topic at a touch screen until they had gured
are greeted by a cheetah mounted as if sprint- it out. The exhibit pays extensive attention to
ing across the African plains, anked by an how mammals function, describing how difarticulated skeleton in the same pose. Nearby ferences in teeth reect diet and how differences in limb posture reect locomotion.
The reviewer is at the Life Sciences Core Curriculum, UniThe exhibitions second part, arranged
versity of California Los Angeles, 621 Charles E. Young
around the mezzanine, showcases the methDrive South, Los Angeles, CA 900951606, USA. E-mail:
ods and tools that allow researchers to recondebpires@ucla.edu
Cenozoic L. A. Stories
CREDIT: KAREN KNAUER/NATURAL HISTORY MUSEUM OF LOS ANGELES COUNTY
struct the appearance and biology of mammals known only from fossils. Several of the
displays here draw on material from the Page
Museum at the La Brea Tar Pits. For example,
one explores how paleontological data can be
used to consider differences between animals
that migrated through the Los Angeles region
and those that were present year round. Demonstrating how tar pit remains can provide
far more than a simple listing of the locales
Late Pleistocene fauna, this hidden gem of the
exhibit effectively communicates the importance of collections and the process of science
without directly stating either. A display of a
10- to 12-million-year-old paleoparadoxiid
an extinct, amphibious herbivore related to
elephantsfrom Orange County offers an
evocative description of the who, what, and
how of paleontology. Here touch-screen activities allow visitors to uncover and identify fossil bones and prepare the specimen for display.
Thus they will not only learn something about
the regional paleofauna, they will better appreciate the nuts and bolts of what paleontologists
do. Visitors will leave the exhibitions second
part with a better understanding of functional
morphology and how that can be used to infer
characteristics of extinct mammals.
The Age of Mammals manages an ideal
blend of the wow of Cenozoic mammals
and the how of the science that underlies
our understanding of them. With over 200
specimens, there may seem to be too much
for people to absorb and enjoy. However, the
presentation of the material reinforces the
exhibitions central theme: shifting continents, changing climate, and altered habitats
have shaped mammalian diversity both past
and present. Visitors of all ages and backgrounds will nd a museum experience that
is both educational and enjoyable.
10.1126/science.1195845
37
EDUCATIONFORUM
EDUCATION
Complex Systems View

of Educational Policy Research
Agent-based modeling and network analysis

can help integrate knowledge on micro-level
mechanisms and macro-level effects.
S. Maroulis,1,2,3 R. Guimer,1,4 H. Petry,2 M. J. Stringer,1 L. M. Gomez,5 L. A. N. Amaral,1,6 U. Wilensky1,2*

ABM of school choice in Chicago. Students,
represented by small dots, are shown in their
census block. Dark red indicates high-poverty
locations; dark green, low. Each circle represents a school. Color reects the expected
academic performance of students attending
the school, given the experimental conditions
of the model. Light blue indicates high mean
achievement; dark blue, low. Circle size is proportional to expected enrollment. For more
information, see the text and (32).
ducation researchers have struggled

for decades with questions such as
why are troubled schools so difcult
to improve? or why is the achievement gap
so hard to close? We argue here that conceptualizing schools and districts as complex adaptive systems, composed of many
networked parts that give rise to emergent
patterns through their interactions (1), holds
promise for understanding such important
problems. Although there has been considerable research on the use of complex systems ideas and methods to help students
learn science content (2), only recently have
researchers begun to apply these tools to
issues of educational policy.
We roughly categorize existing education research into two categories, mechanism based and effects based. Mechanism-based studies include ethnographies,
case studies, and laboratory experiments that
focus on understanding individuals and their
interactions inside schools. Such work has
provided insight into the motivation and cognition of students, teachers, and school leaders, as well as how social phenomena unfold
inside schools (3, 4). Effects-based research
treats factors contributing to academic performance of schools as inputs that work
together to yield a particular level of student
achievement (5). By analyzing variation in
quantitative observational data on inputs and
outcomes (6), or through the execution of
eld experiments (7), effects-based research
has increased our understanding of the relative importance of factors such as teacherpupil ratio, family background, and teacher
quality and has established effects (or lack
thereof) of specic interventions designed to
improve achievement.
Northwestern Institute on Complex Systems, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA. 2Center for Connected Learning and Computer-Based Modeling, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA. 3Ford Motor
Company Center for Global Citizenship, Kellogg School of
Management, Evanston, IL 60208, USA. 4Instituci Catalana de Recerca i Estudis Avanats (ICREA) and Chemical
Engineering, Universitat Rovira i Virgili, Tarragona 43007,
Catalonia. 5School of Education, University of Pittsburgh,
Pittsburgh, PA 15260, USA. 6Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL 60208, USA.
*Author for correspondence. E-mail: uri@northwestern.edu
38
What Works, How It Works
Despite of such successes, and as evidenced

by the call for more mixed-methods
designs (8), a key challenge facing education
research is to integrate insights about microlevel processes with evidence about aggregate, macro-level outcomes that emerge
from those processes. For example, suppose
we have results of a well-executed experiment using a nationally representative sample of schools that indicates students in small
classes perform better than those in large
ones. Although it is tremendously helpful
to know that, on average, students in small
classes do better, this alone is not enough to
fully understand what changes policy-makers
and school leaders should implement.
One reason for this is the issue of heterogeneous treatment effects (9). If small class
size mattered under certain conditions but not
others, school leaders would need to understand what happened differently in some
small classrooms that led to better student
outcomes. Both mechanism- and effectsbased research may be helpful here, examining differing contexts and how programs
are implemented. But we still face the challenge of aligning micro-level accounts with
aggregate data. This is all the more difcult
when considering inherent impediments to
understanding complex systems: Effects are
disproportional to cause; cause and effect are
separated in time and space; and properties of the macro-level system may
be confused with properties of constituent, micro-level elements (e.g., attributing intelligence to individual ants
when observing an entire ant colony
intelligently gathering food) (10).
Additionally, we need to consider
what are often referred to as general
equilibrium effects, i.e., the systemic implications of class-size reductions enacted at a
large scale (11). For example, partly on the
basis of results of a randomized eld experiment in Tennessee, California mandated
statewide class-size reductions. However,
many school districts had to hire teachers
with limited training and credentials because
the supply of qualied teachers was too small
to handle the sudden increase in demand (12).
If identied a priori, we can try to account for
such effects using econometric models estimated from observational data (13). Although
such models can often help characterize particular equilibrium states of educational systems at a larger scale, we are still interested
in an additional, policy-relevant step: how to
best move the system from one equilibrium
state to another. Regardless of how well we
account for heterogeneous treatment and
general equilibrium effects, complex systems
methods can help bridge these aggregate outcomes to underlying mechanisms at work in
the system, as well as discover new and unanticipated systemic consequences.
Bridging the Gap
Applying a complex systems perspective to

education research parallels the recent use of
complex systems methods to model the spread
of epidemics (14). Traditionally, one relied on
(i) detailed case studies that traced social con-
EDUCATIONFORUM
tacts of a few infected individuals to identify
the origin of an outbreak and elucidate infection mechanisms (15), or (ii) theoretical studies assuming large perfectly mixed populations where differences in infection mechanisms were simplied to aggregate measures
of susceptibility and infectiousness (16).
More recent work utilizing agent-based modeling (ABM), which allows modelers to run
scenarios involving interconnected agents
over discrete time steps to discover the emergence of macro-level properties, has helped
link theoretical and case studies. Researchers now understand epidemics as macro-level
outcomes that depend on relational, microlevel properties of the system, such as the
structure of the contact network (17) and the
reactions of agents to changing conditions
(18). Such work has aided the development
of antiviral drug distribution and quarantine
strategies (19).
Although operationalizing rules governing individual behavior in educational systems may be more difcult than specifying
micro-level rules of disease transmission,
techniques for studying complex systems can
complement more traditional approaches to
education research in at least two ways. The
rst way is through visualization techniques,
measures, and algorithms that facilitate network characterizations of social context.
Although network characterizations are not
new in social science (2022), recent advances
are particularly useful for education research.
New tools for visualization of longitudinal
network data enable researchers to connect
ne-grained observations of classroom interactions, such as the content of student conversations, to emergent outcomes such as classroom discipline (23). Algorithms and measures developed to identify communities
in networks (24) can identify boundaries of
potentially inuential social groups as they
emerge from interactions driven by the local
school context (as opposed to a priori categorizations of students into groups of scholars, athletes, etc.). Such techniques can be
applied to widespread, existing data, enabling
large cross-context analysis. For instance, one
study used a network clustering algorithm to
identify adolescent peer groups from class
schedules and showed in a national sample of
U.S. high schools that girls are more sensitive
to social inuence with respect to enrollment
in mathematics courses (25).
The second way complex systems methods complement existing research is through
the use of ABM, providing insights into how
individual and group-level behaviors relate to
systemwide phenomena (10, 26). To illustrate
the potential of ABM, consider school choice
reform. Empirical research on programs that

give households more choice is inconclusive,
with methodological concerns arising for both
observational and experimental studies (28).
Computation has enabled work addressing the
systemic effects, and related policy implications, of programs. For example, economists
have used computational general equilibrium
(CGE) simulations to identify features likely
to minimize cream-skimming of top students by private schools in systems where
government-issued vouchers are used to pay
for private schooling (29).
ABM can extend such research by addressing questions pertaining to the paths between
equilibrium points, such as whether a transition to choice might make a system worse
before it gets better and for how long and for
whom it is worse. Moreover, ABM enables
investigation of a broader range of agentlevel behaviors, including rules for students
and schools that more directly correspond to
behaviors observed from mechanism-based
studies and agent-level data (30, 31). We have
used student- and school-level data from Chicago Public Schools to initialize an ABM that
allows households to choose among all public
schools in a district (see the gure). In one set
of computational experiments, we allowed for
schools with a greater value-added (ability
to increase student test scores) to enter the
district and varied the manner in which students ranked schools. When students valued a
schools previous test scores much more than
its geographic proximity, it became more difcult for new schools of higher, but initially
unknown, value-added to survive. Consequently, a micro-level rule that one might
surmise should aid district improvement
(placing a relatively high value on school
achievement) can also limit district-level performance in certain conditions (32). Future
models could be used more directly to design
school choice programs. For instance, by calibrating the model with more detailed information about the distribution of household
decision-making rules, one could identify
locations for new schools that would most
increase district-level achievement.
By providing tools to characterize and
quantify relationships between individuals and to investigate how individual actions
aggregate into macro-level outcomes, a complex systems approach can help integrate
insights from different types of research and
better inform educational policy. Education
research must establish not only what works
but also how and why it works.
Complexity (Perseus Books, Cambridge, MA, 1995).

2. On using complex systems principles to transfer knowledge between scientic domains, see (33); on the cognitive difculties of understanding complex systems, see
(34); and on understanding scientic phenomena by
constructing agent-based models, see (10, 35).
3. C. E. Coburn, Am. Educ. Res. J. 43, 343 (2006).
4. D. K. Cohen, Educ. Eval. Policy Anal. 12, 311 (1990).
5. E. P. Lazear, Q. J. Econ. 116, 777 (2001).
6. G. Hong, S. W. Raudenbush, Educ. Eval. Policy Anal. 27,
205 (2005).
7. G. D. Borman, N. M. Dowling, C. Schneck, Educ. Eval.
Policy Anal. 30, 389 (2008).
8. R. B. Johnson, A. J. Onwuegbuzie, Educ. Res. 33, 14 (2004).
9. J. J. Heckman, J. Polit. Econ. 109, 673 (2001).
10. U. Wilensky, M. Resnick, J. Sci. Educ. Technol. 8, 3 (1999).
11. In economics, general equilibrium effects refers to
the rippling changes that occur as a result of a change
in a focal market after supply and demand reequilibrate
in related markets. Most effects-based research is done
under the alternate assumption of partial equilibrium,
which does not account for such feedback. See (13).
12. L. Mishel, R. Rothstein, Eds., The Class Size Debate (Economic Policy Institute, Washington, DC, 2002).
13. J. J. Heckman et al., Am. Econ. Rev. 88, 293 (1998).
14. J. M. Epstein, Nature 460, 687 (2009).
15. C. H. Hennekens, J. E. Buring, Epidemiology in Medicine
(Little, Brown, Boston, 1987).
16. R. M. Anderson, R. M. May, Infectious Diseases of
Humans: Dynamics and Control (Oxford Science Publ.,
Oxford, 1992).
17. D. E. Woodhouse, et al., NIDA Res. Monogr. 151, 131
(1995).
18. C. Chen, C. Yang, S. Jin, Agent-Based Modeling and Simulation on Emergency Evacuation (Springer, Berlin, 2009).
19. V. Colizza, A. Barrat, M. Barthelemy, A.-J. Valleron, A.
Vespignani, PLoS Med. 4, e13 (2007).
20. A common line of analysis involves using measures of
an individuals location within a social network to test
hypotheses about the role of social structure in determining his or her performance. For example, one can test
whether the association between peer inuence and
student achievement is moderated by the extent to which
a students friends are also friends with each other. See
(21), and for a review outside of education, see (22).
21. S. Maroulis, L. M. Gomez, Teach. Coll. Rec. 110, 1901
(2008).
22. R. S. Burt, Res. Organ. Behav. 22, 345 (2000).
23. J. Moody et al., Am. J. Sociol. 110, 1206 (2005).
24. R. Guimer, L. A. Nunes Amaral, Nature 433, 895 (2005).
25. K. A. Frank, et al.., Am. J. Sociol. 113, 1645 (2008).
26. J. Miller, S. E. Page, Complex Adaptive Systems:
An Introduction to Computational Models of Social Life
(Princeton Univ. Press, Princeton, NJ, 2007).
27. U. Wilensky, NetLogo (CCL, Northwestern University,
Evanston, IL, 1999); http://ccl.northwestern.edu/netlogo/.
28. D. Goldhaber, E. Eide, Educ. Eval. Policy Anal. 25, 217
(2003).
29. D. Epple, R. Romano, Int. Econ. Rev. 49, 1395 (2008).
30. Agents in CGE models are assumed to be constrained
optimizers, with decision-making taking place within a
single time period. Typically, households pick schools and
levels of tuition spending that maximize utility. Schools
choose levels of inputs for an education production
function, such as per pupil spending, that maximizes
prots. The characteristics of the resulting equilibrium
are compared across different parameterizations of the
model. For a review, see (31).
31. T. J. Nechyba, Natl. Tax J. 56, 387 (2003).
32. We thank the Chicago Public Schools and the Consortium
on Chicago School Research for their assistance. The
model was developed in the NetLogo ABM platform (27).
A working paper, including full details on the model, can
be downloaded at http://ccl.northwestern.edu/papers/
choice.pdf.
33. R. Goldstone, U. Wilensky, J. Learn. Sci. 17, 465 (2008).
34. M. Resnick, J. Learn. Sci. 5, 1 (1996).
35. U. Wilensky, K. Reisman, Cognit. Instruc. 24, 171 (2006).
36. The authors acknowledge the support of the NSF and the
Searle Foundation.
1. J. H. Holland, Hidden Order: How Adaptation Builds
10.1126/science.1195153
39
PERSPECTIVES
MEDICINE
The altered activity of a neutrophil enzyme

promotes the type of persistent lung
inammation seen in chronic pulmonary
disease and cystic brosis.
Neutrophils Find Smoke Attractive

Peter J. Barnes
lthough neutrophils defend the lung

against bacterial and viral infections, they also promote an inammatory response that can lead to several
lung diseases, including chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD), severe asthma,
cystic brosis, and acute respiratory distress
syndrome. These diseases are difficult to
treat with anti-inammatory steroids (glucocorticoids) because they actually increase
neutrophil survival. In addition, T helper 17
cells, which may drive neutrophilic inammation in the lungs, respond poorly to glucocorticoids (1). So far, nonsteroid-based
anti-inammatory drugs that target neutrophilic inflammation have had limited use
because of side effects (2). On page 90 of
this issue, Snelgrove et al. (3) describe how
a neutrophil enzyme, leukotriene A4 hydrolase (LTA4H), controls inammation, with
implications for new therapeutic strategies
to treat debilitating lung disorders.
Activated neutrophils may have several
deleterious effects in the lungs. They release
reactive oxygen species that are proinamNational Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London,
London SW3 6LY, UK. E-mail: p.j.barnes@imperial.ac.uk
matory and also impair the anti-inammatory actions of glucocorticoids. Neutrophils

also secrete enzymes whose activities in the
lung may cause emphysema: serine proteinases, including neutrophil elastase and
proteinase-3, which degrade elastin bers
and stimulate mucus secretion, and matrix
metalloproteinase-8 (MMP-8) and MMP9, which break down elastin and collagen.
Neutrophils themselves release factors that
attract neutrophils, thereby perpetuating the
inammation that leads to COPD (2).
Neutrophils migrate into the lungs under
the direction of chemotactic factors whose
production is increased in the lungs of
patients with COPD (2). These include leukotriene B4 (LTB4) and the CXC chemokines CXCL1 (GRO-), CXCL5 (ENA-78),
and CXCL8 (interleukin-8). CXCL8 signals
through the neutrophil receptors CXCR1
and CXCR2, whereas CXCL1 and CXCL5
signal through CXCR2 ( 4). The relative
roles of these factors have not been well
dened, but an antagonist of the LTB4 receptor and an antibody to CXCL8 reduce the
chemotactic response of neutrophils in the
sputum (respiratory tract mucus) of COPD
patients by ~40% and 30%, respectively,
and together by ~60%, suggesting that other

chemotactic factors are also involved (5).
A small-molecule antagonist of CXCR2
blocked the increase in sputum neutrophils
after ozone exposure in normal individuals,
pointing to CXCR2-activating chemokines
as the predominant neutrophil attractants in
the lung (6).
A selective neutrophil chemoattractant
is the tripeptide proline-glycine-proline
(PGP). PGP and its more potent acetylated
form (N--PGP) are generated enzymatically from extracellular matrix proteins such
as collagen (7). Indeed, PGP can be generated from collagen in vitro by MMP-8 and
MMP-9 (8). Direct instillation of PGP or
N--PGP into the lungs of mice induces
neutrophilic inammation and emphysema
(9). PGP has also been detected in bronchoalveolar lavage uid of patients with emphysema and in sputum from COPD and cystic
brosis patients (911).
PGP appears to stimulate neutrophil
chemotaxis through the CXCR2 receptor because its chemotactic effect is lost in
CXCR2-deficient mice and by treatment
of mice with antibodies that block CXCR2
(9). However, PGP does not appear to bind
Microbial infection
Chemoattractant
MMP
Peptidase
activity
LTA4H
PGP degradation
Hydrolase
activity
LTA4H
Neutrophil
recruitment
PGP
Inflammation
LTB4
Transient
inflammation
CXCL8
Cigarette smoke
Ac
LTB4
PGP
MMP
Neutrophil
recruitment
Hydrolase
activity
LTB4
Lung inammation. In response to microbial infection or cigarette smoke,

lung epithelial cells release factors that activate neutrophils. The neutrophils
then release factors that increase the inammatory response in the lung. During infection, the peptidase activity of the enzyme LTA4H degrades a neutrophil
chemoattractant peptide (PGP), which helps to resolve inammation. However,
40
Persistent
inflammation
this enzymatic activity is inhibited by smoke, an agent that also stabilizes PGP
through acetylation (Ac) of the peptide. In this case, neutrophil migration into
the lung increases, leading to persistent inammation and eventual chronic pulmonary disease. A similar mechanism may underlie persistent inammation in
cystic brosis and severe asthma.
CREDIT: Y. HAMMOND/SCIENCE
LTA4H
PERSPECTIVES
directly to CXCR2 because it fails to block
CXCL8 binding to the receptor and does
not activate the intracellular signaling cascade that CXCL8 elicits (12). One possibility is that PGP causes neutrophil chemotaxis
indirectly, by provoking the release of CXC
chemokines by the lung epithelium.
Snelgrove et al. report that PGP is normally inactivated in the lungs by the enzyme
LTA4H, which is released from neutrophils
and epithelial cells (see the gure). This is
entirely appropriate in the context of acute
microbial infection of the lungs because
neutrophilic inammation resolves once the
pathogen disappears. The authors show that
acute infection of mouse lung with either
influenza virus or Streptococcus pneumoniae is associated with self-limiting neutrophilic inammation and undetectable PGP
in the lungs. By contrast, in mice lacking
the gene encoding LTA4H, substantial PGP
was detected in bronchoalveolar lavage uid.
Thus, by secreting MMP-8 and MMP-9,
neutrophils trigger the production of PGP
to attract more neutrophils. These very neutrophils also release LTA4H to terminate the
action of PGP and resolve inammation. In
addition to peptidase activity, LTA4H has
hydrolase activity that generates the chemoattractant LTB4. Thus, LTA4H has two opposing actions that control the inflammatory
response during acute infection of the lung.
Snelgrove et al. further show that cigarette smoke extract increases acetylation of
PGP (possibly by components such as acrolein) and inhibits the peptidase activity of
LTA4H (without affecting its hydrolase activity), making PGP resistant to degradation by
LTA4H. Because degradation of the chemoattractant is blocked, neutrophil chemotaxis is
increased and prolonged by cigarette smoke.
This mechanism may underlie chronic neutrophilic inammation in the lungs of smokers. PGP and N--PGP are increased in the
sputum of COPD patients (10) and can be
generated from collagen by sputum extracts
from COPD patients, which contain MMP-8
and MMP-9 (13). This could account for the
greater and persistent neutrophilic inammation in airways of COPD patients compared to normal smokers. These tripeptides
are also increased in the sputum of cystic
brosis patients. In this disorder, the concentration of extracellular chloride ions is
low (due to a defective chloride ion channel
in lung epithelial cells), which may reduce
the peptidase activity of LTA4H.
What are the therapeutic implications for
these new ndings? Blocking the activity of
PGP and N--PGP may be useful in treating neutrophilic inammation. This could
be achieved by its complementary peptide
arginine-threonine-arginine (RTR), which
blocks the chemotactic activity of PGP and
inhibits PGP-induced emphysema in mice

(14). Because the effect of PGP is mediated
by CXCR2, small-molecule antagonists of
this receptor (which are now in clinical development for treating COPD, cystic brosis,
and other neutrophilic diseases) should be
effective (6). However, drugs that block the
production of LTA4H, such as inhibitors of
5-lipoxygenase or phospholipase A2, would
be less effective because they could increase
the concentrations of PGP and N--PGP in
the lungs and therefore overcome any potential benet of blocking LTB4 generation.
References
1. P. J. Barnes, I. M. Adcock, Lancet 373, 1905 (2009).
2. P. J. Barnes, J. Allergy Clin. Immunol. 119, 1055 (2007).
3. R. J. Snelgrove et al., Science 330, 90 (2010); published
online 2 September 2010 (10.1126/science.1190594).
4. A. Viola, A. D. Luster, Annu. Rev. Pharmacol. Toxicol. 48,
171 (2008).
5. K. M. Beeh et al., Chest 123, 1240 (2003).
6. O. Holz et al., Eur. Respir. J. 35, 564 (2010).
7. R. R. Pster, J. L. Haddox, C. I. Sommers, K. W. Lam,
Invest. Ophthalmol. Vis. Sci. 36, 1306 (1995).
8. A. Gaggar et al., J. Immunol. 180, 5662 (2008).
9. N. M. Weathington et al., Nat. Med. 12, 317 (2006).
10. P. OReilly et al., Respir. Res. 10, 38 (2009).
11. A. Gaggar, S. M. Rowe, M. Hardison, J. E. Blalock, Open
Respir. Med. J. 4, 32 (2010).
12. P. de Kruijf et al., Eur. J. Pharmacol. 643, 29 (2010).
13. S. V. Culpitt, D. F. Rogers, S. L. Traves, P. J. Barnes,
L. E. Donnelly, Respir. Med. 99, 703 (2005).
14. A. H. van Houwelingen et al., FASEB J. 22, 3403
(2008).
10.1126/science.1196017
ARCHAEOLOGY
When Humans Arrived in

the New Guinea Highlands
In a high valley, humans were using plants

and felling trees nearly 50,000 years ago.
Chris Gosden
eople now inhabit every continent on

Earth, with the partial exception of
Antarctica. How and when this occupation unfolded is the subject of considerable debate, in part because the process raises
questions about the development of human
intelligence, adaptability, and technology. On
page 78 of this issue, Summerhayes et al. (1)
add to the discussion with a thought-provoking report on what may be the earliest documented human occupation of Sahul, the land
mass that once joined Australia and Papua
New Guinea (PNG). Stone tools and plant
remains indicate that, at least 43,000 years
Institute of Archaeology, Oxford University, 36 Beaumont
Street, Oxford, OX1 2PG, UK. E-mail: chris.gosden@arch.
ox.ac.uk
ago, people were living in PNGs high Ivane

Valley and exploiting plants for food, and also
altering their environment.
By at least 50,000 years ago, modern
humans had occupied lowland rainforest and
savannah habitats across southeast Asia. Then
they crossed the open ocean to Sahul, which
existed when sea level was much lower than
it is today. Previous research has identied
early human settlement sites along PNGs
coast and documented evidence of highland
occupation in the Ivane Valley dating to as
early as 41,000 years ago (2). In 2007 and
2008, Summerhayes et al. identied seven
more sites of early occupation in the valley.
Within four layers of sediment, they found
stone tools of various types and evidence of
hearths, plant remains, and smashed animal
bone that could not be assigned to a species.

Calibrated carbon-14 dating indicated that
the oldest site was occupied between 49,000
and 43,000 years ago.
Today, a favorite slogan of PNGs tourist
board is expect the unexpected, and much
would have been unexpected for humans
arriving in the Ivane Valley during the late
Pleistocene. Although it lies just 8 south of
the equator, palynological evidence suggests
that the valley has been a cold, difcult, and
unpromising place to live at any time over the
past 50,000 years. It sits at an altitude of 2000
m, above the limits of todays agriculture and
has long been home to unusual species of
plants (and probably animals). The environment would have posed a wide range of challenges to the tiny migrating groups of human
41
PERSPECTIVES
BISMARCK SEA
Bismarck Ar
chipe
la
NEW IRELAND
go
NEW GUINEA
Matenkupkum
Huon Peninsula
Ivane
Valley
Bobongara
SOLOMON SEA
SOLOMON ISLANDS
cm
moving and bringing with them plants to

eat, but not to grow. Still, these people did
not just take the ecosystem as they found
it; they altered it. Summerhayes et al. found
heavy waisted stone tools, which were
probably used to clear forests. The Bobongara site on PNGs Huon Peninsula has
also produced slightly younger evidence of
waisted tools, suggesting that limited tree
clearing may have been relatively common
across mainland PNG at this time.
The world of Sahuls early hunter-foragers was very different from anything found in
the region today. One can imagine small and
highly mobile populations moving up and
down the interior mountain chains of what is
now PNG, engaged in small-scale clearance
Early arrivals. New evidence, including stone tools

apparently used for clearing trees (inset), shows
humans were in the Ivane Valley from 43,000
to 49,000 years ago and later migrated to offshore islands.
and some movement of plants. This set the

stage for what came next: Within a few thousand years, archaeological evidence shows
that people were crossing the sea to the offshore islands of the Bismarck Archipelago,
as well as migrating into Sahuls wet and
semi-arid areas, now in Australia. By 20,000
years ago, sites such as Matenkupkum in
New Ireland, PNG, suggest that people were
introducing wild animalssuch as wallabies
and ratsinto ecosystems naturally poor in
animal protein. Some 9000 years ago, what
we label as farming appeared in PNGs highlands (above 1000 m), occurring in cleared
landscapes and exploiting introduced plants
and animals. Today, PNGs highlands, particularly the western highlands, have some
of the countrys densest populations and
most intensive agricultural areas, and are
surrounded by higher and lower regions
with less dense populations. The extraordinary evidence presented by Summerhayes et
al. provides insight into how this colonization began and testies to the capabilities of
these early human settlers.
References
High in the highlands. The Ivane Valley sits some 2000 m above sea level and has long been a challenging place to live.
42
1. G. R. Summerhayes et al., Science 330, 78 (2010).

2. J. OConnell, J. Allen, J. Archaeol. Sci. 31, 835 (2004).
3. C. Renfrew, C. Frith, L. Malafouris, Eds., The Sapient
Mind: Archaeology Meets Neuroscience (Oxford Univ.
Press, Oxford, 2009).
10.1126/science.1195448
CREDITS: (TOP INSET) SUMMERHAYES; (BOTTOM) SHAW/SUMMERHAYES
hunter-foragers, who had somewhat restricted

technologies. But they certainly had survival
skills: The capability to map, remember, and
experiment would have been key to their ability to navigate through this new physical and
social landscape and to identify potentially
useful, and possibly lethal, plants (3).
Although the evidence of plant use presented by Summerhayes et al. is scant, it
suggests that the settlers were exploiting
pandanus, which produces useful leaves
and starchy fruit. They also used yams,
which were probably growing in their natural range at lower altitudes. Given the altitude and cold of the Ivane Valley, however,
it is unlikely that people lived there permanently. Instead, it appears that they were
PERSPECTIVES
CELL BIOLOGY
How to STIMulate Calcium

Channels
Two studies reveal the reciprocal regulation

of two different calcium channels.
Michael D. Cahalan
he movement of calcium across cell

membranes regulates many important physiological processes in vertebrates, as various as the contraction of
heart muscle, the ring of brain cells, the
expression of genes by immune cells, and
the secretion of hormones. Cells have two
main types of calcium channels that enable
calcium ions (Ca2+) to ow into the cell.
Voltage-gated Ca2+ channels typically function only in electrically excitable cells, such
as neurons, heart muscle cells, and insulinproducing cells in the pancreas. By contrast, store-operated Ca 2+ channels work
only in electrically inexcitable cells, such as
lymphocytes and other cells of the immune
system. Researchers have long puzzled
over this pattern, in part because biochemDepartment of Physiology and Biophysics, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA. E-mail: mcahalan@uci.edu
ical evidence suggested that both channel types are present in both excitable and
inexcitable cells. On pages 101 and 105 of
this issue, reports by Park et al. and Wang et
al. (1, 2) help solve the puzzle by presenting
a new mechanism that determines which type
of Ca2+ channel predominates in a particular
cell type. These two groups show that the
protein STIM1, which was already known to
activate store-operated Ca2+ channels, inhibits voltage-gated Ca2+ channels. Together, the
reports help to illuminate a reciprocal calcium
control mechanism that, if it goes wrong, can
have life-threatening consequences.
STIM proteins rst came to light in the
Ca2+ signaling eld 5 years ago; the name
comes from their initial identification as
a stromal-interacting molecule. Studies
revealed that STIM proteins play an essential role in the function of store-operated
Ca2+ channels in Drosophila (Stim) (3) and
in human cells (STIM1 and STIM2) (4).

Later, researchers screening the Drosophila
genome identified another family of proteins involved in the function of store-operated Ca2+ channels: the Orai proteins (Orai1,
Orai2, and Orai3 in humans) (57). By subtly altering the structure of Orai proteins,
researchers showed that they play a key role
in calcium selectivity, or a channels ability to recognize Ca2+ ions and allow them to
pass through a pore in the membrane (810).
Together, these studies showed that STIM
and Orai proteins work closely together to
mediate the activity of store-operated Ca2+
channels. In general, STIM proteins function as a signaling relay; when Ca2+ stores
are depleted at the endoplasmic reticulum
(ER) within the cell, for instance, they can
help to activate and open Orai channels in
the outer plasma membrane (PM) (see the
figure). Experiments have demonstrated
Orai1 activation
CaV1.2 inhibition
Calcium ions
EXTRACELLULAR
PLASMA
MEMBRANE
Orai1
Orai1
CaV1.2
CAD
CYTOSOL
STIM1
ER MEMBRANE
ER LUMEN
CREDIT: P. HUEY/SCIENCE
STIMulating. STIM1 in the ER membrane activates Orai1 (green) and inhibits CaV1.2
(orange) in the plasma membrane. (A) The cell at rest. Calcium ions (red) are abundant in the extracellular space and within the ER lumen but are rare in the cytosol.
Functional domains of STIM1 include the EF hand (with calcium ions bound), and
the CRAC-activating domain (CAD, green). (B and C) ER-PM junctions when the cell
is activated and Ca2+ is depleted from the ER lumen. Calcium ions unbinding from
C
the EF hand of STIM1 trigger translocation of STIM1 to ER-PM junctions. The cytosolic junctional gap between ER and PM is sufciently narrow (10 to 20 nm) to allow
for direct molecular interaction of STIM1 with Orai1 and CaV1.2. The CAD of STIM1
recruits Orai1 to ER-PM junctions and opens Orai1 channels by direct binding to
STIMulate Ca2+ inux (B). CaV1.2 channel proteins are also recruited to ER-PM junctions but are inhibited by the CAD interacting with the C terminus of CaV1.2 (C).
43
PERSPECTIVES
several functions of STIM proteins in activating store-operated Ca2+ channels (11).
In their studies, Wang et al. and Park et al.
examined the role that STIM proteins might
also play in regulating voltage-gated Ca2+
channels. Specically, they examined one
medically important member of this diverse
family, known as the CaV1.2 subunit (1C).
CaV1.2 forms the so-called L-type Ca2+ channels found in a wide array of cells, including
those in the cortex, hippocampus, cerebellum, neuroendocrine system, heart, and arterial smooth muscle. Mutations in the CaV1.2
gene CACNA1C cause Timothy and Brugada
syndromes, which are associated with lifethreatening cardiac arrhythmias. A number
of treatments, including the drugs verapamil,
diltiazem, and various dihydropyridines, specically target CaV1.2 channels.
The two groups found that the sequence
of events involving STIM1 begins in the
same way for both store-dependent and voltage-regulated channels, but the end result is
very different. After Ca2+ store depletion in
the ER, a structure known as the EF hand of
STIM1 unbinds Ca2+, and STIM1 oligomers translocate to form clusters immediately
adjacent to the plasma membrane at ER-PM
junctions. If voltage-gated Ca2+ channel proteins are expressed, they, like Orai subunit
proteins, accumulate adjacent to STIM1.
There, STIM1 and CaV1.2 interact via specic domains that protrude into the cytosol:
a CRAC-activating domain (CAD) in STIM1
and the C terminus of CaV1.2. CAD opens
Orai1 channels, butas the two new papers
showit inhibits CaV1.2 channel activity in
two ways: acutely (immediately) by physical
interaction, and more slowly by causing internalization, a process that inhibits the channel
and results in subsequent degradation of the
channel protein. The two reports differ with
respect to the relative importance of the acute
and internalization phases (Wang et al. nd
that the acute phase is strong, Park et al. less
so), but the outcome is the same: STIM1
regulates Orai1 and CaV1.2 reciprocally. In
inexcitable lymphocytes, where STIM1 is
relatively abundant, voltage-gated Ca2+ channels are inhibited and Orai1 is activated. In
neurons and presumably other excitable cells,
STIM1 is not so abundant and voltage-gated
Ca2+ channel activity predominates.
As the activator for one Ca2+ channel
(Orai1) and an inhibitor for another (CaV1.2),
STIM1 assumes a new functional importance. In excitable cells, membrane depolarization (a change in electrical charge) activates Ca2+ inux through voltage-gated Ca2+
channels, but in lymphocytes depolarization
actually inhibits Ca2+ influx through Orai
44
channels, because the electrical driving force

for Ca2+ to enter is reduced. This potentially
resolves a long-standing controversy regarding the type of Ca2+ channel in lymphocytes
(12). Even if subunits of voltage-gated Ca2+
channels are expressed, they are not functional because of inhibition by STIM1. More
important, STIM1s reciprocal functional
interaction guarantees that only one type of
Ca2+ channel or the other will be active.
Many questions remain concerning the
generality of the findings. Does STIM1
block other voltage-gated Ca2+ channel family members? In native tissue, CaV1.2 subunits interact with numerous other cellular
proteins that help with subcellular localization and modulation. Do they physically
or functionally protect the channels from
being inhibited by STIM1? When STIM1 is
knocked out in mice or in rare patients with
mutations of STIM1, what are the consequences for voltage-dependent Ca2+ channel
function in vivo? Answers to these questions
should further improve our understanding of
how Ca2+ signaling is regulated.
References
1. C. Y. Park, A. Shcheglovitov, R. Dolmetsch, Science 330,
101 (2010).
2. Y. Wang et al., Science 330, 105 (2010).
3. J. Roos et al., J. Cell Biol. 169, 435 (2005).
4. J. Liou et al., Curr. Biol. 15, 1235 (2005).
5. S. Feske et al., Nature 441, 179 (2006).
6. M. Vig et al., Science 312, 1220 (2006); published
online 27 April 2006 (10.1126/science.1127883).
7. S. L. Zhang et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103, 9357
(2006).
8. M. Prakriya et al., Nature 443, 230 (2006).
9. M. Vig et al., Curr. Biol. 16, 2073 (2006).
10. A. V. Yeromin et al., Nature 443, 226 (2006).
11. M. D. Cahalan, Nat. Cell Biol. 11, 669 (2009).
12. M. D. Cahalan, K. G. Chandy, Immunol. Rev. 231, 59
(2009).
10.1126/science.1196348
CHEMISTRY
A Balancing Act for Taxol

Precursor Pathways in E. coli
Tiangang Liu and Chaitan Khosla
A fermentation process that balances the activities of several bacterial and plant enzymes makes a
precursor to an anticancer drug in substantial quantities.
axol (paclitaxel) is a widely used cancer drug that was rst isolated from
the bark of the Pacic yew tree, Taxus
brevifolia. In 1991, during early stages of its
clinical use, 130 kg of Taxol were extracted
from 1000 tons of bark, which required cutting down more than 500,000 mature Pacic
yew trees (1). Fortunately, Taxol is presently
made by less destructive methods, either
through chemical conversion of a related
molecule derived from needles of the more
prevalent European yew, T. baccata (2), or
from cultured plant cells (3). Nonetheless,
both these plant-based processes are difcult, and this valuable drug remains expensive. On page 70 of this issue, Ajikumar et
al. (4) have made progress toward making
Taxol in Escherichia coli, biotechnologys
workhorse bacterium, in substantial quantities by balancing several enzymatic pathways to make its complex multicyclic core
(see the gure).
Taxol belongs to a large family of natDepartments of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering,
Stanford University, Stanford, CA 94305, USA. E-mail:
liutg@stanford.edu; khosla@stanford.edu
ural products called terpenes, which also

includes artemisinin (a malaria drug), carvone (a flavoring agent), and pinene (the
main constituent of turpentine). The carbon
skeletons of all terpene molecules (taxadiene, in the case of Taxol) are made from two
closely related ve-carbon precursors, isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP), which are
made in virtually all cells from substrates
such as glucose. Each terpene skeleton then
undergoes a series of further modications
by a set of enzymes that execute a sequence
of reactions that leads to the complex natural
product. The conversion of IPP and DMAPP
into Taxol is a more complex process that
so far has been seen only in cells from the
Pacic yew bark.
Nature has two chemical processes for
converting glucose into IPP and DMAPP.
The mevalonate pathway operates in animal cells, as well as in microbes such as
yeast. It was the target of a related recent
effort aimed at reducing the cost of artemisinin manufacture (5). An unrelated process,
the nonmevalonate pathway, synthesizes
IPP and DMAPP in bacteria and plant cells.
PERSPECTIVES
Genes for Taxol

biosynthesis
E. coli fermentation
Purification
O
H
O
OH
Taxadiene 1 g/liter
NH
H
OH O
OH
O
O
Taxol
OH
H
Taxadiene-5-ol 60 mg/liter
PHOTO CREDIT: CATHERINE MUNRO/WIKIMEDIA COMMONS
Rebuilding a biosynthetic pathway. The anticancer drug Taxol was originally obtained from the bark of the
precious Pacic yew tree. Ajikumar et al. now report that a key intermediate in its chemical synthesis, taxadiene, can be abundantly obtained from E. coli by fermentation. The three terpene groups in the carbon-bond
backbone from isopentenyl pyrophosphate are highlighted in red, and those from dimethylallyl pyrophosphate are highlighted in blue. The hydroxylation of this molecule to form taxadiene-5-ol was also achieved,
even though such reactions are usually difcult in fermentation processes. Further work will be needed to
complete a chemical synthesis or an enzymatic pathway in E. coli that leads to Taxol.
Having chosen E. coli as their host for engineered Taxol biosynthesis, Ajikumar et al.
targeted its native nonmevalonate pathway.
They also genetically transplanted the rst
three enzymes in the Taxol pathway from
the Pacic yew into E. coli. They developed
a remarkably efcient fermentation process
for taxadiene that also afforded respectable
quantities of the next molecule in the Taxol
pathway, taxadiene-5-ol.
Specically, E. coli synthesizes taxadiene with a volumetric productivity of 8 mg/
liter per hour, and in lab fermentors, taxadiene accumulated to a nal concentration
of 1 g/liter. Previous attempts to make taxadiene in E. coli only yielded 1.3 mg/liter,
with a correspondingly lower volumetric
productivity (6). Although taxadiene-5-ol
only accumulated to a nal concentration of
60 mg/liter, this is no ordinary accomplishment, in that chemical or genetic hydroxylation of inert hydrocarbons such as taxadiene
is notoriously difcult. Several additional
enzyme-catalyzed reactions are required to
convert the taxadiene-5-ol core into Taxol,
although at least some of these transformations may be chemically feasible.
Multiple factors contributed to this engineering success. First, a dramatic improvement in the rate of IPP and DMAPP synthesis was attained through careful optimization of the absolute and relative levels
of four key enzymes in E. coli. Second, the
intracellular activities of two plant enzymes
(GGPP synthase and taxadiene synthase)
were enhanced substantially through codon
optimization and deletion of an N-terminal
plastid transit peptide. Third, the upstream
segments to IPP/DMAPP and downstream
segments to taxadiene were balanced by
systematically varying promoter strength,
plasmid copy number, and genotype. This
endeavor appears to have set a new productivity standard in the eld. Whereas most
investigators typically choose optimal conditions by making and screening a relatively
small number (<10) of alternative multigenic congurations, the authors balanced
carbon ux through the two segments with
far greater precision by evaluating more
than 30 such constructs.
For the f inal step, that of making
taxadiene-5-ol in E. coli, the authors
needed to coax a cytochrome P450 oxy-
genase from the Pacic yew to work in a

different cellular environment. In plants,
these metalloenzymes partner with dedicated, membrane-bound cytochrome P450
reductases. Because such reductases cannot
be expressed as readily in E. coli, Ajikumar
et al. used a previously developed strategy
(7) to engineer a chimeric enzyme harboring both oxygenase and reductase activities
without a membrane anchor.
The authors also took advantage of an
unexpected observationthe concentrations of an unrelated metabolite, indole,
correlated inversely with taxadiene productivity. Follow-up experiments revealed that
this inverse correlation primarily affected
IPP and DMAPP productivity, and the
authors exploited this empirical relationship as they optimized taxadiene biosynthesis. Their observation raises several intriguing and still unanswered questions. What is
the mechanistic link between IPP/DMAPP
and biosynthesis of tryptophan, the likely
source of indole? Is this regulatory strategy
unique to the present problem, or does it represent a more general mechanism for controlling carbon ow through a cells metabolic networks? Finally, what are its implications for producing other useful chemicals
through fermentation and other biotechnology routes? E. coli still has more secrets to
reveal when it comes to designing the perfect chemical factory.
The same approach of Ajikumar et al.
could be applied to a number of important
terpene natural products derived from plants.
Synthetic chemists can convert pinene into
Taxol (8, 9) after many reaction steps, so
there is no need to restrict possible targets
to products that have been isolated from natural sources. Complex green chemicals
could be made more affordably if feedstocks
like taxadiene and taxadiene-5-ol become
commonly available.
1. M. Suffness, M. E. Wall, in Taxol: Science and Applications, M. Suffness, Ed. (CRC Press, Boca Raton, FL, 1995),
pp. 326.
2. R. A. Holton, R. J. Biediger, P. D. Boatman, in Taxol:
Science and Applications, M. Suffness, Ed. (CRC Press,
Boca Raton, FL, 1995), pp. 97121.
3. S. C. Roberts, Nat. Chem. Biol. 3, 387 (2007).
4. P. K. Ajikumar et al., Science 330, 70 (2010).
5. J. Kirby, J. D. Keasling, Annu. Rev. Plant Biol. 60, 335
(2009).
6. Q. Huang, C. A. Roessner, R. Croteau, A. I. Scott, Bioorg.
Med. Chem. 9, 2237 (2001).
7. E. Leonard, M. A. Koffas, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73,
7246 (2007).
8. P. A. Wender et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 119, 2755 (1997).
9. P. A. Wender et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 119, 2757 (1997).
10. This work was supported by NIH grant R01 CA 077248
to C.K.
10.1126/science.1195014
45
PERSPECTIVES
GENETICS
A high rate of recombination restores the

function of a mutated gene that encodes
keratin, giving rise to the confetti spots
in a rare skin disorder.
MosaicismSwitch or Spectrum?
Brian R. Davis1 and Fabio Candotti2
1
Centre for Stem Cell Research, Brown Foundation Institute
of Molecular Medicine, University of Texas Health Science
Center, Houston, TX 77030, USA. 2Genetics and Molecular
Biology Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA. E-mail: brian.r.davis@uth.
tmc.edu
46
Somatic cell population

Mutated gene
Corrected gene
Substitution, insertion, or
deletion of base pair(s)
or mitotic recombination
Germline
mutation
Somatic
mutation
Mutant cells
Revertant cell
Partial or full restoration of
disease-causing gene product
Selective pressures (intrinsic

and extrinsic) favor
emergence and/or expansion
Mixed cell population

Emergence of mosaicism. Somatic revertant mosaicism involves the three stages shown. Somatic mutations can arise in a disease-causing gene spontaneously or in response to DNA damage. If the mutation
restores gene function (blue), this originates a revertant cell. If the revertant cell is capable of self-renewal
and proliferation, selection pressures can act to favor expansion and detection. If the somatic mutation is
not benecial (black), the event is unlikely to rise above the detection threshold.
reports from primary immunodeciency syndromes, such as the Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome (in which reversion occurs in 10 to 15%
of patients) and severe combined immunodeciency (caused by mutations in CD3 zeta or
RAG1 genes), have also documented multiple independent reversion events in patients
(612). For example, at least 35 distinct revertant mutations were identied in one WiskottAldrich syndrome patient (6, 7).
Taken together, these findings suggest
that mosaicism develops through the ongoing generation of somatic mutations that
affect the disease-causing gene in cells of
self-regenerating organ systems. Although
most of these somatic mutations will provide
no benet, some will result in partial or full
functional restoration of the gene. Model cal-
culationstaking into account the spontaneous DNA mutation rate and the number of cell
divisions occurring in the newborn thymus
predict that cells that have corrections for specic immune gene mutations (e.g., correction
of a stop codon) likely originate in most (or
all) patients. A possible principal factor that
distinguishes those individuals in which such
events result in detectable revertant mosaicism
is whether benecial reversion mutations originated in a cell sufciently early in its developmental pathway to provide for substantial
expansion of revertant cells (such as epidermal stem cells for epidermolysis bullosa, and
hematopoietic stem cells or lymphoid and thymic precursor cells for Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome), or perhaps otherwise in a particularly
long-lived cell that is capable of expansion
CREDIT: C. BICKEL/SCIENCE
omatic revertant mosaicismthe

coexistence of cells carrying inherited
genetic mutations with cells that have
undergone spontaneous changes that correct the mutant phenotypewas previously
thought to be extremely rare in terms of the
frequency of patients in which it occurs and
the frequency with which cells bearing revertant mutations arise in a given patient. A number of recent ndings, including the report by
Choate et al. on page 97 of this issue (1), challenge this perspective.
Somatic revertant mosaicism has been
described in several genetic disorders affecting self-regenerating organ systems such as
the skin, blood, and liver (2). Its development involves at least three steps: the occurrence of a correcting mutation in the already
mutated gene; the survival of cells that have
acquired partial or full functional restoration
of the gene (revertant cells); and the selection
and enrichment of these cells (see the gure).
At present, little is known about the specic
molecular mechanisms leading to revertant
mutations (either during normal DNA replication or in response to genotoxic agents) or
the precise selection processes for revertant
cells. This limited knowledge derives from
isolated reports of revertant patients carrying only one or a small number of revertant genotypes (2). As such, the commonly
accepted picture has been that reversion is a
highly inefcient stochastic process, possibly
associated with unique characteristics of the
patient exhibiting reversion.
Reports of multiple, independently arising, correcting, or second-site revertant
mutations in the same patient have changed
this notion and indicate that reversion is less
unusual than had been thought. For example,
revertant patches of healthy skin surrounded
by the easily blistered skin in the disease junctional epidermolysis bullosa can arise from
different molecular reversion events in the
mutated genes (COL17A1 or LAMB3) in the
same patient (3, 4). This was not an infrequent
occurrence; multiple revertant patches, each
caused by a different molecular event, were
identied in up to 30% of patients (5). Recent
PERSPECTIVES
(such as a T lymphocyte for Wiskott-Aldrich
syndrome). In this context, somatic revertant
mosaicism is less likely a binary switch in
which a given patient is either revertant or not.
Rather, it appears to be a spectrum in which a
patient originated revertant cells at some time,
with the frequency, diversity, and functionality of the revertant cells dependent on various
factors including the strength of selection. It is
very possible that ultradeep sequencing methods that can detect rare gene variants can test
the accuracy of this picture.
In their investigations on the skin disease
ichthyosis with confetti (IWC, also known
as congenital reticular ichthyosiform erythroderma), Choate et al. show that independent revertant clones, originating by loss of
a heterozygous mutation on chromosome
17q, give rise to the thousands of normal
skin spots that appear early in life in affected
patients and increase in number and size over
time. By mapping the location of common
genetic recombination events in the revertant clones, the authors determined that dominant frameshift mutations in the KRT10 gene
cause the disease and discovered an unprecedented diversity of independent recombination events in humans. A common feature of
the various KRT10 mutations is the expression of a mutant keratin protein that mislocalizes to the nucleus. Although another skin disease, epidermolytic ichthyosis, is caused by
dominant negative or recessive mutations in
the same KRT10 gene, revertant clones have
not been identied in this condition. As such,
Choate et al. postulate a link between IWC
mutant keratin 10 proteins and the high number of observed mitotic recombination events.
If this is correct, increased mitotic recombination should affect chromosomes other than
chromosome 17q. However, it may not be
necessary to invoke a specic facilitating role
of the mutant keratin 10 proteins in determining the occurrence of revertant skin patches in
IWC. Indeed, the function of keratin 10 may
be more severely affected by the IWC frameshift mutations than by the missense substitutions responsible for epidermolytic ichthyosis.
If that is the case, revertant cells may be conferred a stronger selective advantage in IWC
than in epidermolytic ichthyosis, thus allowing them to rise above the detection threshold
by forming the confetti spots.
Somatic revertant mosaicism can be likened to a natural form of gene therapy, and
the ndings of Choate et al. have potential
relevance to therapeutic options for affected

patients. These include using revertant stem
cells (from patches of corrected skin) for
engraftment; expanding preexisting corrected cells in vivo; and guiding efforts to
induce targeted (site-specic) revertant mutations in vivo. For the latter, studies of revertant patients are particularly important, as
they could inform the levels of correction that
need to be achieved by gene therapy to obtain
meaningful clinical effects.
References
1. K. A. Choate et al., Science 330, 97 (2010); published
online 26 August 2010 (10.1126/science.1192280).
2. R. Hirschhorn, J. Med. Genet. 40, 721 (2003).
3. A. M. Pasmooij, H. H. Pas, F. C. Deviaene, M. Nijenhuis,
M. F. Jonkman, Am. J. Hum. Genet. 77, 727 (2005).
4. A. M. Pasmooij, H. H. Pas, M. C. Bolling, M. F. Jonkman,
J. Clin. Invest. 117, 1240 (2007).
5. M. F. Jonkman, A. M. Pasmooij, N. Engl. J. Med. 360,
1680 (2009).
6. B. R. Davis, F. Candotti, Immunol. Res. 44, 127 (2009).
7. B. R. Davis et al., Blood 111, 5064 (2008).
8. B. R. Davis et al., Clin. Immunol. 135, 72 (2010).
9. K. Boztug et al., Clin. Genet. 74, 68 (2008).
10. M. I. Lutskiy, J. Y. Park, S. K. Remold, E. RemoldODonnell, PLoS ONE 3, e3444 (2008).
11. F. Rieux-Laucat et al., N. Engl. J. Med. 354, 1913 (2006).
12. T. Wada et al., Blood 106, 2099 (2005).
10.1126/science.1195991
ASTRONOMY
A Dance of Extrasolar Planets
The Kepler space telescope has found a system

of planets whose orbital timing varies due to
gravitational coupling.
Gregory Laughlin
aunched in March 2009, the Kepler

mission is tasked with searching for
extrasolar planets. It continuously
monitors 156,000 stars in a ~100-squaredegree patch of sky covering a portion of the
galactic disk centered on a direction lying in
the constellation Cygnus (1). On page 51 of
this issue, Holman et al. (2) report the discovery of a transiting planet whose orbit of 38.9
days varies by up to 1 hour due to the interaction with other planets in the system. This
Saturn-sized world, known as Kepler-9c, circles a Sun-like star 2300 light-years away in
the direction of the constellation Lyra, and is
part of a bizarre system containing three transiting planets, whose mutual gravitational
tugs generate an exquisitely choreographed
orbital dance. Far from being mere curiosities, the planets of the Kepler-9 system may
Department of Astronomy and Astrophysics, UCO/Lick

Observatory, University of California at Santa Cruz, Santa
Cruz, CA 95064, USA. E-mail: laugh@ucolick.org
provide vital clues to the mechanisms of planetary formation and orbital evolution.
Kepler can detect a 1/10,000 dip in brightness that occurs when an Earth-sized planet
on an Earth-like orbit makes a ~12-hour passage (transit) in front of a Sun-sized star.
The goal is to continuously monitor its target stars for a long enough period (at least 3.5
years) to observe repeated passages by Earthsized planets on Earth-like orbits, leading to
an estimate of the occurrence frequency of
potentially habitable worlds.
Although Earth-sized planets have not yet
been reported, Kepler has been remarkably
productive in nding hot short-period planets with orbits ranging from days to weeks.
In January of this year, its rst ve discoveries of four hot Jupiters and a hot Neptune
were announced (3), and in June, an additional 312 candidate planets were reported
(4). Although the members of this latest batch
of planets require follow-up observations for
individual conrmation, their bulk statistics
suggest that an important, and perhaps even

the dominant mode of planet formation in
our galaxy looks nothing like what happened
in the Solar System: Super-Earths with
masses between 5 and 15 times that of Earth
are commonly found on orbits with periods
of 50 days or less, with recent indications that
up to a half of nearby Sun-like stars harbor
objects of this type (5).
Keplers discoveries are contributing to a
rapidly growing catalog of transiting extrasolar planets, yielding planetary masses, radii,
bulk compositions, atmospheric constituents,
and even weather reports (6). Furthermore,
transiting planets in favorably constructed
multiple-planet systems will exhibit measurable variations from strict orbital periodicity that can operate as detailed probes of the
orbital dynamics (7, 8).
Although extrasolar transit-timing variations have proved elusive until now, astronomers have had centuries of experience with
the transit-timing technique in our own Solar
47
PERSPECTIVES
System. The Galilean satmeasured. Kepler-9b and -9c
ellites Io, Europa, Ganywill provide a much-needed
mede, and Callisto can all be
second example, and their
observed in transit across the
transits will allow the physiface of Jupiter, and in 1656,
cal properties of the planets
the Sicilian astronomer Giothemselves to be probed.
vanni Hodierna used tranThe detection and characsit-timing measurements to
terization of transiting extraconstruct accurate predicsolar planets have engaged
tive tables for the moons
an extensive roster of astromotion. By mid-18th cennomical assets, ranging from
tury, eclipse timing measureNASAs Kepler, Hubble, and
ments for the jovian moons
Spitzer telescopes in space, to
were sufficiently precise to
large ground-based facilities
demonstrate a curious relasuch as the Keck telescopes
tionship between the orbits
on Mauna Kea, and smaller,
of Io, Europa, and Ganyhighly specialized facilities
mede. In 1743, the Swedish
such as the European Southastronomer Pehr Wilhelm
ern Observatorys High AccuWargentin published tables
racy Radial velocity Planet
showing that the 1:2:4 ratio
Searcher (HARPS) spectrobetween the orbital periods
graph in Chile. Remarkably,
of Ganymede, Europa, and
amateur astronomers have
Io is uncannily exact. Pierre
been active participants in the
Simon de Laplace, in 1784,
ongoing quest, having codisdemonstrated that the satel- A planetary dance. The Kepler-9 system contains three transiting planets, whose orbits covered several of the most
lites behavior could be under- are shown here to scale, with the orbit of Mercury shown for comparison as a dotted line. scientically valuable transitstood purely in terms of their Saturn-sized Planet c orbits the Sun-like primary star in 38.9 days and is in 2:1 reso- ing planets yet found (11, 12).
mutual gravitational interac- nance with similarly-sized Planet b. Much closer to the star lies an Earth-size planet The Kepler-9 system provides
tions and that a specic com- with an orbital period of only 1.6 days.
an excellent target for skilled
bination of their mean orbital
backyard observers. During
longitudes is governed by a tiny pendulum- nomical phenomenon (such as the chance the next several months, while the Kepler
like oscillation (or libration) about the perfect juxtaposition of a distant eclipsing binary star eld remains visible in the Northern Hemi1:2:4 commensurability (9). This behavior blended with a foreground star) is not respon- spheres autumn skies, observers will be able
provides an example of what is now known as sible for the observed signal. The characteris- to obtain precise timing measurements of the
a mean-motion orbital resonance.
tic observed variations from strict periodicity, upcoming transits (13) and get an advance
High-precision Doppler velocity moni- however, can only be caused by gravitational look at the intricacies of this fascinating plantoring has shown that resonant relations exist interaction, which provides both an immedi- etary system.
among a variety of extrasolar planets, nota- ate conrmation, as well as an accurate estiReferences and Notes
bly the 1:2:4 resonance between the three mate, of the planetary masses.
1. D. J. Koch et al., Astrophys. J. 713, L79 (2010).
outer planets orbiting the nearby red dwarf
The entire Kepler-9 system would fit
2. M. J. Holman et al., Science 330, 51 (2010); published
star Gliese 876 (10). The Kepler 9 system within Mercurys orbit. But how did such
online 26 August 2010 (10.1126/science.1195778).
3. W. J. Borucki et al., Science 327, 977 (2010).
provides the rst denitive detection of tran- systems come into being? Although it is
4. W. J Borucki et al., http://arxiv.org/abs/1006.2799
sit-timing variations and also represents the possible that the planets were assembled in
(2010).
rst detection of a system containing multiple situ, it is more likely that they were formed
5. M. Mayor et al., Astron. Astrophys. 493, 639 (2009).
separately transiting planets. The 19.2- and further from the star, where both icy mate6. D. Charbonneau et al., in Protostars and Planets, V.B.
Reipurth, D. Jewitt, K. Keil, Eds. (Univ. of Arizona Press,
38.9-day orbital periods of Kepler-9b and -9c rial and gas were readily available, and then
Tuscon, 2007), pp. 701716.
imply that the two planets lie either close to migrated inward as a consequence of interac7. E. Agol, J. Steffen, R. Sari, W. Clarkson, Mon. Not. R.
or within a 2:1 mean-motion resonance (see tions with the parent disk. Kepler-9 has the
Astron. Soc. 359, 567 (2005).
8. M. J. Holman, N. W. Murray, Science 307, 1288 (2005).
the gure). Mutual gravitational interactions potential to tell us a great deal about the sys9. R. Grant, History of Physical Astronomy: From the Earliest
between the planets cause the inner planets tems history. The libration width and orbital
Ages to the Middle of the 19th Century (Robert Baldwin,
period to lengthen by an average of 4 min eccentricity ratio between the outer resonant
London, 1852).
per orbit, whereas the period of the less mas- planets encode crucial information about 10. E. J. Rivera et al., Astrophys. J. 719, 890 (2010).
sive outer planet is currently decreasing at an the migration process. Over the next several 11. M. Barbieri et al., Astron. Astrophys. 476, L13 (2007).
12. E. Garcia-Melendo, P. R. McCullough, Astrophys. J. 698,
average rate of 39 min per orbit.
years, a careful account of the transit-timing
558 (2009).
The transit-timing variations exhibited by measurements will allow these quantities to 13. Transit-timing measurements by skilled small-telescope
observers are analyzed and cataloged at the TRESCA
Kepler-9b and -9c conrm unambiguously be determined with great accuracy. Indeed,
database, which is provided and maintained by the Czech
that the observed diminutions of the stellar to date, only a single resonant exoplanetary
Astronomical Society: http://var2.astro.cz/EN/novinky.
light are caused by planets. Ordinarily, candi- system, Gliese 876, has been characterized
php?lang=en&id=1283015654 (accessed 9 September
2010).
date planets detected by Kepler are arduously to a degree where the libration width and
vetted to ensure that a transit-mimickng astro- the orbital eccentricity have been accurately
10.1126/science.1196505
48
PERSPECTIVES
RETROSPECTIVE
George C. Williams (19262010)
The clear and wide-ranging vision of a great

biologist enlightened our understanding of
natural selection and adaptation.
Richard Dawkins
CREDIT: MEDIA SERVICES/STONY BROOK UNIVERSITY
t has become a clich that Charles Darwin would not have succeeded as a scientist today. He would not have won big
research grants and did not have the mathematics to be a theorist by todays conventions. But the clich is wrongfor George
Williams succeeded. Williams published
books, rather than articles in high impact
journals; he never won huge grants, did not
head a big research group, and seldom used
mathematics, yet he became one of the most
respected gures in late20th-century evolutionary biology. On 8 September, George
Williams died at the age of 84.
Williams, like Darwin, was a world-class
thinker. Like Darwin, he drew upon deep
wells of knowledge; like Darwin, he wielded
words and concepts with the precision that
comes from clear thought; and like Darwin,
he was correct far more often than a mathematical theorist might think he had any
right to be. Also like Darwin, he was gentle
and self-effacing, never aggressive or overassertive. He was a tall, rangy, patrician gure
whose quiet, contemplative wisdom, as well
as his dignied appearance, reminded many
of Abraham Lincoln (Darwins exact contemporary to the day).
Williams received his Ph.D. in 1955 at the
University of California, Los Angeles, and
his academic path led him to Stony Brook
University in 1960, where he remained for
the rest of his career. He rst attracted attention in 1957 with his evolutionary theory of
senescence, a matured version of the idea
sketched by Peter Medawar in 1952. Lethal
genes that are expressed late in life outcompete those expressed early. Mutations that
have good effects often have other effects too
(pleiotropy), many of which will be bad. Natural selection will modify mutational effects
such that the bad ones are postponed, and the
good ones accelerated. Senescence follows,
with the sort of clear logic that typied Williamss thinking.
His 1966 book Adaptation and Natural
Selection had a spring-cleaning effect upon
evolutionary theory. Neo-Darwinism had
fallen into lazy habits since the glory days
of Ronald Fisher and the Modern Synthesis. The loose, intellectually shoddy idea of
group selection was rife, and Williams
Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1
3PS, UK.
dispatched it. Adaptations were scattered

throughout the literature with no understanding that adaptation is, in Williamss memorably exacting phrase, an onerous concept. It can be studied
with scientific rigor, but
this first requires a clear
answer to the question,
Precisely what is naturally selected? Williamss
answer is compelling:
The natural selection
of phenotypes cannot in
itself produce cumulative
change, because phenotypes are extremely temporary manifestations
Socratesmay have been
very successful in the evolutionary sense of leaving
numerous offspring. His
phenotype, nevertheless,
was utterly destroyed by
the hemlock and has never
since been duplicatedThe same argument
also holds for genotypes. With Socrates
death, not only did his phenotype disappear but also his genotypebecause meiosis and recombination destroy genotypes as
surely as deathIt is only the meiotically
dissociated fragments of the genotype that
are transmitted in sexual reproduction, and
these fragments are further fragmented by
meiosis in the next generation. If there is an
ultimate indivisible fragment it is, by denition, the gene that is treated in the abstract
discussions of population genetics.
Quite so.
Williams efciently disposed of group
selection, which never recovered (except
as a muddled version of kin selection). But
in Natural Selection: Domains, Levels and
Changes (1992), where he gathered many
threads of thought, he developed the important and supercially similar idea (foreshadowed in Adaptation and Natural Selection)
of clade selection to explain, not altruism but macroevolutionary patterns of
diversity andas I would put itthe evolution of evolvability.
One of Williamss gifts was to show that
what might seem obvious was not always so.
He wrote Sex and Evolution (1975) from
a conviction that the prevalence of sexual
reproduction in higher plants and animals is
inconsistent with current evolutionary theorythere is a kind of crisis at hand in evolutionary biology Assuming, as is common in animals, that the father contributes
less than the mother to the
economic costs of rearing
a child, a mutant female
producing only asexual
daughters would seem to
be a more efcient genereproducing machine
than her sexual rival, who
pours up to half of her
resources into economically unproductive sons.
Sex and Evolution was the
rst book to wrestle with
this paradoxical twofold
cost of sexconstructively but not entirely
successfully. After working through a number of
models, including the
aphid-rotifer model, the
strawberry-coral model, and the elm-oyster model, Williams ended downbeat:
I am sure that many readers have already
concluded that I really do not understand the
role of sex in either organic or biotic evolution. At least I can claimthe consolation of
abundant company.
Abundant and distinguished company, for
the Williams crisis at hand was to provoke
later books by, among others, John Maynard
Smith and Graham Bell, and absorbed the
great W. D. Hamilton (a somewhat similar
character to Williams) for most of the latter
part of his career.
Williams himself, in the latter part of his
career, teamed up with the physician Randolph Nesse to found The New Science of
Darwinian Medicine (1995). That is the subtitle of their excellent book, whose main title
unforgivably mutated as it crossed the Atlantic (publishers do this lamentably often, and
they did it with Williamss only book for laymen). Darwinian medicine is too important
for me to expound it briey but, as I recommended on the cover, Buy two copies and
give one to your doctor.
George Williams takes his place among
the Darwinian immortals: like Darwin himself, a great scientist and a wholly admirable man.
10.1126/science.1197701
49
BREVIA
High Frequency of Horizontal Gene
Transfer in the Oceans
Lauren D. McDaniel,1* Elizabeth Young,1 Jennifer Delaney,1 Fabian Ruhnau,2
Kim B. Ritchie,3 John H. Paul1
icrobes rely on mutation and the processes of horizontal gene transfer (HGT;
conjugation, transformation, and transduction) to acquire new traits. Gene transfer agents
(GTAs) discovered in the purple nonsulfur bacterium Rhodobacter capsulatus (formerly Rhodopseudomonas capsulata) are host-encoded viruslike
elements that package random fragments of the host
chromosome and are found in the genome of almost
every sequenced member of the a-Proteobacteria
order Rhodobacterales (1). To test whether GTAs
are natural vectors of gene transfer, we grew nine
strains of marine a-proteobacteria containing putative GTA cassettes (table S1) and screened them
for the production of GTA-like particles.
Both Roseovarius nubinhibens ISM and the isolate Reugeria mobilis 45A6 reproducibly produced
putative GTA particles during stationary phase
growth. We then generated genetically marked donor strains of R. nubinhibens and R. mobilis containing the transposon Tn5. GTA production in these
marked donor strains was equivalent to that of the
wild-type strains. To document gene transfer frequencies, we subjected wild-type strains or natural communities from a range of environments to treatment
with donor strain GTAs and documented the rates of
GTA-mediated gene transfer of kanamycin resistance (fig. S1). In the coral reef environment, sponta-
neous kanamycin resistance was 4.6 104, whereas

the GTA-mediated frequency was significantly
higher at 2.5 102 (P = 0.028, Students t test).
For this experiment, both spontaneous mutants
and GTA treatments were examined for the presence
of the Tn5 streptomycin kinase gene. A total of 47%
of the GTA-treated viable colonies but none of the
spontaneous revertants contained the gene. That
53% of the putative transductants did not contain the
gene is not surprising because these may have
contained only the kanamycin resistance gene (nptII)
and not the flanking streptomycin kinase gene.
The recovery of the streptomycin kinase sequence,
which is ~1000 base pairs (1 kbp) from the active site
of the kanamycin resistance gene, suggested that up
to 1 kbp of the central region of Tn5 was transferred. This is consistent with extracted DNA from
the GTAs, which ranged from about 500 to 1000 bp
in length (fig. S3). No spontaneous double antibiotic
(kanamycin and streptomycin) resistance was detected, and the GTA-mediated frequency of 1.06
104 was significantly higher (P = 0.023). The Tn5
streptomycin kinase sequence was recovered in 1 in
10 viable double antibioticresistant strains, suggesting that modifications, truncations, or rearrangements
may have occurred, as in natural transformation (2).
Similar frequencies of transfer were observed
among differing environments (Table 1), demon-
Table 1. Frequencies of transfer of marker genes to both cultured and natural communities. N/A
indicates not applicable; BDL, below detection limit.
Environment
Culture
Estuary
Estuary
Coastal
Open ocean
Reef
Reef (double
antibiotic)
Avg. spontaneous
frequency
Avg. GTAmediated rate
Range
Roseovarius nubinhibens GTA filter matings

5.2 108
6 10
1.7 105
2.0 106
2.8 105
1.6 104
8.9 104
3.0 104
Roseovarius nubinhibens GTA liquid matings
7
1.2 103
2
4.3 10
2.5 10
4.6 10
BDL (<10 )
3.1 102
N/A
N/A
6.7 103
4.3 102
N/A
2.8 10
3.9 10
2.5 10
N/A
1.06 10
Reugeria mobilis (45A6) GTA liquid matings

Estuary
Coastal
Open ocean
Reef
50
1.2 103
4.3 102
3
3.3 10
4.6 104
02.1 102
2
3.0 10
5.6 102
0 1 10 2
N/A
2.4 102
2.8 101
1
4.7 10
1.1 101
1 OCTOBER 2010
VOL 330
Range
7.5
7.9
6.2
1.1
108
105
105
103
1.2 102
5.0 102
N/A
2.8 101
4.0 101
N/A
N/A
4.2 102
1.1 100
1.6 101
6.4 101
0 3.6 100
N/A
SCIENCE
Number
of trials
n=5
n=3
n=2
n=2
n=3
n=1
n=1
strating that cultivated GTAs transduce natural

communities of marine bacteria. The 16S ribosomal RNA sequences examined showed that the
majority of natural GTA recipients were most similar to marine Flavobacterium or Flexibacter strains
(table S2), consistent with the prior reports of abundant Flavobacterium in marine systems (3).
R. nubinhibens contains both a GTA and an
inducible prophage (4). Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) demonstrated that R. nubinhibens
induced prophage preparations contained tailed phage
(4), whereas GTA particles were nontailed (fig. S2A),
resembling the GTA of Silicibacter pomeroyi (5). In
contrast to the GTA particles, the purified prophages
of R. nubinhibens had no gene transfer activity.
Additionally, maximal expression of the R. nubinhibens GTA terminase gene cooccurred with maximal
GTA production (fig. S4). TEM of GTAs of R.
mobilis revealed tailed viral particles (fig. S2B).
GTA dose, or multiplicity of infection (MOI),
was linearly correlated with increased resistance
to antibiotics (MOI range from 0.01 to 10, R2 =
0.9593), which enabled extrapolations of gene
transfer frequencies to natural systems (6).
GTAs from R. nubinhibens ISM show a wide
host range and interspecific gene transfer under ecologically relevant conditions. Environmental gene
transfer frequencies ranging from 6.7 103 to
4.7 101 (Table 1) are 1900 to 459 million times
the frequency for transformation (2) and 650,000
to 31 million times the frequency of transduction
previously measured in the marine environment
(7). These results suggest a genomic flexibility in
marine microbial populations that facilitates their
adaptation to changing environmental conditions.
1. A. S. Lang, J. T. Beatty, Trends Microbiol. 15, 54 (2007).
2. H. G. Williams, J. Benstead, M. E. Frischer, J. H. Paul,
Mol. Mar. Biol. Biotechnol. 6, 238 (1997).
3. T. Woyke et al., PLoS ONE 4, e5299 (2009).
4. Y. L. Zhao et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 76, 589 (2010).
5. E. J. Biers et al., Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 74, 2933 (2008).
6. Materials and methods are available as supporting
material on Science Online.
7. S. C. Jiang, J. H. Paul, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 64, 2780
(1998).
8. Supported by NSF grant EF-0801593 to J.H.P. and L.D.M., grant
POR-09-06 from the Mote Marine Laboratory Protect Our Reefs
grants program to K.B.R. and J.H.P., and a Florida Institute of
Oceanography Shiptime award to J.H.P. Thanks to E. Bartels for
small boat operations within the Florida Keys National Marine
Sanctuary and T. LaJeunesse for the Symbiodinium cultures.
Coral samples and field experimentation were performed under
permits FKNMS-2008-065 and FKNMS-2008-031 to K.B.R.
Supporting Online Material

www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/330/6000/50/DC1
Materials and Methods
Figs. S1 to S4
Tables S1 to S3
References
13 May 2010; accepted 4 August 2010
10.1126/science.1192243
n=1
n=1
n=2
n=1
1
University of South Florida College of Marine Science, St.
Petersburg, FL 33701, USA. 2University of Duisburg-Essen, Biofilm Centre, 47057 Duisburg, Germany. 3Center for Coral Reef
Research, Mote Marine Laboratory, Sarasota, FL 34236, USA.

mcdaniel@marine.usf.edu
www.sciencemag.org
RESEARCH ARTICLES
Kepler-9: A System of Multiple Planets

Transiting a Sun-Like Star, Confirmed
by Timing Variations
Matthew J. Holman,1* Daniel C. Fabrycky,1 Darin Ragozzine,1 Eric B. Ford,2 Jason H. Steffen,3
William F. Welsh,4 Jack J. Lissauer,5,6 David W. Latham,1 Geoffrey W. Marcy,7
Lucianne M. Walkowicz,7 Natalie M. Batalha,8 Jon M. Jenkins,5,9 Jason F. Rowe,5
William D. Cochran,10 Francois Fressin,1 Guillermo Torres,1 Lars A. Buchhave,1,11
Dimitar D. Sasselov,1 William J. Borucki,5 David G. Koch,5 Gibor Basri,7 Timothy M. Brown,13,20
Douglas A. Caldwell,5,9 David Charbonneau,1 Edward W. Dunham,14 Thomas N. Gautier III,15
John C. Geary,1 Ronald L. Gilliland,16 Michael R. Haas,5 Steve B. Howell,17
David R. Ciardi,12 Michael Endl,10 Debra Fischer,18 Gbor Frsz,1 Joel D. Hartman,1
Howard Isaacson,7 John A. Johnson,19 Phillip J. MacQueen,10 Althea V. Moorhead,2
Robert C. Morehead,2 Jerome A. Orosz4
The Kepler spacecraft is monitoring more than 150,000 stars for evidence of planets transiting
those stars. We report the detection of two Saturn-size planets that transit the same Sun-like star,
based on 7 months of Kepler observations. Their 19.2- and 38.9-day periods are presently
increasing and decreasing at respective average rates of 4 and 39 minutes per orbit; in addition,
the transit times of the inner body display an alternating variation of smaller amplitude. These
signatures are characteristic of gravitational interaction of two planets near a 2:1 orbital
resonance. Six radial-velocity observations show that these two planets are the most massive
objects orbiting close to the star and substantially improve the estimates of their masses. After
removing the signal of the two confirmed giant planets, we identified an additional transiting
super-Earthsize planet candidate with a period of 1.6 days.
he Kepler mission was designed to measure the frequency of Earth-size planets
in the habitable zones of Sun-like stars,
by observing the dimming of star light when a
planet passes in front of (that is, transits) its parent
star (1). Transiting planets are particularly valuable, because their photometry, in conjunction
with radial-velocity (RV) observations, yields the
planets physical properties (for instance, radius,
mass, and density) (2, 3). Kepler has identified
more than 700 transiting-planet candidates (4),
including some systems with multiple transiting-
Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, 60 Garden

Street, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. 2University of Florida,
Gainesville, FL 32611, USA. 3Fermilab Center for Particle
Astrophysics, Batavia, IL 60510, USA. 4San Diego State University, San Diego, CA 92182, USA. 5NASA Ames Research
Center, Moffett Field, CA 94035, USA. 6Stanford University,
Stanford, CA 94305, USA. 7University of California, Berkeley,
CA 94720, USA. 8San Jose State University, San Jose, CA
95192, USA. 9SETI Institute, Mountain View, CA 94043, USA.
10
University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712, USA. 11Niels Bohr Institute, Copenhagen University, DK-2100 Copenhagen, Denmark.
12
NASA Exoplanet Science Institute/California Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA. 13Las Cumbres Observatory
Global Telescope, Goleta, CA 93117, USA. 14Lowell Observatory,
Flagstaff, AZ 86001, USA. 15Jet Propulsion Laboratory/California
Institute of Technology, Pasadena, CA 91109, USA. 16Space Telescope Science Institute, Baltimore, MD 21218, USA. 17National
Optical Astronomy Observatory, Tucson, AZ 85719, USA. 18Yale
University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA. 19California Institute of
Technology, Pasadena, CA 91125, USA. 20University of California, Santa Barbara, CA 93106, USA.
exoplanet candidates (5). Confirming that each of

these candidates is actually a planet (as opposed
to various astrophysical false positives; for example, diluted eclipsing binaries) requires extensive
follow-up observations. We report the detection
of a system of two transiting planets (Kepler-9b
and 9c) showing transit timing variations (TTVs)
(6, 7).
Kepler photometry. The Kepler data pipeline
identified two transiting-planet candidates orbiting a star now designated Kepler-9 (KIC 3323887,
2MASS 19021775+3824032, KOI-377) and performed a series of checks to exclude common
false positives (810). The Kepler photometric observations of Kepler-9 reported here span 13 May
to 16 December 2009 universal time and consist of
a nearly continuous series of 29.426-min exposures
through a broad optical bandpass (1). Because

preliminary estimates of the transit times suggested
that the transit times were not strictly periodic,
this system was selected for intensive study.
The Kepler light curves (Figs. 1 and 2) show
that Kepler-9 is a mildly active star, with photometric variations somewhat larger than those exhibited by the active Sun. The light curves show
the effects of stellar spots (radius ~ 0.1R*, where
R* is the stellar radius) and a stellar rotation
period of ~16.7 days. Ground-based telescopic
observations established that the properties of the
host star are quite similar to those of the Sun [see
the supporting online material (SOM)].
TTVs. The orbital periods of the two planet
candidates are ~19.24 (Kepler-9b) and ~38.91
(Kepler-9c) days. We modeled each transit separately, allowing for variations in the transit time,
duration, depth, and shape. Because there are
substantial variations in the transit times but not
in any of the other parameters, we determined
the final transit times by fitting a detailed transit
model, requiring a common transit duration, depth,
and shape for each planet candidate, but fitting for
the mid-time of each transit (Fig. 3 and tables S4
and S5). The observed changes are much larger
than the ~80-s uncertainty with which we measured the times of transit, as well as the expected
variations due to a planet transiting stellar spots
(SOM).
At BJD 2455088.212 (the weighted average
of the transit times), the ratio of the best-fit orbital
periods of Kepler-9c and Kepler-9b is Pc /Pb =
2.023, indicating that the system is probably affected by a 2:1 mean motion resonance (MMR).
Resonance libration can cause the instantaneous
period ratio to differ by a few percent from the
long-term average ratio, even if the planets are well
within the resonance. For planets in a 2:1 MMR,
conservation of energy, assuming no strong scattering and slow variation of the orbital elements,
implies that the period derivatives have opposite
sign with a ratio dependent on the planet-planet
mass ratio. We measure [(DPb/Pb)/(DPc/Pc)] =
0.375, suggesting a mass ratio of Kepler-9c to
Kepler-9b (Mc/Mb) 0.6 (see SOM). In addition
to the slow change in orbital period, the times
between successive pairs of transits of Kepler-9b
also show an alternating pattern with an amplitude
Fig. 1. The raw photometry of Kepler9 (KOI-377, KIC 3323887) showing
data from Quarters 1 to 3. The jumps in
flux correspond to the breaks between
quarters, when Kepler-9 moves to a
different detector after the rotation of
the spacecraft.

mholman@cfa.harvard.edu
www.sciencemag.org
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51
RESEARCH ARTICLES
of 2 to 4 min (Fig. 3). This chopping signal is due
to the alternating position of the outer planet at
the time of transit of the inner planet, and it scales
with the mass of the outer body. These interdependent timing variations indicate that the two
bodies are gravitationally interacting and, thus,
must be orbiting the same star.
Dynamical model. The observed TTVs are
the natural consequences of a system of two
planets orbiting near the 2:1 MMR. We verified this by numerically simulating a fully interacting three-body system composed of a star of mass
1.0M (where M is the mass of the Sun) and two
planets. We fit the planet masses and orbits by
comparing the transit times and durations predicted by the numerical model with those observed (Figs. 4 and 5).
Based on the photometry alone, we exclude
masses for Kepler-9b that are less than 0.02MJup
(where MJup is the mass of Jupiter) and greater
than 4MJup; for Kepler-9c, we exclude masses
that are less than 0.03MJup and greater than 2MJup,
at the 3s level (Fig. 4). This confirms that these
are two planet-mass objects orbiting a Sun-like
star and that their eccentricities are small ( 0.2).
We verified that, for masses of Kepler-9b and 9c
that correspond to brown dwarfs or stars, the fits
to the transit times and durations are very poor,
and the systems are dynamically unstable on time
scales of tens of years.
Using the times and durations of transits
observed over the lifetime of the Kepler mission,
we expect that the TTVs alone will constrain the
masses, eccentricities, and mutual inclination of
the two established planets with substantially
reduced uncertainties (SOM). Nevertheless, we
obtained a few strategically timed high-precision
RV measurements with the High-Resolution
Echelle Spectrometer (11) instrument on the 10-m
Keck 1 telescope (SOM). Assuming that the RVs
are dominated by Kepler-9b and Kepler-9c, we
infer masses of 0.252 T 0.013 MJup and 0.172 T
0.013 MJup for Kepler-9b and 9c, respectively
(Table 1), based on the combination of RVs, transit
times, and durations (Fig. 4, dashed line). Figure 3
shows the RVs predicted by the model and those
observed (these were included in the fit).
The measured ratio of transit durations is
consistent with both planets transiting the same
star with low-eccentricity orbits and similar impact parameters. Whereas the inclination of each
planets orbit relative to the plane of the sky
(ib,sky, ic,sky) is measured from the transit duration
and shape, the relative inclination between the
orbits depends on the difference in the longitudes
of ascending node (DWsky). In general, dynamical
interactions induce nodal precession that, in turn,
causes a drift in the impact parameter and the
duration of the transits (12, 13). The lack of transit
duration variations provides a constraint on the
mutual inclinations and the presence of moons
(12). Multiple transiting planets are most likely to
be seen in systems with small relative orbital
inclinations. For the orbital periods of Kepler-9b
and 9c, the probability of both planets transiting
52
decreases rapidly as the relative inclination increases beyond 2 (14). The current observations
favor a small relative inclination (< 10).
Follow-up observations. We performed

a series of tests to exclude a variety of astrophysical
congurations that could mimic the transits seen
in the Kepler photometry. High-resolution imaging revealed that Kepler-9 has three neighboring
stars located within 8 arc sec of itself, implying
minor contamination (< 1%) of the transit depth
(15). Because all identified

neighbors are 3.7
magnitudes fainter, none could mimic the Kepler-
9b or Kepler-9c transits, even if it were an eclipsing binary that dimmed by 50%. Moreover, the
likelihood is negligible that the two transit
signatures with a period ratio of 2:1 could be
caused by stellar-mass companions, as this configuration would not be stable (16). Modeling of
an exhaustive variety of stellar-blend scenarios
(15), assuming the photometry of each planet
candidate is the result of the brightness variations
of an eclipsing binary being diluted by the brighter
candidate star, has shown that, in the case of
Kepler-9b and 9c, the only blends that could
Fig. 2. The detrended light curve

of Kepler-9 (KOI-377, KIC 3323887),
clearly showing two periodic transit
signals well above the typical scatter of ~210 ppm. This was the light
curve that we used to derive the results described in this paper. Kepler9b, with a period near 19.2 days, is
the slightly deeper transit, with the
third and seventh transits missing
(because of incomplete duty cycle).
Kepler-9c, with a period near 39 days,
is a little shallower, and all transits
are observed. At this scale, the light
curve of the third candidate, KOI377.03, is not apparent.
Fig. 3. (Top) Offset of the observed transit times for planets b
(blue symbols) and c (red dot
symbols) compared to those calculated with linear ephemerides,
quadratic ephemerides, and a dynamical model (diamonds) in
which the planets fully interact.
These calculations display the bestfit model (table S1). Only the diamond symbols are shown for
events for which Kepler data were
not available. (Bottom) A comparison of the observed RV (dots) with
that predicted by the dynamical
model (solid line and diamonds).
Error bars indicate the uncertainties
in the RV observations (SOM).
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RESEARCH ARTICLES
reproduce the Kepler light curve would be within
two magnitudes of the target brightness. A combination of high-resolution imaging and spectroscopic constraints rules out these scenarios and
provides an independent confirmation of the planetary status of the two planets.
Super-Earthsize candidate. After filtering
out the transits of Kepler-9b and Kepler-9c, there
is evidence for a third, smaller planet candidate
with a period of 1.5925 days and a transit depth
of ~200 parts per million (ppm) (Fig. 6). Until it
is confirmed as a planet (as opposed to a background eclipsing binary), we will refer to this body
as KOI-377.03, following the internal enumeration of Kepler Objects of Interest (KOI). Because
the transit depth of KOI-377.03 is similar to the
scatter in each 30-min observation, individual
events are difficult to distinguish, but the transit
light curve is very significant in binned photometry (Fig. 5). The transit duration (~2.8 hours) is
consistent with a central transit of the same star
orbited by Kepler-9b and Kepler-9c (which transit
with a larger impact parameter). If this is a planet
orbiting the same star, it would have a radius of
~1.5R (where R is the radius of Earth), making
KOI-377.03 one of the smallest planets detected to
date. We verified with n-body integrations that a
system composed of Kepler-9, Kepler-9b, Kepler9c, and KOI-377.03 (assuming an Earth-like density
for the KOI-377.03) is dynamically stable for at least
the time scale of the numerical integrations (SOM).
If KOI-377.03 is a planet in the same system,
its expected TTVamplitude is only tens of seconds
(7), which is not surprising given the large period ratio (12.1) between KOI-377.03 and Kepler9b. Neither this signal nor the TTVs induced on
Kepler-9b or Kepler-9c from KOI-377.03 are
likely to be measured by Kepler. However, the
expected RV signature from such a planet would
be ~1.5 m/s semiamplitude (using an Earth-like
density) and may be contributing to the observed

RV scatter.
Discussion. The detailed dynamics of a resonant system probes the systems formation.
Resonant systems of giant planets inside the
snow line most likely formed outside of resonance and at larger distances. Slow, smooth differential migration through the systems natal
disk naturally leads to planets becoming trapped
in the 2:1 MMR with small amplitude libration
of resonant angles, as is the case for the GJ876
system (17, 18). Although several other planetary
systems are near the 2:1 MMR (1923) or show
more complicated resonance structure (24), measuring the libration amplitude of resonant angles
from RVobservations is challenging, even for the
most favorable system (24, 25). For multitransiting systems, on the other hand, resonant angles
can be accurately measured via TTVs (26). For
the Kepler-9 system, the expected libration period,
based on numerical simulations, is ~4 years.
The best-t Kepler-9b and 9c model is dynamically stable for more than 2.7 billion years,
but only one of the resonant angles librates. For
nearby, stable solutions, each of the resonant angles
circulate. Large libration amplitude (Fig. 4, bottom panel) could be attributable to a more rapid
migration (27) or excitation after resonant capture.
For example, continued migration after resonant
capture can lead to eccentricity excitation and,
eventually, planet-planet scattering (2831). Other
mechanisms such as turbulence in the protoplanetary disk (32), scattering of planetesimals
(33, 34), and perturbations by other planets (35)
could also be responsible for a large libration amplitude. In principle, each of these mechanisms
could perturb a resonant system so as to increase
the libration amplitude. For Kepler-9b and 9c,
tidal dissipation is expected to be too slow to have
broken the MMR (36).
Fig. 4. Fits to the transit timing

observations as a function of assumed mass of Kepler-9c (Mc). (Top)
The c2 statistic, where the transit
mid-times and durations are fit
(solid curve), and the transit midtimes, transit durations, and RVs
are also fit (dashed curve). (Middle)
The ratio of planetary masses, showing that, for small masses, the mass
ratio can be predicted from the ratio
of the quadratic terms in the transit
time ephemerides. Mb represents the
mass of Kepler-9b. (Bottom) The full
amplitude (ampl.) of the 2:1 resonance angle q1 = 2lc lb b (lc
is the mean longitude of Kepler-9c; lb
is the mean longitude of Kepler-9b;
and b is the longitude of periastron
of Kepler-9b) in a 103-year integration. Upward-pointing triangles indicate circulation of the resonance
angle; dots indicate the full amplitude (in degrees) of libration.
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VOL 330
Our models currently indicate a solar-mass

star with a radius of ~1.1R (where R is the
radius of the Sun), based on the observed durations and impact parameters (SOM). Combining
this observation with the well-measured radius
ratio, the two planets Kepler-9b and 9c have
nearly identical radii of ~0.8RJup (where RJup is
the radius of Jupiter). The best-t planet masses
and radii are slightly smaller than those of Saturn.
Theoretical models indicate that such planets are
composed primarily of H and He (3739).
The equilibrium temperatures for Kepler-9b
and 9c are ~740 and ~540 K, respectively (assuming Bond albedos of 0.2). The mass-radius relation is insensitive to the equilibrium temperatures,
Table 1. Parameters for Kepler-9, Kepler-9b, and
Kepler-9c based on the combined fit to the observed transit times, transit durations, and RVs. The
quadratic ephemerides for both planets are approximations to the actual transit times and are not
meant to be extrapolated beyond the observations
presented in this paper. The quoted uncertainties in
the planetary masses, radii, densities, and semimajor
axes do not incorporate the uncertainty in the stellar mass (M*). Rp, planet radius; b, impact parameter; Mp, mass of planet; AU, astronomical units; N,
transit number.
Stellar parameters
Value
1.0 T 0.1
Mass M* (M)
Radius R* (R)
1.10 T 0.09
Planet b
Value
parameters
Ephemeris
(2455073.43381 T 0.00052)
(BJD)
+(19.243159 T 0.000098)N
+(0.001274 T 0.000036)N2
Transit duration
0.15927 T 0.00044
(days)
Scaled planet
0.07885 T 0.00081
radius Rp /R*
Scaled impact
0.654 T 0.033
parameter b/R*
Mass Mp (MJup)
0.252 T 0.013
Radius Rp(RJup)
0.842 T 0.069
0.524 T 0.132
Density r p (g/cm3)
Orbital semimajor
0.140 T 0.001
axis a (AU)
Planet c
Value
parameters
Ephemeris
(2455164.18301 T 0.00074)
(BJD)
+(38.908610 T 0.000738)N
(0.013452 T 0.000147)N2
Transit duration
0.17121 T 0.00057
(days)
Scaled planet
0.07708 T 0.00080
radius Rp /R*
Scale impact
0.716 T 0.026
parameter b/R*
Mass Mp (MJup)
0.171 T 0.013
Radius Rp(RJup)
0.823 T 0.067
0.383 T 0.098
Density r p (g/cm3)
Orbital
0.225 T 0.001
semimajor axis
a (AU)
1 OCTOBER 2010
53
RESEARCH ARTICLES
Fig. 5. Light curves for Kepler-9b (left) and Kepler-9c (right). In each
panel, the top curve shows the detrended Kepler photometry (points, colored
by transit epoch) folded with the best-fit period. Significant displacements
are due to the large TTVs caused by gravitational interactions between the
planets, as described in the text. The bottom curve in each panel (displaced
downward for clarity) shows the transits shifted to a common center using
the measured transit times (SOM), giving depths of ~7 millimagnitudes and
durations of ~4.5 hours. Also shown are solid lines (also colored by transit
epoch) from the full numerical-photometric model, folded or shifted in the
same way as the data.
Fig. 6. The detrended relative photometry of Kepler-9, folded on its orbital period, showing the full phase
curve and the signal due to candidate KOI-377.03. For this, we adopt
an ephemeris for KOI-377.03 of BJD
2454965.74 + E 1.5925. This light
curve could be due to an astrophysical false positive, although the
transit parameters and other considerations are consistent with this candidate being a
coplanar third planet in the Kepler-9 system. Black
vertical bars show phased photometry binned every
~15 min with error bars taken from the scatter of the
data in each bin. Also shown is a model for the central
transit of a planet with radius ~1.5R.
but these could be affected by a young age (38).
The heavy-element fractions of Kepler-9b and
9c are indeterminate (~0.1 to 0.5), but coreless
(metal-free) models seem to be excluded.
KOI-377.03 might correspond to a superEarthsize planet of radius ~1.5R. With no additional information available for this planet,
the upper mass limit of 7M (where M is the
mass of Earth) corresponds to the maximum
mantle-stripping limit for a maximally iron-rich
super-Earth (40). The lower mass limit is less
clear: It could be as small as 1M for a volatilerich planet with a hot extended atmosphere; e.g.,
water steam (41, 42). The planet candidate is so
close to its host star, comparable to CoRoT-7b
(43), that its ~2200 K estimated surface temperature is very high, and volatile-rich solutions
are less likely if the Kepler-9 planetary system is
old and evaporation has been substantial. A
volatile-poor rocky KOI 377.03 super-Earth with
a Ganymede-like Fe/Si ratio would correspond
to a planet mass of ~3.5M (44). Such a planet
would have formed under volatile-rich conditions,
only to lose all of its water due to evaporation.
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available at http://arxiv.org/abs/1006.3727.
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34. A. Morbidelli, K. Tsiganis, A. Crida, H. F. Levison,
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36. C. Terquem, J. C. B. Papaloizou, Astrophys. J. 654, 1110 (2007).
37. I. Baraffe, Y. Alibert, G. Chabrier, W. Benz, Astron.
Astrophys. 450, 1221 (2006).
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40. R. A. Marcus, D. Sasselov, L. Hernquist, S. T. Stewart,
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45. Funding for this Discovery mission is provided by NASAs
Science Mission Directorate. We acknowledge NASA
Cooperative Agreement NCC2-1390. D.C.F. acknowledges
support from the Michelson Fellowship, supported by NASA
and administered by the NASA Exoplanet Science Institute.
This material is based on work supported by the NSF
under grant no. 0707203. This work is based, in part,
on observations obtained at the W. M. Keck Observatory,
which is operated by the Univ. of California and the
California Institute of Technology. Some of the observations
in this paper were obtained at Kitt Peak National Observatory,
National Optical Astronomy Observatory, which is operated
by the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy
under cooperative agreement with the NSF. J.F.R. is a
NASA postdoctoral program fellow. We are grateful to
N. Haghighipour for many helpful comments and suggestions.

www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/science.1195778/DC1
SOM Text
Figs. S1 to S4
Tables S1 to S6
References
28 July 2010; accepted 19 August 2010
Published online 26 August 2010;
10.1126/science.1195778
Include this information when citing this paper.
www.sciencemag.org

RESEARCH ARTICLES
Piezo1 and Piezo2 Are Essential

Components of Distinct Mechanically
Activated Cation Channels
Bertrand Coste,1 Jayanti Mathur,2 Manuela Schmidt,1 Taryn J. Earley,1 Sanjeev Ranade,1
Matt J. Petrus,2 Adrienne E. Dubin,1 Ardem Patapoutian1,2*
Mechanical stimuli drive many physiological processes, including touch and pain sensation,
hearing, and blood pressure regulation. Mechanically activated (MA) cation channel activities
have been recorded in many cells, but the responsible molecules have not been identified.
We characterized a rapidly adapting MA current in a mouse neuroblastoma cell line. Expression
profiling and RNA interference knockdown of candidate genes identified Piezo1 (Fam38A) to be
required for MA currents in these cells. Piezo1 and related Piezo2 (Fam38B) are vertebrate
multipass transmembrane proteins with homologs in invertebrates, plants, and protozoa.
Overexpression of mouse Piezo1 or Piezo2 induced two kinetically distinct MA currents. Piezos
are expressed in several tissues, and knockdown of Piezo2 in dorsal root ganglia neurons
specifically reduced rapidly adapting MA currents. We propose that Piezos are components of
MA cation channels.
Fig. 1. MA currents in N2A cells. (A) Representative traces of MA inward

currents expressed in N2A cells. Cells were subjected to a series of mechanical steps
of 1-mm movements of a stimulation pipette (inset illustration, arrow) in the
whole-cell patch configuration at a holding potential of 80 mV. (B) Average
current-voltage relationships of MA currents in N2A cells (n = 11 cells). (Inset)
Representative MA currents evoked at holding potentials ranging from 80 to +40 mV
(applied 0.7 s before the mechanical step). (C) Single-channel currents (cell
attached patch configuration) induced by means of negative pressure with a
pipette (inset illustration, arrow) at holding potentials ranging from 80 mV to
+80 mV in a N2A cell. (D) Average current-voltage relationships of stretchactivated single channels in N2A cells (n = 4 cells, mean T SEM). Singlechannel conductance was calculated from the slope of the linear regression
line of each cell, giving g = 22.9 T 1.4 pS (mean T SEM). Single-channel
amplitude was determined as the amplitude difference in Gaussian fits of
full-trace histograms. (E) Representative currents (averaged traces) induced
by means of negative pipette pressure (0 to 60 mmHg, D 10 mmHg) in a N2A
cell. (F) Normalized current-pressure relationship of stretch-activated
currents at 80 mV fitted with a Boltzmann equation (n = 21 cells). P50 is
the average value of P50 values from individual cells.
1
Department of Cell Biology, The Scripps Research Institute
(TSRI), La Jolla, CA 92037, USA. 2Genomics Institute of the
Novartis Research Foundation (GNF), San Diego, CA 92121,
USA.

ardem@scripps.edu
B
200
5 m
100 pA
100
50 ms
100 ms
-80
(mV)
-40
40
80
-100
100 pA
(pA)
-200
2.5
5 mmHg
1.5
+80 mV
+40 mV
(mV)
0 mV
-80
-40 mV
-40
40
-80 mV
-1.5
-2.5
250 500 750 1000 1250
80
(pA)
(ms)
20 mmHg
Normalized current
force strongly affects morphogenesis, for example, in lateral root formation (3). Unicellular organisms such as ciliates sense touch and change
direction in response to a tactile stimulus (4).
Mechanotransduction in vertebrate inner-ear hair
cells is extremely rapid, implicating an ion channel directly activated by force (5). Indeed, calciumpermeable mechanically activated (MA) cationic
currents have been described in various mecha-
5 pA
echanotransduction, the conversion of

mechanical force into biological signals, has crucial roles in physiology. In
mammals, embryonic development, touch, pain,
proprioception, hearing, adjustment of vascular
tone and blood flow, flow sensing in kidney, lung
growth and injury, bone and muscle homeostasis,
as well as metastasis are all regulated by means of
mechanotransduction (1, 2). In plants, mechanical
nosensitive cells (2, 3, 6, 7). However, only few

MA channels have been identified to date (1, 2),
and definitive candidates in vertebrate mechanosensation has yet to emerge.
Neuro2A cells express MA currents. To identify proteins involved in mechanotransduction,
we sought a cell line that expresses a MA current
similar to those recorded from primary cells (8).
We screened several mouse and rat cell lines
(Neuro2A, C2C12, NIH/3T3, Min-6, 50B11,
F11, and PC12), applying force to the cell surface
via a piezo-electrically driven glass probe while
patch-clamp recording in the whole-cell configuration with another pipette (6, 8, 9). The Neuro2A
(N2A) mouse neuroblastoma cell line expressed
the most consistent MA currents and showed relatively faster kinetics of adaptation (decreased
activity in response to a sustained stimulus) as
compared with that of other cell lines, such as
C2C12s (Fig. 1, A and B, and fig. S1, A to D).
Current-voltage relationships of N2A and C2C12
MA currents were linear between 80 and +80 mV
with reversal potentials (Erev) at +6.6 and +6.7 mV,
respectively, and inward currents were suppressed
with N-methyl-D-glucamine (NMDG)chloride external solutions, suggesting cationic nonselective
5 pA
(ms)
0
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200
VOL 330
400
600
800
1 OCTOBER 2010
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
P50 = -28.0 1.8

mmHg
(mmHg)
0
-20
-40
-60
55
RESEARCH ARTICLES
permeability (fig. S1E). We further characterized
MA currents in N2A cells in response to suction
of the membrane applied through the recording
pipette in cell-attached mode (10). Negative pressure pulses evoked opening of endogenous channels (Fig. 1C), with a single-channel conductance
of 22.9 T 1.4 pS and Erev of +6.2 mV (Fig. 1D).

Increasing the magnitude of pressure pulses induced larger and reversible currents (Fig. 1E).
The current-pressure relationship is characterized
by maximal opening at 60 mmHg, with a pressure for half-maximal activation (P50) of 28.0 T
1.8 mmHg (Fig. 1F). These conductance and P50

values are similar to the properties of reported
stretch-activated channels (1113).
Piezo1 (Fam38A) is required for MA currents of N2A cells. To generate a list of candidate MA ion channels in N2A, we searched for
Smart pool II
combined
Scrambled
siRNA
siRNA 3
Piezo1
siRNA 2
Smart pool I
120
Imax (pA)
Scrambled
siRNA 1
Imax (pA)
Candidate number
Fig. 2. Suppression of MA currents by means of A

B 200
1
5 m
Scrambled
***
Piezo1 (Fam38A) siRNA. (A) Average maximal
54
10
amplitude of MA inward currents elicited at a
holding potential of 80 mV in N2A cells trans150
20
50 pA
fected with scrambled siRNA (blue dot, n = 56
cells), Piezo1 (Fam38A) siRNA (red dot, n = 20
100 ms
30
cells) or siRNA directed against other candidates
100
5 m
siRNA
tested (open symbols) (a list of candidates is
40
available in table S1). For each candidate, the
11
black circle and error bar represents the mean T
50
50
12
SEM, n = 4 to 27 cells each. The black line
12 67
12
60
20
represents the average value of all cells tested (n =
0
807 cells), and the two blue dashed lines represent
70
a fourfold decrease or increase of this value. (B)
Average maximal amplitude of MA inward currents
elicited at a holding potential of 80 mV in N2A
1
10
100
1000 10000
cells transfected either with (blue) scrambled siRNA
Imax (pA)
or (red) different Piezo1 (Fam38A) siRNAs. Smart- C
D
12
Scrambled
siRNA
**
pool I is composed of four siRNAs, including siRNA
28
1, 2, and 3. ***P < 0.001, Kruskal-Wallis test.
20 mmHg
20 mmHg 10
(Inset) Representative traces of MA inward currents
expressed in N2A cells transfected with (blue trace)
8
scrambled siRNA or (red trace) Piezo1 (Fam38A)
6
siRNA at a holding potential of 80 mV. (C)
Representative currents (averaged traces) induced
4
by means of negative pipette pressure (0 to 60
27
5 pA
5 pA
mmHg, D 10 mmHg, cell attached) in a N2A cell
2
transfected with (left) scrambled siRNA or (right)
0
(ms)
Piezo1 siRNA. Traces of current elicited by 60
mmHg are highlighted in blue and red. (D)
0
200
400
600 800 0
200
400
600 800
Average maximal amplitude of stretch-activated
currents elicited at a holding potential of 80 mV
in N2A cells transfected with (blue) scrambled
siRNA or (red) Piezo1 siRNA. Bars represent the
mean T SEM, and the number of cells tested is shown above the bars. **P < 0.01, unpaired t test with Welchs correction.
56
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www.sciencemag.org
100
80
60
40
20
0
120
Piezo2
100
80
60
40
20
0
Bladder
Brain
Cerebellum
Colon
DRG
Heart
Kidney
Lung
Skeletal Muscle
Skin
Small intestine
Stomach
GAPDH normalized
expression (a.u.)
GAPDH normalized
expression (a.u.)
Fig. 3. Evolutionary conservation and expression A

B
profile of mouse Piezo1 and Piezo2. (A) Unrooted Kingdom: Animalia
phylogenetic tree showing sequence relationship of Phylum: Chordata
different members of the Piezo family of proteins.
Ci Piezo
Kingdom: Animalia
Dr Piezo2
The alignments were generated by using Megalign
(Sea
Gg Piezo2
(Zebrafish)
Phylum: Arthropoda
squirt)
(Chicken)
(DNASTAR, Madison, Wisconsin) and DrawTree
Mm Piezo2
Dm Piezo
(Mouse)
programs. The dotted line represents an artificially
(Fruit fly)
Hs Piezo2
(Human)
(
Kingdom: Protista*
extended line to accommodate fit. Hs, Homo
Phylum: Ciliophora
sapiens; Mm, Mouse musculus; Gg, Gallus gallus,
Tt Piezo (a)
Dr Piezo1
Dr, Danio rerio; Ci, Ciona intestinalis; Dm, Drosoph(Ciliated
(Zebrafish)
protozoan)
ila melanogaster; Ce, Caenorhabditis elegans; Dd,
Gg Piezo1
Tt Piezo (b)
(Chicken)
(Ciliated
Dictyostelium discoideum; At, Arabidopsis thaliana;
Mm Piezo1
protozoan)
(Mouse)
Hs
Piezo1
Os, Oryza sativa; and Tt, Tetrahymena thermophila
(Human)
[accession numbers are provided (25)]. Protista is
Tt Piezo (c)
Ce Piezo
(Ciliated
referred to as a single kingdom but can be
(Worm)
protozoan)
considered as a group of diverse phyla. (B) mRNA
Kingdom: Animalia
expression profiles of (top) Piezo1 and (bottom)
Phylum: Nematoda
At Piezo
Dd Piezo
Piezo2 determined by means of quantitative PCR
(Flowering
(Slime
Os Piezo
plant)
mold)
from various adult mouse tissues. Glyceraldehyde-3(Rice)
Kingdom: Amoebozoa
phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) was used as the
Kingdom: Plantae
Phylum: Mycetozoa
reference gene, and lung was used as the tissue
CT
method. Each bar
calibrator by means of the 2
is the mean + SEM of the average of two separate
experiments.

RESEARCH ARTICLES
teins with unknown function. We tested each candidate (table S1) using small interfering RNA
(siRNA) knockdown in N2A cells, measuring MA
currents during piezo-driven pressure stimulation
in the whole-cell mode. Knockdown of Fam38A
(Family with sequence similarity 38) caused a
transcripts that are enriched in N2A cells using

Affymetrix microarrays (Affymetrix, Santa Clara,
California). We selected proteins predicted to span
the membrane at least two times (a characteristic
shared by all ion channels). We prioritized this list
by picking either known cation channels or pro-
***
5 m
100 ms
2
Imax (nA)
2 nA
N2A
(mV)
-80
100 ms
-40
40
80
-2
100 ms
(mV)
-40
40
1 nA
400
600
10
0 Ctr Piezo1
I
0.8
400
600
P50 = -28.1 2.8

mmHg
0.2
-20
-40
40
20
11
(mmHg)
-60
Ctr Piezo1
L
80
**
0.8
60
0.6
0.4
P50 = -31.2 3.5
mmHg
0.2
0
800
Imax (pA)
0.4
0
Normalized current
25 pA
20 mmHg
200
13
60
0.6
***
80
800
(ms)
-4
-20
-40
(mmHg)
-60
Imax (pA)
Normalized current
25 pA
N2A
20 mmHg
200
(ms)
10
-2
HEK293T
80
(nA)
Imax (nA)
HEK293T
-80
***
2
2 nA
Ctr Piezo1
5 m
100 ms
2
15
-4
(nA)
1 nA
16
17
40
20
0
18
Ctr Piezo1
Fig. 4. Large MA currents from cells overexpressing Piezo1. (A to F) MA currents of Piezo1-expressing [(A)
to (C)] N2A and [(D) to (F)] HEK293T cells recorded in the whole-cell configuration. [(A) and (D)] Representative traces of MA inward currents expressed in different cell types transfected with Piezo1. Cells
were subjected to a series of mechanical steps in 1-mm (A) or 0.5-mm (D) increments by using glass probe
stimulation and at a holding potential of 80 mV. [(B) and (E)] Representative current-voltage
relationships of MA currents expressed in different cell types transfected with Piezo1. (Inset) MA currents
evoked at holding potentials ranging from 80 to +40 mV. [(C) and (F)] Average maximal amplitude of
MA inward currents elicited at a holding potential of 80 mV in (red) Piezo1-transfected or (blue) mocktransfected cells. Bars represent the mean T SEM, and the number of cells tested is shown above the bars.
***P < 0.001, unpaired t test with Welchs correction. (G to L) Stretch-activated currents of mouse [(G) to
(I)] Piezo1-expressing N2A and [(J) to (L)] HEK293T cells in cell-attached configuration. Representative
averaged currents induced by means of negative pipette pressure (0 to 60 mmHg, D 10 mmHg) in (G)
N2A and (J) HEK293T cells transfected with Piezo1. Imax normalized current-pressure relationship of
stretch-activated currents elicited at 80 mV in Piezo1-transfected [(H) n = 12 cells] N2A and [(K) n = 11
cells] HEK293T cells and fitted with a Boltzmann equation. P50 is the average value of all P50 values
determined for individual cells. Average maximal amplitude of stretch-activated currents elicited at a
holding potential of 80 mV in (I) N2A and (L) HEK293T cells (blue) mock-transfected or (red) transfected
with Piezo1. Bars represent the mean T SEM, and the number of cells tested is shown above the bars.
***P < 0.001; **P < 0.01, unpaired t test with Welchs correction.
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VOL 330
pronounced decrease of MA currents (Fig. 2A).

Attenuation of MA currents was observed with
multiple siRNAs directed against this gene (Fig.
2B). All the siRNAs tested decreased the abundance of the target transcripts as assayed with
quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) (fig.
S2A). Given that Fam38A encodes a protein required for the expression of ion channels activated
by pressure, we named this gene Piezo1, from the
Greek pesh (pesi), meaning pressure. To test
whether depletion of Piezo1 impairs general cell
signaling or viability, we transfected N2A cells
with TRPV1 cDNA (a capsaicin-activated cation
channel) and either scrambled or Piezo1 siRNA
and observed no differences in capsaicin responses
(fig. S2, B and C). We tested whether Piezo1 was
also required for N2A MA currents elicited through
patch membrane stretch (Fig. 2C). MA currents
were diminished in cells treated with siRNA
against Piezo1 (Fig. 2D).
Very little is known about mammalian Piezo1
(KIAA0233, Fam38A, and Mib). Its expression
is induced in senile plaque-associated astrocytes
(14), and the protein has been suggested to be
involved in integrin activation (15). Extracellular
perfusion of cells with buffer lacking divalent
ions and containing 5 mM EGTA for 30 to 60 min,
which disrupts integrin function (16), did not suppress MA currents (fig. S2, D and E). Thus, it is
unlikely that Piezo1 siRNA blocks MA currents
through integrin modulation. However, it is possible that mechanical activation of Piezo1 could
lead to integrin activation.
Piezos are large-transmembrane proteins
conserved among various species. Many animal,
plant, and other eukaryotic species contain a single Piezo (Fig. 3A). Vertebrates have two members, Piezo1 (Fam38A) and Piezo2 (Fam38B).
However, the early chordate Ciona has a single
member. Multiple Piezos are also present in the
Ciliophora kingdom: Tetrahymena thermophila
has three members; Paramecium tetraurelia has
six. No clear homologs were identified in yeast or
bacteria. The secondary structure and overall length
of Piezo proteins are moderately conserved, and
similarity to other proteins is minimal. As assayed
with the Transmembrane Hidden Markov Model
prediction program (TMHMM2) (CBS, Lyngby,
Denmark), all have between 24 and 36 predicted
transmembrane domains (with variability perhaps
being due to inaccurate cDNA or transmembrane
prediction). The predicted proteins contain 2100 to
4700 amino acids, and the transmembrane domains are located throughout the putative protein
(fig. S3). Piezo1 expression was observed in
bladder, colon, kidney, lung, and skin (Fig. 3B).
This pattern agrees with Northern blot expression
analysis in rat (14). Bladder, colon, and lung
undergo mechanotransduction related to visceral
pain (17), and primary cilia in the kidney sense
urinary flux (18). The relatively low amount of
mRNA in dorsal root ganglia (DRGs) suggests
that Piezo1 may not account for MA currents observed there (8, 9, 1922), but Piezo1 was observed in the skin, which is another putative site
1 OCTOBER 2010
57
RESEARCH ARTICLES
of somatosensation. Piezo2 expression was observed in bladder, colon, and lung as well, but
less abundant in kidney or skin. Strong expression of Piezo2 was observed in DRG sensory neurons, suggesting a potential role in somatosensory
mechanotransduction.
Piezo1 induces MA currents in various cell
types. We cloned full-length Piezo1 from N2A
cells into the pIRES2enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP) vector. We recorded MA
currents from GFP-positive cells in the wholecell mode 12 to 48 hours after transfection. Piezo1
but not mock-transfected cells showed large MA
currents in N2A, human embryonic kidney (HEK)
293 T (Fig. 4, A to F), and C2C12 cell lines (fig.
S4, A to C). In all cells overexpressing Piezo1,
the MA current-voltage relationships were similar to those for endogenous N2A MA currents
(Fig. 4, B and E, and figs. 1B and S4B), with
Erev ~ +6 mV. The threshold of activation and
the time constant for inactivation of MA currents elicited in Piezo1-overexpressing cells was
similar in all three cell lines tested (table S2). We
characterized the ionic selectivity of MA currents
in cells overexpressing Piezo1. Substituting the

nonpermeant cation NMDG in the extracellular
bathing solution suppressed inward MA currents,
demonstrating that this channel conducts cations
(fig. S4, D and E). We further examined ionic
selectivity by recording with CsCl-only internal
solutions and various cations in the bath. Na+, K+,
Ca2+ and Mg2+ all permeated, with a slight preference for Ca2+ (fig. S4, F to H). Moreover, 30 mM
of ruthenium red and gadolinium, which are known
blockers of many cationic MA currents (9, 23),
blocked 74.6 T 2.5% (n = 6 cells) and 84.3 T
3.8% (n = 5 cells) of Piezo1-induced MA current,
respectively (fig. S4, I to K).
We used membrane stretch through the patch
pipette in cell-attached mode to assay Piezo1transfected cells (Fig. 4, G to L). Overexpression
of Piezo1 in N2A and HEK293T cells gave rise
to large currents elicited by 60 mmHg pressure
pulses (Fig. 4, G and J). The current-pressure
relationships in cells overexpressing Piezo1 and
in endogenous N2A cells were similar, with P50
of 28.1 T 2.8 and 31.2 T 3.5 mmHg in N2Aand HEK293T-overexpressing cells, respectively
Fig. 5. Piezo2-dependent large MA currents

kinetically distinct from Piezo1-induced currents.
(A to F) MA currents of Piezo2-expressing [(A) to
(C)] N2A and [(D) to (F)] HEK293T cells in whole-cell
configuration. In N2A cells, Piezo2 or vector only
were transfected with Piezo1 siRNA so as to
suppress endogenous Piezo1-dependent MA currents. [(A) and (D)] Representative traces of MA
inward currents expressed in different cell types
transfected with Piezo2. Cells were subjected to a
series of mechanical steps of 1-mm movements of a
glass probe at a holding potential of 80 mV. [(B)
and (E)] Representative current-voltage relationships of MA currents expressed in different cell types
transfected with Piezo2. (Inset) MA currents evoked
at holding potentials ranging from 80 to +40 mV.
[(C) and (F)] Average maximal amplitude of MA
inward currents elicited at a holding potential of
80 mV in (red) Piezo1-transfected or (blue) mocktransfected cells. (G and H) Representative traces of
MA (G) inward or (H) outward currents expressed in
cells transfected with (blue trace) Piezo1 or (red
trace) Piezo2 at the specified holding potentials.
Traces were normalized to the peak current, and
dashed lines represent fits of inactivation with a
mono-exponential equation. (I) Time-constant of
inactivation of (blue) Piezo1 and (red) Piezo2 at
negative (80 and 40 mV, top) and positive (40
and 80 mV, bottom) holding potentials. Bars represent the mean T SEM, and the numbers above bars
are the number of cells. **P < 0.01; ***P < 0.001,
unpaired t test with Welchs correction.
(Figs. 1F and 4, H and K). No channel activity

similar to N2A endogenous MA channels was
detected in HEK293T cells transfected with vector alone.
MA currents in cells overexpressing Piezo2.
We cloned full-length Piezo2 from DRG neurons. N2A and HEK293T cells transfected with
Piezo2 and gene-encoding GFP showed large
MA currents (Fig. 5, A to F). The N2A cells were
also cotransfected with Piezo1 siRNA to suppress endogenous MA currents. The MA currentvoltage relationship in Piezo2-expressing cells
was linear between 80 and +80 mV (Fig. 5, B
and E), with a Erev of +6.3 T 0.4 mV (n = 3 cells)
and +8.7 T 1.5 mV (n = 7 cells) in N2A and
HEK293T cells, respectively. Piezo2-dependent
currents were suppressed by NMDG (fig. S5, A
and B), suggesting nonselective cationic conductance. Piezo2-dependent currents were inhibited
by gadolinium and ruthenium red [85.0 T 3.7%
(n = 5 cells) and 79.2 T 4.2% (n = 5 cells),
respectively] (fig. S5, C and D).
The inactivation kinetics of heterologously
expressed Piezo2-induced MA currents were best
**
5 m
28
1.5
1
(mV)
N2A
50 ms
0.5 nA
-80
Imax (nA)
0.5 nA
-40
40
100 ms
80
-1
0.5
-2
(nA)
12
0.5
(mV)
50 ms
0.5 nA
-80
Imax (nA)
HEK293T
0.5 nA
-40
40
80
-0.5
100 ms
(nA)
**
2.5
1.5
5 m
12
Ctr Piezo2
1.5
1
0.5
-1
10
0
-1.5
Ctr Piezo2
Piezo1
Piezo2
100 ms
Tau (ms)
Vh = -80mV
100 ms
Vh = -40mV
40
**
12
30
20
***
47
54
10
0
16
-80mV -40mV
**
10
600
100 ms
Tau (ms)
Vh = 80mV
Vh = 40mV
500
100 ms
400
300
200
100
0
58
1 OCTOBER 2010
VOL 330
SCIENCE
www.sciencemag.org
***
11
16
40mV
16
80mV

RESEARCH ARTICLES
body against mouse Piezo1. This antibody specifically recognized Piezo1-transfected HEK293Tcells
but not untransfected HEK293T cells (fig. S6A).
In cells transfected with Piezo1 and TRPA1an
ion channel known to be expressed at the plasma
membranewe observed some overlap of Piezo1
staining with that of TRPA1 on the cell surface
(24), although most Piezo1 and TRPA1 was present
inside the cell (fig. S6B). Thus, Piezo1 protein can
be localized at or near the plasma membrane. We
could not detect expression of endogenous
Piezo1 protein in N2A cells with this antibody.
Requirement of Piezo2 for rapidly adapting
MA currents in DRG neurons. To characterize
Piezo2 expression within the heterogeneous population of neurons and glial cells of the DRGs, we
performed in situ hybridization on adult mouse
DRG sections (Fig. 6A). We observed Piezo2
fitted with a mono-exponential equation. The

calculated time constants for inactivation (tinac)
are relatively fast in both N2A (6.8 T 0.7 ms, n = 27
cells) and HEK293T (7.3 T 0.7, n = 11 cells) cells
when measured at 80 mV. Furthermore, the
kinetics of inactivation of Piezo2-dependent MA
currents were faster than Piezo1-dependent MA
currents, both for inward (Fig. 5G) and outward
(Fig. 5H) currents, and at all holding potentials
tested (Fig. 5I). Therefore, Piezo1 and Piezo2
confer distinct channel properties.
Piezo1 is detected at the plasma membrane.
The results above suggest that Piezo1 and Piezo2
are components of mechanotransduction complexes and therefore should be present at the
plasma membrane. Previous reports have shown
expression of Fam38A (Piezo1) in the endoplasmic
reticulum (14, 15). We generated a peptide anti-
A
Piezo2 in situ, antisense probe
< 10 ms
Piezo2 in situ, sense probe
10 < < 30 ms
5 m
5 m
100 ms
100 ms
100 ms
200 pA
Neurons (%)
50
**
200 pA
200 pA
ns
ns
ns
40
100
Neurons (%)
> 30 ms
2 m
30
20
10
0
(101) (109)
no
response
80
>30ms
60
40
10-30ms
20
Ctr siRNA Ctr siRNA Ctr siRNA Ctr siRNA
<10ms 10-30ms >30ms no response
<10ms
Ctr
siRNA
Fig. 6. Sensitivity of fast-inactivating MA currents in DRG neurons to depletion of Piezo2. (A) Representative images of colorimetric in situ hybridization for Piezo2 in DRG neurons by using (left) antisense
and (right) sense probes. (B) Representative traces of three typical MA inward currents expressed in DRG
neurons are characterized by distinct inactivation kinetics. Neurons were subjected to a series of
mechanical steps in 1-mm increments at a holding potential of 80 mV. Current inactivation was fitted
with (left) a bi-exponential equation, giving fast time-constant (t) of 7.3 ms and slow time-constant > 100 ms,
or (middle) a mono-exponential equation, giving a time constant of 27 ms. Some currents with t > 30 ms
are too slow to be efficiently fitted during the (right) 150-ms step stimulation. (C and D) Frequency
histograms indicating the proportion of neurons transfected with scrambled siRNA (Ctr) or Piezo2 siRNA
(siRNA) that respond to mechanical stimulation, with MA currents characterized by their inactivation
kinetic. Bars represent the mean T SEM of (B) the proportion of neurons from seven separate experiments
(n = 12 to 19 neurons per condition and per experiment) or (C) the proportion from all neurons pooled
from all seven experiments; the numbers above bars in (C) represent the number of neurons. **P < 0.01;
ns, not significantly different; unpaired t test.
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VOL 330
mRNA expression in 20% of DRG neurons (from

2391 total neurons) (25). Piezo2 was expressed
in a subset of DRG neurons also expressing
peripherin (60%) and neurofilament 200 (28%),
which are markers present in mechanosensory
neurons (2629) (fig. S7). Some overlap with
nociceptive marker TRPV1 (24%), further suggesting a potential role of Piezo2 in noxious
mechanosensation. We used siRNA transfection
to examine the role of Piezo2 in MA currents of
DRG neurons. RNA interference (RNAi) on DRG
neurons were validated on TRPA1, an ion channel
expressed in DRG neurons and activated by mustard oil (MO) (30, 31) (fig. S8, A and B). siRNAs
against Piezo2 were validated in N2A cells overexpressing Piezo2 cDNA (fig. S8C). We recorded
whole-cell MA currents from DRG neurons transfected with GFP and either scrambled or Piezo2
siRNA (n = 101 neurons for scrambled and n =
109 neurons for Piezo2 siRNA). We grouped the
recorded MA currents according to their inactivation kinetics (Fig. 6B) (8, 9, 19, 20, 22). We
defined four different classes of neurons on the
basis of tinac distribution in scrambled siRNA
transfected cells (Fig. S8D): tinac < 10 ms, 10 <
tinac < 30, tinac > 30 ms, and nonresponsive
neurons. The proportion of neurons expressing
MA currents with tinac < 10 ms was specifically and
significantly reduced in neurons transfected with
Piezo2 siRNA as compared with that of neurons
transfected with scrambled siRNA (Fig. 6C).
28.7% of scrambled siRNA-transfected neurons
had tinac < 10 ms, compared with 7.3% in Piezo2
siRNA-transfected neurons (Fig. 6D). Neurons
with MA currents with slower kinetics (tinac
between 10 and 30 ms and tinac > 30 ms) were
present at normal proportions in cells transfected
with Piezo2 siRNA. We observed a trend toward
increased numbers of mechanically insensitive neurons in populations expressing Piezo2 siRNA, as
predicted if loss of Piezo2 converts rapidly adapting neurons into nonresponders. We also analyzed these RNAi data according to the degree
of current inactivation during the 150-ms test
pulse and came to similar conclusions (fig. S8E).
Discussion. We found that Piezo1 is required
for MA currents in Neuro2A cells and that Piezo2
is required for a subset of MA currents in DRG
neurons. Moreover, overexpressing Piezo1 or
Piezo2 in three different cell types gave rise to a
17- to 300-fold increase in MA currents. We
conclude that Piezos are both necessary and sufficient for the expression of a MA current in
various cell types.
Piezo1 and Piezo2 sequences do not resemble
those of other known ion channels or other protein classes. The large number of predicted transmembrane domains of Piezo1 and Piezo2 is
reminiscent of the structure of voltage-activated
sodium channels with 24 transmembrane domains,
composed of a fourfold repeat of six-transmembrane
units (32). However, pore-containing or repetitive domains have not been observed in Piezo
proteins. It may be that Piezo proteins are nonconducting subunits of ion channels required for
1 OCTOBER 2010
59
proper expression or for modulating channel

properties, similar to b subunits of voltage-gated
channels (32) or SUR subunits of adenosine 5triphosphatesensitive K+ channels (33). In this
case, all the cell types used here would have to
express an inactive conducting subunit of an MA
channel that requires Piezos to function. Alternatively, Piezo proteins may define a distinct class of
ion channels, akin to Orai1, which lacks sequence
homology to other channels (34). Piezo1 is also
found in the endoplasmic reticulum (14, 15), so
Piezos may act at both the plasma membrane and
in intracellular compartments.
We described a role of Piezo2 in rapidly adapting MA currents in somatosensory neurons. Thus,
Piezo2 has potential roles in touch and pain sensation (35, 36). Piezo1 and Piezo2 are expressed
in various tissues, and their homologs are present
throughout animals, plants, and protozoa, raising
the possibility that Piezo proteins have a broad
role in mechanotransduction.
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REPORTS
Universal Dynamical Decoupling of
a Single Solid-State Spin from a
Spin Bath
G. de Lange,1 Z. H. Wang,2 D. Rist,1 V. V. Dobrovitski,2 R. Hanson1*
Controlling the interaction of a single quantum system with its environment is a fundamental
challenge in quantum science and technology. We strongly suppressed the coupling of a
single spin in diamond with the surrounding spin bath by using double-axis dynamical
decoupling. The coherence was preserved for arbitrary quantum states, as verified by quantum
process tomography. The resulting coherence time enhancement followed a general scaling with
the number of decoupling pulses. No limit was observed for the decoupling action up to
136 pulses, for which the coherence time was enhanced more than 25 times compared to that
obtained with spin echo. These results uncover a new regime for experimental quantum science and
allow us to overcome a major hurdle for implementing quantum information protocols.
n the past decade, manipulation and measurement of single quantum systems in the
solid state have been achieved (1, 2). This
control has promising applications in quantum
information processing (3, 4), quantum commu-
I
1
Kavli Institute of Nanoscience Delft, Delft University of

Technology, Post Office Box 5046, 2600 GA Delft, Netherlands. 2Ames Laboratory and Iowa State University, Ames,
IA 50011, USA.
r.hanson@tudelft.nl
60
nication (5), metrology (6), and ultrasensitive

magnetometry (7, 8). However, uncontrolled interactions with the surroundings inevitably lead
to decoherence of the quantum states (9) and pose a
major hurdle for realizing these technologies.
Therefore, the key challenge in current experimental quantum science is to protect individual quantum states from decoherence by their solid-state
environment.
If a quantum system can be controlled with
high fidelity, dynamical decoupling can be ex-
1 OCTOBER 2010
VOL 330
SCIENCE
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
M. Bandell et al., Neuron 41, 849 (2004).

S. E. Jordt et al., Nature 427, 260 (2004).
M. R. Hanlon, B. A. Wallace, Biochemistry 41, 2886 (2002).
S. J. Tucker, F. M. Ashcroft, Curr. Opin. Neurobiol. 8,
316 (1998).
M. Prakriya et al., Nature 443, 230 (2006).
A. I. Basbaum, D. M. Bautista, G. Scherrer, D. Julius,
Cell 139, 267 (2009).
G. R. Lewin, R. Moshourab, J. Neurobiol. 61, 30 (2004).
The authors gratefully acknowledge H. Hu for help in
cloning Piezo2, J. Walker for contributing to microarray
experiments, S. Batalov for help in bioinformatics
analysis, K. Spencer for help with imaging, and N. Hong
and U. Mller for comments on the manuscript and
helpful discussions. This work was supported by grants
from NIH (DE016927 and NS046303) and the Novartis
Research Foundation. B.C. is the recipient of an American
Heart Association postdoctoral fellowship; M.S. is the
recipient of a German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD,
D/07/41089) fellowship. A provisional patent has been
filed by TSRI and GNF that claims methods of screening
for molecules that modulate Piezo-dependent ion channel
activities. The Piezo1 and Piezo2 sequences used in the
paper have been deposited in GenBank under accession
numbers HQ215520 and HQ215521, respectively.

Figs. S1 to S8
Tables S1 and S2
References
4 June 2010; accepted 20 August 2010
Published online 2 September 2010;
10.1126/science.1193270
ploited to efficiently mitigate the interactions with

the environment (1012). By reversing the evolution of the quantum system at specific times with
control pulses, the effect of the environment accumulated before the pulse is canceled during the
evolution after the pulse. When viewed at the end
of the control cycle, the quantum system will appear as an isolated system that is decoupled from
its environment. Thanks to recent progress in quantum control speed and precision (13, 14), we can
now unlock the full power of dynamical decoupling at the level of a single spin.
We focused on electron spins of single nitrogenvacancy (NV) defect centers in diamond coupled
to a spin bath (Fig. 1A). NV center spins can be
optically imaged, initialized, and read out, as well
as coherently controlled at room temperature (Fig.
1B). These favorable properties have been exploited to gain deeper insight into spin decoherence (15, 16), as well as for demonstrating basic
quantum information protocols at room temperature (17, 18).
We used nanosecond microwave pulses to
manipulate single NV spins. To raise the fidelity
of our control to the required level for efficient
decoupling, we fabricated on-chip coplanar waveguide (CPW) transmission lines using electron
beam lithography (Fig. 1A). The high bandwidth
of the CPW (13) combined with efficient suppression of reflections and fine-tuned pulse calibration (14) allows fast and precise manipulation of
www.sciencemag.org

REPORTS
now called the UDD sequence, was found to
achieve a strong improvement in decoupling
efficiency over periodic pulse spacing in the case
of environmental noise spectra with a hard cut-
off; this was experimentally verified in (24, 25).

Recent theory (26, 27), however, suggests that
periodic, CPMG-like pulse spacing is ideal for
decoupling from an environment with a soft cut-
E (GHz)
Fig. 1. Quantum control A

of a single spin in diamond. (A) Left: A nitrogenvacancy defect is formed
by a single substitutional
nitrogen (14N) atom and
an adjacent vacancy (V).
The NV electron spin (orange arrow) is coupled
to the host 14N nuclear B NV spin
D
bath spins
ms = +1
spin (blue arrow) through
2.87
1
1
ms = -1 1
the hyperfine interaction.
0
free evolution
Middle: The NV center is
-1
ms = 0 0
0
surrounded by a bath of
0 114 B (G)
0 114 B (G)
electron spins located at
sites of substitutional niC1
trogen atoms in the diamond lattice (16). Right:
Confocal photolumines0
0
cence scan of a section
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0
20
40
60
80
100
of the device, where the
(s)
microwave burst length (ns)
golden regions are part
of the on-chip coplanar waveguide (CPW) used for applying quantum control pulses and NV centers appear as
bright spots in between the conductors of the CPW. (B) Energy level diagrams of the NV center electron spin
(left) and the electron spins in the bath (right). An applied magnetic field splits the NV spin triplet electronic
ground state; the effective two-level system used here is formed by the spin sublevels mS = 0 (labeled j0) and
mS = 1 (labeledj1) (14). (C) Coherent driven oscillations of NV1. For the pulsed experiments, the same Rabi
frequency is used (14). (D) Decay during free evolution of NV1 probed using Ramsey interference. Solid line is
a fit (14). The fast oscillating component is due to a detuning of the driving field of 15 MHz with respect to the
spin transition, whereas the beating is caused by the hyperfine interaction with the host nuclear spin.
N=2
N=1
0.6
N=8
N=4
0.5
state fidelity
state fidelity
0
2
4
6
free evolution time (s)
0.5
CPMG
UDD
20
CPMG
UDD
exp.
sim.
N=6
5 10 15
0
10 15
N
simulation
0
5
10
15
single-axis
decoupling
z
1
state fidelity
state fidelity
y
x
1/e decay
time (s)
the NV spin (Fig. 1B), leading to process fidelities of 99% for the basic control pulses needed
for dynamical decoupling (14).
The coherent dynamics of an NV spin are
strongly influenced by the coupling to neighboring
spins (the spin bath) (15, 16). Because such spin
environments are common in the solid state, our
results are directly relevant for other solid-state
quantum bits such as spins in quantum dots (19, 20)
and donors in silicon (4, 21). For the NV centers
studied here, the bath is composed of electron
spins localized on nitrogen impurity atoms. Resonant interactions (flip-flops) between the bath
spins and the NV spin are suppressed because of
a large energy mismatch (16). Therefore, the impact of the spin bath on the NV spin is limited to
dephasing and can be described as a random
magnetic field B(t) that is directed along the NVs
quantization axis. The value of B(t) is determined
by the state of the environment. We modeled the
bath field B(t) by an Ornstein-Uhlenbeck process
with the correlation function C(t) = B(0)B(t) =
b2 exp(|t|/tC), where b is the coupling strength
of the bath to the spin and tC is the correlation
time of the bath, which measures the rate of flipflops between the bath spins due to the intrabath
dipolar coupling (14, 22).
The values of the parameters describing the
bath field were extracted from experiments. The
bath-induced dephasing during free evolution
had a Gaussian envelope S(t) = exp(b2t2/2), which
yielded the value for b (14); we found b = (3.6 T
0.1) ms1 for NV1 (Fig. 1C), and b = (2.6 T 0.1) ms1
for NV2 (14). The quasi-static dephasing could
be undone with a spin echo (SE) technique (Fig.
2A), revealing the much slower decay of spin
coherence caused by the dynamics of the spin
bath. The spin echo signal decayed as SE(t) =
exp[(t/T2)3], characteristic for a slowly fluctuating spin bath with tC = T23b2/12 >> 1/b (22). The
values we found for tC, (25 T 3) ms for NV1 [T2 =
(2.8 T 0.1) ms] and (23 T 3) ms for NV2 [T2 = (3.5 T
0.2) ms], confirmed this. The spin echo decay time
T2 is often considered as the coherence or memory time of the system. We took T2 as the starting
point and demonstrated that the coherence time
could be markedly prolonged by dynamically decoupling the spin from the surrounding spin bath.
We first explored the potential of dynamical
decoupling by extending the SE pulse sequence
to periodic repetitions of the Carr-Purcell-MeiboomGill (CPMG) cycle (Fig. 2A). The decoupling
performance was characterized by measuring
the state fidelity Fs yi jrm jyi , where jyi is
the expected (ideal) state after applying the
sequence and rm the measured density matrix
of the actual state. Although the coherence had
vanished after 4 ms for the SE case, we observed
that the eight-pulse CPMG sequence preserved
the coherence almost completely during this same
time.
The optimal decoupling sequence for a quantum system depends on the coupling to its environment and the dynamics within the environment
itself. In (23), nonperiodic interpulse spacing,
0.6
y
x
x
y
simulation
5
10
15
0
double-axis
decoupling
Fig. 2. Optimized dynamical decoupling of NV1. (A) Left: State fidelities for CPMG decoupling sequence
applied to NV1. The blue curve is a spin echo measurement. High state fidelity is recovered for increasing
number of pulses N. Solid lines are fits to ~exp[(t/Tcoh)3]. Right: Vertical lines indicate the location of p-pulses.
(B) Comparison of decoupling with CPMG (orange) and UDD (green) for N = 6 pulses. The solid lines are
fits to ~exp[(t/Tcoh)3]. The right panel shows the 1/e decay times from fits to data and to simulations (14).
The same color scheme applies. (C) Single-axis decoupling for different input states, showing stateselective decoupling for the CPMG sequence with N = 12 operations (shown in the upper right). Bloch
sphere on the right shows input states and the decoupling axis. Solid lines are numerical simulations
incorporating the experimental pulse errors (14). (D) Double-axis decoupling, with XY4 sequence with N =
12, showing excellent decoupling for both input states. Pulse timings are the same as for CPMG but with
the decoupling axis alternating between X and Y, as shown on the right. The simulations for jx and jy
yield practically the same curve and therefore appear as one.
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-1
I
x
y
z
x y
I
-1
I
x
y
z
x y
I
z
x y
I
x
y
z
x y
t = 10 s
1
I
x
y
-1
-1
t = 4.4 s
-1
I
x
y
z
x y
I
-1
I
x
y
t = 24 s
z
x y
I
Fig. 3. Universal decoupling demonstrated with

quantum process tomography. QPT is performed at
free evolution times of 4.4, 10, and 24 ms for XY4
with N = 8 (see fig. S2B). At t = 4.4 ms, the measured process matrix nearly equals the identity
process matrix c (fidelity of 0.96 T 0.02), indicating
close-to-perfect quantum state protection. At longer
free evolution times, the process changes into pure
dephasing in accordance with our model of the spin
bath.
62
Fig. 4. Scaling of the coherence

enhancement with number of control pulses. (A) Decoupling for different number of control pulses N.
Increasing N extends the coherence
to longer times. Solid lines are
simulations (14). (B) Data rescaled
to the normalized time axis t/(T2N2/3).
(C) Coherence 1/e decay time (Tcoh)
plotted as a function of the number
of control pulses for NV1 and NV2.
Solid lines are fits to Tcoh(N) = T2N 2/3
with T2 as free parameter.
1 OCTOBER 2010
evolution time t = 2Nt and 2t is the interpulse

distance (14). For the XY4 sequence, we found
that A = (2/3)b2tC2 for both large and small N.
The theory predicts two interesting features: (i)
The decay follows the universal form exp[(t/Tcoh)3]
for all N, and (ii) the 1/e decay time scales as
Tcoh(N) = T2N 2/3.
In Fig. 4A, we show XY4 decoupling for N =
4, 16, and 72, as well as the spin echo for
comparison. These data indicate that the 1/e decay
time indeed scales with the number of pulses. For
a thorough comparison with the theory, we
renormalized the time axis to T2 N 2=3 (Fig. 4B).
We found that all data collapse onto a single curve
in line with the prediction. Then, we plotted the 1/e
decay time of coherence of NV1 and NV2 and fit
this to the expected scaling law. The data of both
NV centers showed excellent agreement with the
theory over a range in N spanning two orders of
magnitude. For the longest sequence applied (136
pulses), the coherence time was increased by a
factor of 26.
Is there a limit to the coherence enhancement
that can be achieved with dynamical decoupling?
Our results demonstrate that we can prolong the
spin coherence beyond the bath correlation time
tC. Also, the nuclear spin bath, which would affect the NV dynamics on a 5-ms time scale for the
magnetic field used here (15), is efficiently decoupled from the NV spin. Indeed, the theory indicates no fundamental limit to the coherence time.
In practice, the decoupling efficiency will be limited
by the minimum interpulse delay (on the order of
the pulse widths) and the longitudinal relaxation
time.
Because the spin bath environment is common to solid-state quantum bits, our findings can
be transferred to other promising systems such as
spins in quantum dots (3, 19, 20) and donors in
silicon (4, 21). Furthermore, the performance of
spin-based magnetometers can greatly benefit
from this work, because the magnetic field sensitivity scales with the coherence time (7, 8). Fi-
A
1
0.5
SE
N=4
N = 16
N = 72
1
10
B
1
0.5
SE
N=4
N=8
N = 16
N = 36
N = 72
N = 136
0.1
1
10
normalized time (t / T2 N 2/3)
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100
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1/e decay time (s)
state fidelity
Quantum Process Tomography

Re()
Im()
of decoupling fidelity for state jy when the

number of operations was increased to 12 pulses;
this effect was accurately reproduced by simulations (Fig. 2C) (14).
The use of sequences containing decoupling
pulses over two axes, such as XY4 (Fig. 2D) (28),
avoids this selective robustness to pulse errors
and can compensate certain systematic pulse
errors and coherent resonant perturbations without increasing control overhead. We found that
XY4 could indeed preserve both quantum states
jx and jy (Fig. 2D).
We studied the decoupling performance in
more detail with the use of quantum process tomography (QPT), which allows for a complete
characterization of any quantum process (29).
Figure 3 shows the experimental QPT results for
XY4 with N = 8 operations, at different free evolution times. For a free evolution time of 4.4 ms,
much longer than T2, the measured process matrix
c is in excellent agreement with the ideal process
of identity that is expected for perfect universal
decoupling.
By taking snapshots of the process for different free evolution times, we monitored how
decoherence affects the quantum states. We observed that after t = 10 ms, the process element
corresponding to identity had decreased, whereas
the sz-sz element had grown. After 20 ms, these
elements had approximately equal amplitudes.
This behavior is characteristic for pure, offdiagonal dephasing (29) and is consistent with
our model of the environment, in which the
magnetic dipolar coupling with the bath leads to
phase randomization. The independently
measured energy relaxation time T1 > 1 ms (14)
confirmed that longitudinal decay is not relevant
in this regime.
Finally, we investigated how the coherence
time scales with the number of control pulses. A
detailed theoretical analysis showed that for N
perfect pulses, the decoupling fidelity decayed as
F(t) = exp[ANt3/(2NtC)3], where the total free
state fidelity
off. We investigated the efficiency of these different protocols in decoupling a single spin from
a spin bath environment (Fig. 2B) and observed
that CPMG outperformed UDD for all numbers
of pulses investigated in both simulations and experiments (Fig. 2B, right panel). These findings
are in agreement with our model of a Lorentzian
bath noise spectrum, which exhibits a soft cut-off
(14).
For applications in quantum information processing, it is essential that the decoupling protocol is universal, meaning that it can preserve
coherence for arbitrary quantum states. Because
pulse errors can severely degrade the coherence,
universal decoupling requires robustness to pulse
errors for all possible quantum states. In contrast,
protocols that use single-axis decoupling such as
CPMG optimally preserve only a limited range
of quantum states, whereas for other quantum
states the pulse errors accumulate rapidly with
increasing number of control pulses. In Fig. 2C,
we demonstrated this experimentally by comparing the decay curves of superposition states
aligned (jx) and perpendicular (jy) to the CPMG
decoupling axis. Even though the fidelity of the
single-pulse control was very high (14), the
remaining small errors caused a significant loss
100
NV2
10
NV1
1
10
100
number of pulses N

REPORTS
Justin B. Sambur,1,2 Thomas Novet,3 B. A. Parkinson1*

Multiple exciton generation, the creation of two electron-hole pairs from one high-energy photon,
is well established in bulk semiconductors, but assessments of the efficiency of this effect remain
controversial in quantum-confined systems like semiconductor nanocrystals. We used a
photoelectrochemical system composed of PbS nanocrystals chemically bound to TiO2 single
crystals to demonstrate the collection of photocurrents with quantum yields greater than one
electron per photon. The strong electronic coupling and favorable energy level alignment between
PbS nanocrystals and bulk TiO2 facilitate extraction of multiple excitons more quickly than they
recombine, as well as collection of hot electrons from higher quantum dot excited states. Our
results have implications for increasing the efficiency of photovoltaic devices by avoiding losses
resulting from the thermalization of photogenerated carriers.
Department of Chemistry and School of Energy Resources,

University of Wyoming, Laramie, WY 80271, USA. 2Department of Chemistry, Colorado State University, Fort
Collins, CO 80523, USA. 3Voxtel Incorporated, Beaverton,
OR 97006, USA.
bparkin1@uwyo.edu
O
OH
CB
TiO 2
ECB -0.75
PbS QDs -0.55 E
EF
S/S2Electrolyte
Eg = 0.85 eV
Eg = 0.96 eV
EVB
Eg = 1.27 eV
TiO2
Eg = 1.39 eV
Eg = 3.20 eV
B e- ~_ 50 fs
A
Energy vs NHE (eV)
quite inefficient because it usually requires Ehv to

be much greater than 2Eg to generate an additional
carrier per incident photon. However, there have
been suggestions (7, 8) that the process could be
more efficient in semiconductor nanocrystals or
quantum dots (QDs) because of the electronic
structure associated with carrier confinement in
three dimensions. In QDs, the process is known as
multiple exciton generation (MEG) because the
carriers are not free but instead are correlated as a
result of confinement. Optical measurements of
various nanomaterial systems, including colloidal
QD solutions (917), QD thin films (18), and
single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT) (19),
have identified signatures of MEG, but the
generation efficiency in nanomaterials relative
to bulk materials is still under discussion (2022).
Despite numerous reports of optical detection of MEG in QDs, multiple exciton collection
(MEC) from QDs, converting absorbed photons
into photocurrents with quantum yields greater
than one, has not yet been observed in a photovoltaic device. Recent reports measured MEG
photocurrent in individual SWCNT photodiodes
operating at low temperatures (23), separation of
carriers for photons with energies equal to multiples of Eg [i.e., for Ehv = 4Eg, four carriers are
generated per photon; however, 94% of the maximum gain in power conversion efficiency would
be produced with just two carriers per photon (6)].
This process is known as carrier multiplication via
impact ionization in bulk semiconductors but is

10.1126/science.1192739
OH
O
he urgent need for massively scalable

carbon-free energy sources has focused attention on both increasing the efficiency
and decreasing the cost of photovoltaic cells. When
electrons are excited by photons with energy
(Ehv, where h is Plancks constant and v is photon
frequency) in excess of a semiconductor band
gap, they tend to rapidly thermally relax to the
conduction band edge; in this context, Shockley
and Queisser calculated the maximum solar to
electrical energy conversion efficiency for an optimal single band gap (Eg) semiconductor absorber to be about 31% (1). Third-generation
solar cells have their basis in concepts that can
potentially circumvent the so-called ShockleyQueisser limit (2). One such mechanism currently under active investigation (35) is to convert
the excess energy of incident photons with Ehv
2Eg into additional free carriers in the material.
An ideal material would produce two carriers per
photon beginning at Ehv = 2Eg and additional
Figs. S1 to S5
References
OH
Multiple Exciton Collection in a

Sensitized Photovoltaic System
1Se
_ 50 ps
~
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
J. Clarke, F. K. Wilhelm, Nature 453, 1031 (2008).

R. Hanson, D. D. Awschalom, Nature 453, 1043 (2008).
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B. E. Kane, Nature 393, 133 (1998).
L. Childress, J. M. Taylor, A. S. Srensen, M. D. Lukin,
Phys. Rev. Lett. 96, 070504 (2006).
J. A. Jones et al., Science 324, 1166 (2009).
C. Degen, Appl. Phys. Lett. 92, 243111 (2008).
J. M. Taylor et al., Nat. Phys. 4, 810 (2008).
W. H. Zurek, Nat. Phys. 5, 181 (2009).
L. Viola, L. Knill, S. Lloyd, Phys. Rev. Lett. 82, 2417 (1999).
D. Vitali, P. Tombesi, Phys. Rev. A 59, 4178 (1999).
K. Khodjasteh, D. A. Lidar, Phys. Rev. Lett. 95, 180501 (2005).
G. D. Fuchs, V. V. Dobrovitski, D. M. Toyli, F. J. Heremans,
D. D. Awschalom, Science 326, 1520 (2009).
29. M. A. Nielsen, I. L. Chuang, Quantum Computation

and Quantum Information (Cambridge Univ. Press,
Cambridge, 2000).
30. We acknowledge support from the Defense Advanced
Research Projects Agency, the Dutch Organization for
Fundamental Research on Matter (FOM), and the
Netherlands Organization for Scientific Research (NWO).
Work at the Ames Laboratory was supported by the U.S.
Department of Energy Basic Energy Sciences under
contract DE-AC02-07CH11358.
VB
1Sh
S
S2-
xx

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

15. L. Childress et al., Science 314, 281 (2006).
16. R. Hanson, V. V. Dobrovitski, A. E. Feiguin, O. Gywat,
Science 320, 352 (2008).
17. L. Jiang et al., Science 326, 267 (2009).
18. P. Neumann et al., Nat. Phys. 6, 249 (2010).
19. R. Hanson, L. P. Kouwenhoven, J. R. Petta, S. Tarucha,
L. M. K. Vandersypen, Rev. Mod. Phys. 79, 1217 (2007).
20. H. Bluhm et al., http://arxiv.org/abs/1005.2995v1 (2010).
21. J. J. L. Morton et al., Nature 455, 1085 (2008).
22. J. Klauder, P. Anderson, Phys. Rev. 125, 912 (1962).
23. G. S. Uhrig, Phys. Rev. Lett. 98, 100504 (2007).
24. M. J. Biercuk et al., Nature 458, 996 (2009).
25. J. Du et al., Nature 461, 1265 (2009).
26. S. Pasini, G. S. Uhrig, Phys. Rev. A 81, 012309
(2010).
27. L. Cywiski, R. M. Lutchyn, C. P. Nave, S. Das Sarma,
Phys. Rev. B 77, 174509 (2008).
28. T. Gullion, D. Baker, M. S. Conradi, J. Magn. Reson. 89,
479 (1990).
OH
nally, dynamical decoupling can be applied to

protect entangled states, which are at the heart of
quantum information science.
h+
_ 4 ps
~
e- or h+ transfer
versus
recombination
Fig. 1. Band energy diagram indicating the relevant energy levels and kinetic processes that describe
PbS QD ET and HT into the TiO2 conduction band and the sulfide/polysulfide electrolyte, respectively. (A)
Energy-level alignment of the TiO2 conduction band (35) with variously sized PbS QDs and the S/S2 redox
couple at pH 13. (Inset) The band gap energies of TiO2 and the QDs used in this study. (B) Representation
of a QD adsorbed on a TiO2 single crystal and the approximate time scales for efficient ET and HT compared
with the biexciton lifetime (txx), as well as other possible recombination pathways. 1Se and 1Sh refer to the
first excited electron and hole state, respectively. Red and brown arrows indicate the favorable processes
and the possible recombination pathways, respectively.
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multiexcitons generated by multiphoton absorption in colloidal CdSe QDs with physisorbed
electron acceptors (24), and a photodetector made
with PbS QDs that showed enhanced photoconductivity at higher photon energies attributed to
MEG (25). High short-circuit photocurrents have
been achieved in photovoltaic devices consisting
of several-hundred-nm-thick layers of PbSe (26)
or PbS (27, 28) QDs, but quantum yields greater
than unity have not been confirmed.
The dye-sensitized solar cell, a subject of intense research since its invention in 1991 (29), is a
photoelectrochemical photovoltaic device that has
the potential to be cost-effectively mass-produced.
The most common manifestation of this device
consists of a thin film of inexpensive nanocrystalline titanium dioxide that acts as both a chargetransporting substrate and a high-surface-area
scaffold for attaching visible light-absorbing dye
molecules (sensitizers) that inject photoexcited
electrons into the TiO2 conduction band. Recently
QDs have been investigated as sensitizers because
of their potential for enhanced stability compared
with conventional dyes, as well as high light absorption cross sections that can be tuned to cover a
large fraction of the solar spectrum simply by
varying the particle size (30, 31). Despite such
beneficial attributes, quantum dotsensitized solar
cells (QDSSCs) have not achieved efficiencies or
stabilities competitive with conventional dyesensitized solar cells. One reason for this is that
the surface chemistry for the chemical attachment
of the QDs to the TiO2 surface was not well understood or controlled. In several of our recent studies,
we used single crystals of both anatase and rutile
forms of TiO2 as simple model systems to evaluate
the influence of different QD attachment procedures on the electronic coupling of CdSe QDs and
CdSe/ZnS core/shell QDs to the TiO2 surface by
measuring the photocurrent yields due to electron
transfer from photoexcited QDs into TiO2 (32, 33).
We used a surface chemistry strategy whereby
short-chain, bifunctional passivating ligands such
as 3-mercaptopropionic acid (MPA) stabilize the
QDs in water while chemically binding the nanocrystals to the TiO2 surface via thiolate and carboxylic acid moieties, respectively (34). Atomic
force microscopy (AFM) confirmed that our surface chemistry strategy reproducibly resulted in a
single layer of QDs covalently bound to the
atomically flat single-crystal substrates with no
three-dimensional QD clusters.
The minimum photon energy for observing
MEG in CdSe or CdSe/ZnS QDs would be twice
the bulk band gap (>3.4 eV). Considering that
quantum confinement increases the band gap compared with the bulk, we decided to shift our focus
to PbS, with a considerably lower bulk band gap
value of 0.37 to 0.41 eV at 300 K (35). PbS QDs
are readily synthesized with band gap energies
ranging from 0.5 to 2.0 eV, making it possible to
measure sensitized photocurrents associated with
MEG by using photons sufficiently low in energy
to preclude direct excitation of the TiO2 band gap
(3.0 eV for rutile and 3.2 eV for anatase).
64
The kinetically controlled pathways for photogenerated electrons and holes in a QDSSC are
depicted in Fig. 1. Efficient production of sensitized photocurrents requires the energy of the
QD excited state to be higher (more negative on
the electrochemical scale) than the conduction
band energy of the semiconductor substrate and
well electronically coupled to the conduction band
states of the semiconductor (Fig. 1A). After electron transfer (ET), the photooxidized QD is reduced by hole transfer (HT) to a redox species in
solution with a reduction potential more negative
than the ground state of the QD. In addition to the
energetic constraints for efficient ET or HT, various recombination processes such as ET from the
TiO2 conduction band to the QDs (or electrolyte),
as well as relaxation of the photoexcited electron
to the QD ground state, compete with the forward
processes (Fig. 1B). Therefore the ratio of rates of
the forward (ET or HT) to the reverse (recombination) processes must be high enough to ensure
that photocurrent generation is kinetically favored.
Aside from the general recombination mechanisms inherent in QDSSCs, MEC requires very
fast electron injection in order to outpace excitonexciton annihilation. The measured fast electron
injection times of <1 ns (36) and 50 fs (37) from
photoexcited PbS and PbSe QDs, respectively,
into TiO2, as well as a 4-ps hole transfer time
from PbS QDs to a solid-state organic hole acceptor (38), suggest that MEC can occur on a
faster time scale than the 50-ps biexciton lifetime
(txx) measured in isolated PbS QDs (39) (Fig. 1B).
The structurally well-characterized interface
of our electrolyte/PbS QD/single crystal TiO2
system and the presence of a space charge field at
the TiO2 surface, which can quickly accelerate
the injected electrons away from the interface,
make this system particularly suitable to observe
photocurrent collection from MEG in the adsorbed
QDs. We synthesized (34) four QD samples with
particle diameters of 9.9 T 0.8 nm (standard deviation of transmission electron microscope data),
4.5 T 0.3 nm, 3.1 T 0.3 nm, and 2.5 T 0.3 nm (fig. S1)
with associated band gap energies (determined
by the energy position in the absorbance spectra of
the first exciton peak maxima) of 0.85 eV, 0.96 eV,
3.0 nm
1.0 m
1.27 eV, and 1.39 eV, respectively. The semiconductor electrode is a nearly atomically flat anatase
(001) surface that was imaged with AFM before
and after exposure to MPA-capped PbS QDs.
Figure 2A shows >100-nm terraces on the electrode surface before being uniformly coated by
treatment with 4.5-nm MPA-capped PbS QDs
[Fig. 2B; see also fig. S2 for QDs on rutile (001)].
The loose packing of the MPA-capped PbS QDs
chemically linked to the TiO2 surface suggests relatively smaller QD-QD interaction (or electronic
coupling) when compared with a close-packed
monolayer or multilayer films (26, 37).
Because the alignment of the QD excited states
relative to the TiO2 conduction band is sizedependent (Fig. 1A), we used photocurrent spectroscopy to resolve the sensitized photocurrents as
a function of incident photon energy for each QD
size. We measured the light power at each incident
photon energy to calculate the incident photonto
current efficiency (IPCE) spectra (Fig. 3) from the
sensitized photocurrents according to Eq. 1 (where
c is the speed of light and l is wavelength).
"
#
hc photocurrent density mA=cm2
IPCE
l
light power mW=cm2
1
The photocurrent response for QDs with Eg of
0.96 eVand larger (smaller diameter than 4.5 nm)
showed distinct excitonic features at nearly the
same photon energies observed in the absorbance
spectra of the QDs suspended in water. Larger
PbS QDs (Eg = 0.85 eV) did not sensitize the
same anatase electrode at the energy of the first
exciton because this excited state energy is more
positive on the electrochemical scale than the TiO2
conduction band energy (28, 40, 41). However,
we observe sensitization from these QDs at 700 nm
or 1.77 eV (Fig. 3A), indicating hot electron injection from higher QD excited states. A very recent study of PbSe QDs adsorbed on a rutile
crystal in vacuum measured the time for hot electron injection to be extremely fast (50 fs) (37).
Previous studies with similarly sized PbS QDs
prepared by chemical bath deposition directly on
5.0 nm
1.5 nm
50 nm
2.5 nm
0.0 nm
250 nm
0.0 nm
Fig. 2. AFM images of the anatase (001) electrode before and after the PbS QD adsorption procedure. (A)
Bare electrode surface with an average terrace width of 350 nm with sporadic polishing damage indicated
by ~2- to 5-nm grooves into the surface. (B) About-4.5-nm-diameter MPA-capped PbS QDs adsorbed on
the same surface. (Inset) The loosely packed QDs at high resolution.
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mesoporous TiO2 films showed a photocurrent
onset at about 800 nm or 1.5 eV (42), despite an
onset of light absorption at ~1.2 eV. Thus, electron injection from the lowest excitonic states of
PbS QDs into nanocrystalline TiO2 was not observed previously in photocurrent spectra. This
comparison suggests strong electronic coupling
of PbS QD excited states to the TiO2 conduction
band in our system, resulting in facile charge injection and separation of the photoinjected electrons because of the space charge field present at
the semiconductor-electrolyte interface. Therefore,
multiple excitons produced from higher energy
photons in the lowest energy PbS QD excited
state should be collected as photocurrents with
quantum yields greater than one.
For our planar electrodes covered with a single layer of QD sensitizers, the IPCE values are
several orders of magnitude lower than those observed in typical sensitized mesoporous TiO2 solar cells because of the low light absorption from
the single layer of QDs. For this reason, the small
3.1
0.8
2.1
Energy (eV)
1.5 1.2 1.0
photocurrent response in the near-infrared (IR)

spectral region was acquired by using lock-in detection and a chopped monochromatic light source.
Although this technique is very sensitive for measuring small photocurrent signals, the quantification of MEG effects requires accurate measurement
of the absorbed photontocurrent efficiency (APCE,
Eq. 2). APCE values take into account the lightharvesting efficiency (LHE; Eq. 3), or light actually absorbed by the monolayer of QDs.
APCE (%) = IPCE (%)/LHE (%)
(2)
LHE (%) = 1 10Absorbance
(3)
Accurate determination of APCE values required accurate measurements of both the optical
absorbance of the QDs adsorbed on the TiO2
surface and the steady-state short circuit photocurrents at various incident photon energies (fig.
S3, A to C). The absorbance measurements were
performed on undoped semitransparent rutile (001)
0.9 B
Energy (eV)
1.0
1.2
1.5
0.9
0.08
Eg = 1.39 eV
Eg = 1.27 eV
Eg = 0.96 eV
Eg = 0.85 eV
Blank
0.4
0.06
Absorbance
IPCE(%)
0.6
0.04
0.2
0.02
0
400
600 800 1000 1200 1400

Wavelength (nm)
0.00
800
1200
1000
Wavelength (nm)
1400
Fig. 3. IPCE spectra of various band gap PbS QDs adsorbed on an anatase (001) electrode. Photocurrents
were acquired in an aqueous electrolyte (0.5 M Na2S and 0.01 M S in 0.1 M NaOH) at short circuit in a
two-electrode configuration versus a platinum wire. (A) IPCE spectra for each QD size. The green trace
represents the bare anatase (001) photocurrent response. (B) IPCE spectra displaying the near-IR region
to compare the photocurrent (solid dots) and QD absorbance in water (dashed lines).
A 200
B 200
Eg = 0.94 eV
Eg = 0.96 eV
Eg = 1.27 eV
Eg = 1.39 eV
100
50
Eg = 0.94 eV
Eg = 0.96 eV
Eg = 1.27 eV
Eg = 1.39 eV
150
APCE (%)
APCE (%)
150
100
50
1.6
2.0
2.4
2.8
3.2
1.6
Photon Energy (eV)
2.0
2.4
2.8
3.2
Ehv /E g
Fig. 4. APCE values as a function of the illumination energy. (A) APCE versus the absolute incident
photon energy. (B) APCE versus the incident photon energy divided by the QD band gap energy
(indicating the multiples of the band gap). Adjustments that would increase the APCE because of solution
absorption and reflection from the cell window and TiO2 crystal were not performed.
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VOL 330
TiO2 single crystals with both sides polished

(doped anatase and rutile crystals required for
photocurrent measurements are not transparent)
by using a dual-beam configuration in the ultravioletvisible (UV-Vis) spectrometer (fig. S3D). Multiple regions of the rutile and anatase crystal
surfaces, which were exposed to the same QD
solutions at the same time, were imaged with
AFM in order to assure that the densities of QDs
on all the surfaces were nearly identical to those
shown in Fig. 2B (also fig. S2). The absorbance
spectra of the PbS QDs adsorbed on the rutile
single crystal were similar to the solution absorbance spectra (fig. S4). Because of the larger
band gap for the anatase polymorph compared
with that of rutile (3.2 eV versus 3.0 eV), anatase
was used for the MEC measurements to eliminate
any contribution from direct excitation of TiO2 to
the sensitized photocurrent signal at the wavelengths where MEG would be expected.
Figure 4, A and B, shows the calculated APCE
values both as a function of excitation energy and
the ratio of the excitation energy to the nanocrystal band gap (Ehv /Eg ) for the three sizes of
PbS QDs. The APCE values, not adjusted for
solution absorbance or reflections from the cell
window and crystal surface, remained nearly constant for each QD sample at 70 T 13% [standard
deviation of photocurrent data (34)] from 1.6 eV
up to an absolute photon energy of 2.5 eV (Fig. 4A).
No increase in the quantum yields indicative of
MEC was observed despite crossing the threshold of illumination with photon energies of twice
the band gap for the 4.5-nm PbS QDs (0.96 2 =
1.92 eV). However, at 2.8 and 3.1 eV illumination, the QDs with Eg = 0.96 eV (corresponding
to photon energies of 2.9 and 3.2 times the band
gap) exhibited APCE values that exceeded unity.
There are also indications that APCE values, uncorrected for reflection and absorption losses, approach or exceed 100% at the highest photon
energies for QDs with Eg = 1.27 and 1.39 eV;
however, these values remain within the experimental error of the lower energy photocurrent
measurements.
An additional sample of PbS nanocrystals
with Eg = 0.94 eV was synthesized in order to
ascertain any sample dependence (43) on the
APCE yields (plotted in Fig. 4, A and B) and to
more precisely map out the photon energy dependence of the MEC yields. The absolute magnitudes of the APCEs in this sample are smaller
by 5 to 10% and 20 to 40% at photon energies in
the non-MEC and MEC collection regions, respectively, but still nearly double at the higher
(relative to lower) photon energies. We emphasize that in order to observe APCE values of over
100% the anatase electrode surface must not be
contaminated and should exhibit large (>50 nm),
nearly atomically flat terraces in AFM images.
Therefore, in addition to any possible QD sample
to sample variation in the MEC yields, we consider the condition of the electrode surface to be
paramount in obtaining high and reproducible
sensitized photocurrents.
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There are conflicting reports regarding the
energy threshold for MEG and the extent to
which quantum yields exceed unity in quantumconfined systems in solution measured with optical methods (43). However, there are substantial
differences between optically and photoelectrochemically measured MEG. MEC in our photoelectrochemical photovoltaic system is calculated
from very straightforward measurements of steadystate currents, photon fluxes, and optical absorption. Detection of MEG in isolated colloidal QDs
using ultrafast optical techniques requires complex data analysis and may be complicated by
artifacts associated with trap states, charging of
the QDs, and multiple-photon absorption in a single QD that could result in higher apparent MEG
yields (43). The photocurrents we measured exhibited no short time scale transients associated
with charge trapping and detrapping of carriers
(fig. S3, A to C). Furthermore, steady-state MEC
photocurrents (APCE = 170%) were sustained for
8 hours of continuous illumination with 4.3 mW/cm2
of 3.1-eV incident photons; under these conditions, each QD undergoes nearly 1000 turnovers
or on average about one multiple electron injection and collection every minute.
Although our >100% APCE values are higher and commence at slightly lower energy than
the optically determined MEG yields for isolated
colloidal PbS QDs (10), it was recently shown
that the internal gain in PbS QD photoconductive
photodetectors increased at Ehv /Eg = 2.7 and
nearly doubled at Ehv /Eg = 3.2 (25). Despite the
different mechanisms governing current flow in
the two systems, the manifestation of MEG at
similar values of Ehv /Eg and the similar magnitudes of the yields are notable. The lower bound
of the APCE values for our PbS QDs, demonstrating MEC at an absolute incident photon
energy of 3.1 eV, is about 15 to 30% greater than
MEG yields for oleic acidcapped PbS QDs (Eg =
0.85 eV) in tetrachloroethylene that was studied
optically by Nozik and co-workers (10). The different dielectric environment of MPA-capped
PbS QDs adsorbed on TiO2 is one possible cause
for the difference in absolute magnitude between
our APCE values and MEG yields reported in
typical solution spectroscopic measurements (i.e.,
water and a TiO2 surface versus QDs capped with
long-chain hydrocarbon surfactants in nonaqueous solutions). However, it appears that onset of
MEC occurs at about 2.5 T 0.25 Eg for the QD
sizes studied herein, in agreement with the onset
of MEG determined optically with InP QDs with
various band gaps (14). At present, optical measurements of MEG from PbS QDs capped with
short-chain thiols in an aqueous medium are not
available for direct comparison to our results.
The results presented herein are encouraging
for the future design and development of photovoltaic devices that exploit MEG and MEC to
surpass the Shockley-Queisser efficiency limit
and approach the ideal single MEG absorber efficiency of 45% (7). However, it remains unclear
to what extent MEC can improve the power con-
66
version efficiency in a thin film or QD-sensitized

device, especially if the onset of MEC is at nearly
three times the QD band gap.
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for helpful discussions. J.B.S. and B.A.P. acknowledge
U.S. Department of EnergyBasic Energy Sciences grant
no. DE-FG03-96ER14625 for funding. T.N. acknowledges
Department of Energy grant no. DE-FG36-08GO18025
for financial support.

SOM Text
Figs. S1 to S4
Tables S1 to S4
References
26 April 2010; accepted 13 August 2010
10.1126/science.1191462
Allosteric Supramolecular
Triple-Layer Catalysts
Hyo Jae Yoon, Junpei Kuwabara,* Jun-Hyun Kim, Chad A. Mirkin
Allosteric regulation of organometallic catalysts could allow for greater control over reactions.
We report an allosteric supramolecular structure in which a monometallic catalytic site has been
buried in the middle layer of a triple-layer complex. Small molecules and elemental anions
can open and close this complex and reversibly expose and conceal the catalytic center. The
ring-opening polymerization of e-caprolactone can be turned on by the in situ opening of the
triple-layer complex and then completely turned off by reforming it through the abstraction of
Cl, the allosteric effector agent, without appreciable loss of catalytic activity. This process can
regulate the molecular weights of the resulting polymers.
upramolecular coordination complexes, in
which multiple weak bonding interactions
control structure, have found several applications, including catalysis (17), recognition
of small molecules (811), and facilitated smallmolecule transport (12). Such systems can encapsulate molecules (3), and the nanoscale environment
created by a supramolecular complex can increase
the speed of a chemical reaction (4, 5), alter
reaction routes (6), control stereochemistry (5),
affect oligomerization processes (7), or extend the
lifetimes of highly reactive molecules such as
1 OCTOBER 2010
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cyclobutadiene (13). An important goal is to

regulate the activity of catalysts through the
addition of small molecules that change the supramolecular structure of the catalyst and in turn
control catalytic reaction rates and product distributions (1417), much like the behavior of many
allosteric enzymes. Herein, we present a proof-ofconcept example of such regulation for a living
polymerization catalyst and demonstrate control
over polymer growth and molecular weight.
There are three general methods for synthesizing supramolecular coordination complexes (18),
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REPORTS
termed the directional bonding (DBA) (19, 20),
symmetry interaction (SIA) (2123), and weaklink (WLA) approaches (2426). The DBA and
SIA yield structurally rigid complexes, whereas
the WLA produces rigid intermediates, which
can be chemically interconverted with structurally
flexible cagelike products. We have used such interconversions through the WLA to synthesize and
study a class of multimetallic allosteric complexes
for molecular recognition and catalytic purposes
(2, 2426). Thus far, all allosteric supramolecular
systems developed have relied on homoligated
macrocycles or tweezers with pockets based upon
catalysts that function in a bimetallic fashion.
However, if the repertoire of allosteric systems
could be extended from bimetallic to monometallic structures, myriad possibilities in the area of
allosteric catalysis would result. Ideally, one would
like access to a structure with a single catalytic site
that is blocked above and below by chemically inert
entities that can be opened and closed through
chemical stimuli at remote regulatory sites.
We report the synthesis of a triple-layer complex (TLC), composed of two transition metal
nodes, two chemically inert blocking exterior
layers, and a single catalytically active interior
Al(III)-salen complex, which can act as a ringopening polymerization catalyst with -caprolactone
(-CL) as the substrate (Fig. 1A). This complex
was synthesized through the WLA and a halideinduced ligand rearrangement process (HILR)
Department of Chemistry and the International Institute for
Nanotechnology, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan
Road, Evanston, IL 602083113, USA.
*Present address: Tsukuba Research Center for Interdisciplinary Materials Science (TIMS), Graduate School of Pure
and Applied Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai,
Tsukuba 305-8573, Japan.
Present address: Department of Chemistry, Illinois State
University, Campus Box 4160, Normal, IL 617904160, USA.
To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail:
chadnano@northwestern.edu
(25, 27) and can be reversibly activated and deactivated through small-molecule or elemental
anion effector reactions that assemble and disassemble the trilayer structures.
We initially studied the coordination chemistry of previously synthesized dirhodium complex
3 (Fig. 1B) (28). This complex can be reversibly
interconverted with the triple-layer structure 4, by
the abstraction and subsequent addition of Cl.
To realize the targeted triple-layer catalyst structure, we had to design a system that did not involve a Rh-O linkage as in compound 4; this
linkage is too easily broken by relatively weakly
binding ligands (18, 24, 25) and presents a functional group incompatibility issue with many catalytic reactions. To synthesize a more robust structure,
we replaced the ether moiety with an amine,
which forms a stronger coordination bond with
Rh(I) than the ether. The amine-containing, semiopen complex 7a, a neutral species, was synthesized in 97% yield by reacting one equivalent
(equiv) of [Rh(cod)Cl]2 (cod = 1,5-cyclooctadiene)
with two equiv of PN ligand 6a and one equiv of
PS bidentate ligand 1 in dry CH2Cl2 at room
temperature (Fig. 1B). All analytical data, including 1H nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR)
spectroscopy, 31P{1H} NMR spectroscopy, and
ESI-MS (electrospray ionization mass spectrometry) are in full agreement with the proposed
formulation [see supporting online material (SOM)
for more details]. For example, the 31P{1H} NMR
spectrum of 7a exhibits highly diagnostic resonances at d 72.95 (dd, JRh-P = 184.68 Hz, JP-P =
42.12 Hz) and 27.31 (dd, JRh-P = 166.86 Hz, JP-P =
42.12 Hz), indicative of the two inequivalent
phosphorus atoms in the semi-open Rh(I) complex. A 2D 31P{1H} correlation spectroscopy
NMR study also shows that the two resonances
couple with each other (see SOM). The solid-state
structure of 7a, determined by a single-crystal
x-ray diffraction study, is consistent with the proposed solution structure (Fig. 2, A and B). Each
of the Rh(I) centers is coordinated by k2-PS, k1PN, and Cl moieties in a distorted square-planar
geometry with P(2)-Rh(1)-Cl(1) and S(1)-Rh(1)Cl(1) angles of 90.903(18) and 86.064(18),
respectively.
Complex 7a was transformed into the closed
triple-layer structure 8a through a reaction with
NaBArF (BArF = tetrakis[(3,5-trifluoromethyl)
phenyl]borate) or LiB(C6F5)4Et2O halide abstracting reagents (29). The 31P{1H} NMR spectrum
of closed triple-layer complex 8a exhibits two
resonances, which appear as doublets of doublets
d 66.73 (dd, JRh-P = 178.20 Hz, JP-P = 42.12 Hz)
and 49.95 (dd, JRh-P = 173.34 Hz, JP-P = 42.12 Hz),
respectively (Fig. 3A). Complex 8a was also characterized in the solid-state by a single-crystal x-ray
diffraction study, which is consistent with the
proposed solution structure (Fig. 2, C and D).
The two exterior phenyl and one interior phenyl
moieties are almost cofacially aligned with
respect to one another, suggesting that one could
use this approach to create a complex with a
chemically active pocket with blocking moieties
positioned above and below the pocket. In the
solid state, the closest distance between the interior phenyl group and the exterior blocking
ligand was 3.3342 (56) . Two-dimensional (2D)
and selective 1D 1H NOESY (nuclear Overhauser
effect spectroscopy) experiments also confirmed
that complex 8a maintains its triple-layer structure in solution (Fig. 3, B and C).
Based on experiments with model ligands 1 and
6a, more sophisticated ligands 5 and 6b (Fig. 1B)
were designed and used to synthesize the corresponding neutral semi-open complex 7b. Ligands
5 and 6b were prepared from commercially available compounds, 5-bromo-2-hydroxylbenzaldehyde
and N,N-bis(4-bromophenyl)-amine, respectively
(see SOM). At room temperature, a THF solution
of [Rh(coe)2Cl]2 (44.0 mmol, coe = cyclooctene)
was added to a THF solution of one equiv of compound 5 (44.0 mmol) and two equiv of com-
Fig. 1. (A) A model of an allosteric supramolecular triple-layer complex for

the regulation of the catalytic living polymerization of -caprolactone. (B)
The synthesis of triple-layer complexes with chemically tailorable layers
through the choice of hemilabile ligand starting materials. Reagents and reaction conditions: (a) CH2Cl2, rt. (b) LiB(C6F5)4Et2O, CH2Cl2, rt. (c) (nBu)4NCl,
CH2Cl2, rt. (d) THF, rt. (e) NaBArF, CH2Cl2, rt. (f) (nBu)4NCl, CH2Cl2, rt.
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pound 6b (88.0 mmol) under a N2 atmosphere.
The product was concentrated under vacuum
and recrystallized with THF and hexanes to
yield neutral semi-open 7b in 92% yield (Fig.
1B). Complex 7b could be readily transformed
into the closed triple-layer structure by introducing it to NaBArF or LiB(C6F5)4Et2O. The molecular structure of complex 8b was confirmed
by ESI-MS and 31P{1H} NMR spectroscopy. A
parent peak in the mass spectrum of 8b was
observed at 1206.3536 m/z ([M-2BArF]2+), and
the 31P{1H} NMR spectrum of 8b exhibited resonances at d 67.09 (dd, JRh-P = 178.18 Hz, JP-P =
42.11 Hz) and 50.29 (dd, JRh-P = 173.32 Hz, JP-P =
42.11 Hz), which were assigned to the two magnetically and chemically distinct P atoms.
The catalytically active triple-layer structure 9
(Fig. 4A) was obtained in 89% yield via reaction
of compound 7b with AlEt3 in dry toluene followed by addition of ethanol (EtOH). The 31P{1H}
NMR spectrum of 9 exhibited resonances at d
73.16 (dd, JRh-P = 186.28 Hz, JP-P = 42.11 Hz) and
27.69 (dd, JRh-P = 166.84 Hz, JP-P = 40.50 Hz),
indicating that the compound has a semi-open
structure. In addition, 1H NMR spectroscopy and
ESI-MS of compound 9 confirmed that it bears a
CH3CH2O-Al group. Reaction of two equiv of
NaBArF or LiB(C6F5)4Et2O with compound 9
in CH2Cl2 afforded a fully closed triple-layer
structure 10 in quantitative yield. Resonances at d
66.86 (dd, JRh-P = 179.80 Hz, JP-P = 42.11 Hz)
and 50.07 (dd, JRh-P = 171.70 Hz, JP-P = 42.11 Hz)
were observed in the 31P{1H} NMR spectrum of
10, which indicate a fully closed structure. A selective 1D NOESY NMR spectroscopic study of
10 is consistent with the characterization of the
complex as a triple-layer structure. Specifically, a
through-space interaction occurs between the
terminal methyl group of the ethoxy moiety and
the methyl groups of the blocking layers (see
SOM). When two equiv of Cl (or CD3CN) were
added to a CH2Cl2 solution of compound 10 at
room temperature, the corresponding semi-open
complex 9 immediately and quantitatively formed
without destroying the Al(III)-OCH2CH3-salen
moiety, as evidenced by ESI-MS and 1H and
31
P{1H} NMR spectroscopy in CD2Cl2.
The catalytic properties of closed compound
10 and semi-open compound 9 were evaluated in
terms of a ring-opening polymerization of -CL
(Fig. 4B, C). In a typical experiment, catalyst 9
(2.09 mM) was added to a toluene-d8 solution of
-CL (331 or 541 mM), and the formation of the
product, polycaprolactone (PCL), was monitored
by 1H NMR spectroscopy as a function of time
(Fig. 4B) (30). The semi-open compound 9 is
active and can quantitatively polymerize all of
the -CL monomer. The closed compound 10 is
initially almost completely inactive under identical conditions, but after about 100 hours of catalysis, residual activity is observed (about 7% of 9),
which is caused by decomposition of 10 (confirmed by 31P{1H} NMR spectroscopy). The polymers produced by the reactions were characterized
by 1H, 13C{1H} NMR spectroscopy, gel permeation
68
chromatography (GPC), and differential scanning

calorimetry (DSC) to confirm the molecular structure
of the polymer and to determine their number average molecular weights (Mn), weight average molecular weights (Mw), and polydispersity indices
(PDI). Every polymer produced by the TLC
showed a relatively narrow molecular weight
distribution (PDI: 1.1 ~ 1.2) and plausible Mns
and Mws, compared with theoretical ones (table

S1). For example, in the case of 541 mM -CL
at 90C, the product had a PDI of 1.18 and a
Mw of 35,400. Polymers with Mw = 20,800 and
35,400 exhibited Tms of 47.8 and 50.3C, respectively (31).
We could allosterically regulate the catalytic
activity of the supramolecular catalyst with small
Fig. 2. Crystal structures of

the compounds 7a (A and
B) and 8a (C and D), drawn
with 50% thermal ellipsoid
probability: (A) and (C), side
view; (B) and (D), top view.
Hydrogen atoms, solvent molecules, and counter ions
have been omitted for clarity. Labeling and coloring
schemes are as follows: Rh,
orange; P, green; S, yellow;
N, dark brown; Cl, blue; C,
gray.
Fig. 3. (A) 31P{1H} NMR spectrum of compound 8a. The inset shows that the resonances are doublets of
doublets. (B) An aromatic region of a 2D NOESY NMR spectrum of 8a. The spectrum shows the nuclear
Overhauser effect (NOE) between interior (Hi) and exterior (He3) protons. (C) 1H NMR spectrum of 8a and
the corresponding selective 1D NOESY NMR trace which was obtained through irradiation at the
frequency of He3. (Inset) Aromatic region of the 1D NOESY spectrum.
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Fig. 4. (A) The synthetic method for the triple-layer complex 10.
Reagents and reaction conditions: (a) AlEt3, toluene, 0C rt 80C;
EtOH, rt 80C. (b) NaBArF, CH2Cl2, rt. (c) (nBu)4NCl for 9 (CD3CN
can also be used for the formation of the semi-open complex), CH2Cl2,
rt. (B and C) Catalytic activities of compounds 9 and 10 with respect
to the polymerization of e-caprolactone as a function of temperature
and monomer concentration. Dependence on temperature at a 541
mM monomer concentration (B) and dependence on monomer concentration at 363 K in the presence of 9 (C). (D to F) Reversible allosteric regulation of the triple-layer
complex in terms of the living polymerization reaction. The formation of the product was monitored by 1H
NMR spectroscopy (D), and samples were taken from the reaction at various times (a to e) and analyzed by
GPC for Mn and PDI (E). Traces of the GPC analysis (F).
molecules (Fig. 4D). As a proof-of-concept experiment, the catalyst was deactivated by adding a
stoichiometric amount of the Cl abstracting agent,
NaBArF, which resulted in the clean formation
of the fully closed complex 10, as evidenced by
31 1
P{ H} NMR spectroscopy. Addition of acetonitrile to 10 yields the semi-open structure again
and reactivates the catalyst, allowing -CL to react
with the Al(III)-salen moiety resulting in polymer
growth (Fig. 4D). To characterize this process, a
2-mL sample was taken at various times from the
reaction solution and characterized by 1H NMR
spectroscopy and GPC (Fig. 4 E and F). A linear
relation between percentage of substrate conversion
to product and Mn of the polymer was observed,
which confirms that the catalyst maintains its catalytic activity during the allosteric regulation process.
Reactivation of the catalyst results in increased Mw,
because of the living nature of the polymerization
and not just the generation of additional polymer
of a Mw comparable to the first stage of activation.
Allosteric modulation of enzymatic catalysis
kinetics is used for many purposes, including the
control of RNA polymerase activity during transcription (32), signal transduction in cellular structures (33), and energy regulation (34). The allosteric
triple-layer catalyst reported herein is a step
toward a new class of supramolecular systems that
should allow one to regulate a wide variety of chemical reactions with activities, regioselectivities, and
perhaps stereoselectivities that can be controlled
with small molecule and elemental anion effectors.
Indeed, the ability to introduce a variety of functional groups into an ABA type of triple-layered
structure via coordination chemistry and the WLA
is a powerful and potentially general way of creating sterically protected catalytically active centers
that can be completely activated and deactivated in
situ without substantial loss of catalytic activity.
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Acc. Chem. Res. 41, 1618 (2008).
26. H. J. Yoon, C. A. Mirkin, J. Am. Chem. Soc. 130, 11590 (2008).
27. A. M. Brown, M. V. Ovchinnikov, C. L. Stern, C. A. Mirkin,
J. Am. Chem. Soc. 126, 14316 (2004).
28. Y.-M. Jeon, J. Heo, A. M. Brown, C. A. Mirkin,
Organometallics 25, 2729 (2006).
29. I. Krossing, I. Raabe, Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 43, 2066
(2004).
30. M. R. Ten Breteler et al., J. Polym. Sci. Pol. Chem. 45, 429
(2007).
31. J. Wang, M. K. Cheung, Y. Mi, Polymer (Guildf.) 43, 1357
(2002).
32. I. Artsimovitch et al., Cell 122, 351 (2005).
33. J.-P. Changeux, S. J. Edelstein, Science 308, 1424 (2005).
34. A. Mattevi, M. Bolognesi, G. Valentini, FEBS Lett. 389,
15 (1996).
35. C.A.M. acknowledges the U.S. Air Force Office of
Scientific Research (AFOSR), the Director of Defense
Research and Engineering (DDRE) for Multidisciplinary
University Research Initiative (MURI) funding, the Army
Research Office (ARO), and NSF for support of this
research. C.A.M. is grateful for a National Security
Science and Engineering Faculty Fellowship from the
U.S. Department of Defense. We thank C. L. Stern for
x-ray crystallographic analysis. Crystallographic data have
been submitted to the Cambridge Crystallographic
Database with reference numbers CCDC-778135 (7a)
and CCDC-778134 (8a) and are available free of charge
at www.ccdc.cam.ac.uk/data_request/cif.

SOM Text
Figs. S1 to S12
Tables S1 to S3
References
10.1126/science.1193928
1 OCTOBER 2010
69
REPORTS
bial hosts (11, 12). The metabolic pathway for
Taxol consists of an upstream isoprenoid pathway
that is native to Escherichia coli and a heterologous downstream terpenoid pathway (fig. S1).
The upstream methylerythritol-phosphate (MEP)
or heterologous mevalonic acid (MVA) pathways
can produce the two common building blocks,
isopentenyl pyrophosphate (IPP) and dimethylallyl pyrophosphate (DMAPP), from which Taxol
and other isoprenoid compounds are formed
(12). Recent studies have highlighted the engineering of the above upstream pathways to support the biosynthesis of heterologous isoprenoids
such as lycopene (13, 14), artemisinic acid (15, 16),
and abietadiene (17, 18). The downstream taxadiene
pathway has been reconstructed in E. coli and
Saccharomyces cerevisiae together with the overexpression of upstream pathway enzymes, but to
date titers have been limited to less than 10 mg/liter
(19, 20).
The above rational metabolic engineering approaches examined separately either the upstream
or the downstream terpenoid pathway, implicitly
assuming that modifications are additive (a linear
behavior) (13, 17, 21). Although this approach
can yield moderate increases in flux, it generally
ignores nonspecific effects, such as toxicity of intermediate metabolites, adverse cellular effects of
the vectors used for expression, and hidden pathways and metabolites that may compete with the
main pathway and inhibit the production of the
desired molecule. Combinatorial approaches can
overcome such problems because they offer the
opportunity to broadly sample the parameter space
and bypass these complex nonlinear interactions
(2123). However, combinatorial approaches require high-throughput screens, which are often not
available for many desirable natural products (24).
Considering the lack of a high-throughput
screen for taxadiene (or other Taxol pathway
intermediate), we resorted to a focused combi-
Isoprenoid Pathway Optimization

for Taxol Precursor Overproduction
in Escherichia coli
Parayil Kumaran Ajikumar,1,2 Wen-Hai Xiao,1 Keith E. J. Tyo,1 Yong Wang,3 Fritz Simeon,1
Effendi Leonard,1 Oliver Mucha,1 Too Heng Phon,2 Blaine Pfeifer,3* Gregory Stephanopoulos1,2*
Taxol (paclitaxel) is a potent anticancer drug first isolated from the Taxus brevifolia Pacific yew tree.
Currently, cost-efficient production of Taxol and its analogs remains limited. Here, we report a
multivariate-modular approach to metabolic-pathway engineering that succeeded in increasing titers
of taxadienethe first committed Taxol intermediateapproximately 1 gram per liter (~15,000-fold) in
an engineered Escherichia coli strain. Our approach partitioned the taxadiene metabolic pathway
into two modules: a native upstream methylerythritol-phosphate (MEP) pathway forming isopentenyl
pyrophosphate and a heterologous downstream terpenoidforming pathway. Systematic multivariate
search identified conditions that optimally balance the two pathway modules so as to maximize the
taxadiene production with minimal accumulation of indole, which is an inhibitory compound found here.
We also engineered the next step in Taxol biosynthesis, a P450-mediated 5a-oxidation of taxadiene
to taxadien-5a-ol. More broadly, the modular pathway engineering approach helped to unlock the
potential of the MEP pathway for the engineered production of terpenoid natural products.
axol (paclitaxel) and its structural analogs
are among the most potent and commercially successful anticancer drugs (1). Taxol
was first isolated from the bark of the Pacific
yew tree (2), and early-stage production methods
required sacrificing two to four fully grown trees
to secure sufficient dosage for one patient (3).
Taxols structural complexity limited its chemical
synthesis to elaborate routes that required 35 to
T
1
Department of Chemical Engineering, Massachusetts Institute

of Technology (MIT), Cambridge, MA 02139, USA. 2Chemical
and Pharmaceutical Engineering Program, Singapore-MIT Alliance, 117546 Singapore. 3Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Tufts University, 4 Colby Street, Medford,
MA 02155, USA.
gregstep@mit.edu (G.S.); blaine.pfeifer@tufts.edu (B.P.)
51 steps, with a highest yield of 0.4% (46). A

semisynthetic route was later devised in which
the biosynthetic intermediate baccatin III, isolated
from plant sources, was chemically converted to
Taxol (7). Although this approach and subsequent plant cell culturebased production efforts
have decreased the need for harvesting the yew
tree, production still depends on plant-based processes (8), with accompanying limitations on
productivity and scalability. These methods of
production also constrain the number of Taxol
derivatives that can be synthesized in the search
for more efficacious drugs (9, 10).
Recent developments in metabolic engineering and synthetic biology offer new possibilities
for the overproduction of complex natural products
by optimizing more technically amenable micro-
Upstream module
G3P
OP
Glucose
OH
O
ispC ispD
OH
OPPO
ispE ispF
OH
OP
OH
OH
dxs
ispG ispH
OPP-cyt
OH OH
OPP GGPP
Synthase
idi
Taxa-4(5),11(12)-diene
Taxadiene
synthase
OH OH
H
OPP
OPP
PYR
DMAPP
Fig. 1. Multivariate-modular approach for

O
isoprenoid pathway optimization. To increase
O OH
O
O
the flux through the upstream MEP pathway,
we targeted reported enzymatic bottlenecks
NH O
O
(dxs, idi, ispD, and ispF) (gray) for overO
H
OH O O
expression by an operon (dxs-idi-ispDF) (21).
OH
O
O
To channel the overflow flux from the uniTaxol
versal isoprenoid precursors, IPP and DMAPP,
toward Taxol biosynthesis, we constructed a
synthetic operon of downstream genes GGPP synthase (G) and taxadiene
synthase (T) (37). Both pathways were placed under the control of inducible
promoters in order to control their relative gene expression. In the E. coli
metabolic network, the MEP isoprenoid pathway is initiated by the condensation of the precursors glyceraldehyde-3 phosphate (G3P) and pyruvate
70
Geranylgeranyl
Diphosphate
IPP
ME-cPP
CDP-ME
DXP
Downstream module
1 OCTOBER 2010
VOL 330
Taxadiene 5 hydroxylase
O
O
HO
Baccatin III
OH
H
OH O O
O
OH
Taxadien-5-ol
(PYR) from glycolysis. The Taxol pathway bifurcation starts from the universal
isoprenoid precursors IPP and DMAPP to form geranylgeranyl diphosphate,
and then the taxadiene. The cyclic olefin taxadiene undergoes multiple rounds
of stereospecific oxidations, acylations, and benzoylation to form the late
intermediate Baccatin III and side chain assembly to, ultimately, form Taxol.
SCIENCE
www.sciencemag.org

REPORTS
natorial approach, which we term multivariatemodular pathway engineering. In this approach,
the overall pathway is partitioned into smaller
modules, and the modules expression are varied
simultaneouslya multivariate search. This approach can identify an optimally balanced pathway while searching a small combinatorial space.
Specifically, we partition the taxadiene-forming
pathway into two modules separated at IPP,
which is the key intermediate in terpenoid biosynthesis. The first module comprises an eightgene, upstream, native (MEP) pathway of which
the expression of only four genes deemed to be
rate-limiting was modulated, and the second module comprises a two-gene, downstream, heterologous pathway to taxadiene (Fig. 1). This modular
approach allowed us to efficiently sample the
main parameters affecting pathway flux without
the need for a high-throughput screen and to
unveil the role of the metabolite indole as inhibitor of isoprenoid pathway activity. Additionally, the multivariate search revealed a highly
nonlinear taxadiene flux landscape with a global
maximum exhibiting a 15,000-fold increase in
taxadiene production over the control, yielding
1.02 T 0.08 g/liter (SD) taxadiene in fed-batch
bioreactor fermentations.
We have further engineered the P450-based
oxidation chemistry in Taxol biosynthesis in
E. coli to convert taxadiene to taxadien-5a-ol
and provide the basis for the synthesis of subsequent metabolites in the pathway by means
of similar cytochrome P450 (CYP450) oxidation chemistry. Our engineered strain improved
taxadiene-5a-ol production by 2400-fold over
the state of the art with yeast (25). These advances unlock the potential of microbial processes for the large-scale production of Taxol
or its derivatives and thousands of other valuable
terpenoids.
The multivariate-modular approach in which
various promoters and gene copy-numbers are
combined to modulate diverse expression levels of
upstream and downstream pathways of taxadiene
synthesis is schematically described in fig. S2. A
total of 16 strains were constructed in order to
widen the bottleneck of the MEP pathway as well
as optimally balance it with the downstream taxadiene pathway (26). The dependence of taxadiene accumulation on the upstream pathway
for constant values of the downstream pathway is
shown in Fig. 2A, and the dependence on the
downstream pathway for constant upstream pathway strength is shown in Fig. 2B (table S1, calculation of the upstream and downstream pathway
strength from gene copy number and promoter
strength). As the upstream pathway expression
increases in Fig. 2A from very low levels, taxadiene production also rises initially because of
increased supply of precursors to the overall pathway. However, after an intermediate value further
upstream pathway increases cannot be accommodated by the capacity of the downstream pathway. For constant upstream pathway expression
(Fig. 2B), a maximum in downstream expression
was similarly observed owing to the rising edge

to initial limiting of taxadiene production by low
expression levels of the downstream pathway. At
high (after peak) levels of downstream pathway
expression, we were probably observing the negative effect on cell physiology of the high copy
number.
These results demonstrate that dramatic changes
in taxadiene accumulation can be obtained from
changes within a narrow window of expression

levels for the upstream and downstream pathways. For example, a strain containing an additional copy of the upstream pathway on its
chromosome under Trc promoter control (strain
8) (Fig. 2A) produced 2000-fold more taxadiene
than one expressing only the native MEP pathway (strain 1) (Fig. 2A). Furthermore, changing
the order of the genes in the downstream syn-
Fig. 2. Optimization of taxadiene production through regulating the expression of the upstream and
downstream modular pathways. (A) Response in taxadiene accumulation to changes in upstream pathway
strengths for constant values of the downstream pathway. (B) Dependence of taxadiene on the downstream pathway for constant levels of upstream pathway strength. (C) Taxadiene response from strains (17
to 24) engineered with high upstream pathway overexpressions (6 to 100 a.u.) at two different downstream expressions (31 a.u. and 61 a.u.). (D) Modulation of a chromosomally integrated upstream pathway
by using increasing promoter strength at two different downstream expressions (31 a.u. and 61 a.u.). (E)
Genotypes of the 32 strain constructs whose taxadiene phenotype is shown in Fig. 2, A to D. E, E. coli
K12MG1655 DrecADendA; EDE3, E. coli K12MG1655 DrecADendA with DE3 T7 RNA polymerase gene in
the chromosome; MEP, dxs-idi-ispDF operon; GT, GPPS-TS operon; TG, TS-GPPS operon; Ch1, 1 copy in
chromosome; Trc, Trc promoter; T5, T5 promoter; T7, T7 promoter; p5, pSC101 plasmid; p10, p15A
plasmid; and p20, pBR322 plasmid.
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72
inhibition being very strain-dependent (fig. S5C).

Although the biochemical mechanism of indole
interaction with the isoprenoid pathway is presently unclear, the results in fig. S5 suggest a
possible synergistic effect between indole and
terpenoid compounds of the isoprenoid pathway
in inhibiting cell growth. Without knowing the
specific mechanism, it appears that strain 26 has
mitigated the indoles effect, which we carried
forward for further study.
In order to explore the taxadiene-producing
potential under controlled conditions for the engineered strains, fed-batch cultivations of the three
highest taxadiene accumulating strains (~60 mg/
liter from strain 22; ~125 mg/liter from strain 17;
and ~300 mg/liter from strain 26) were carried
out in 1-liter bioreactors (Fig. 3). The fed-batch
cultivation studies were carried out as liquidliquid two-phase fermentation using a 20% (v/v)
dodecane overlay. The organic solvent was introduced to prevent air stripping of secreted taxadiene from the fermentation medium, as indicated
by preliminary findings (fig. S8). In defined media
with controlled glycerol feeding, taxadiene productivity increased to 174 T 5 mg/liter (SD), 210 T
7 mg/liter (SD), and 1020 T 80 mg/liter (SD) for
strains 22, 17, and 26, respectively (Fig. 3A).
Additionally, taxadiene production significantly
affected the growth phenotype, acetate accumulation, and glycerol consumption [Fig. 3, B and
D, and supporting online material (SOM) text].
Clearly, the high productivity and more robust
growth of strain 26 allowed very high taxadiene

accumulation. Further improvements should be
possible through optimizing conditions in the bioreactor, balancing nutrients in the growth medium and optimizing carbon delivery.
Having succeeded in engineering the biosynthesis of the cyclase phase of Taxol for high
taxadiene production, we turned next to engineering the oxidation-chemistry of Taxol biosynthesis.
In this phase, hydroxyl groups are incorporated
by oxygenation at seven positions on the taxane
core structure, mediated by CYP450-dependent
monooxygenases (28). The first oxygenation is
the hydroxylation of the C5 position, followed
by seven similar reactions en route to Taxol (fig.
S1) (29). Thus, a key step toward engineering
Taxol-producing microbes is the development of
CYP450-based oxidation chemistry in vivo. The
first oxygenation step is catalyzed by a CYP450,
taxadiene 5a-hydroxylase, which is an unusual
monooxygenase that catalyzes the hydroxylation
reaction along with double-bond migration in the
diterpene precursor taxadiene (Fig. 1).
In general, functional expression of plant
CYP450 in E. coli is challenging (30) because
of the inherent limitations of bacterial platforms,
such as the absence of electron transfer machinery and CYP450-reductases (CPRs) and translational incompatibility of the membrane signal
modules of CYP450 enzymes because of the lack
of an endoplasmic reticulum. Recently, through
transmembrane (TM) engineering and the gener-
A 1200
B
Strain 22
Strain 17
Strain 26
40
Strain 22
Cell growth (OD600 nm)
Taxadiene (mg/L)
1000
800
600
400
200
Strain 17
30
Strain 26
20
10
0
0
24
48
72
96
120
24
48
C4
D 40
Net glycerol added (g/L)
Strain 22
Strain 17
Strain 26
72
96
120
Time (h)
Time (h)
Acetic acid (g/L)
thetic operon from GT (GGPS-TS) to TG (TSGGPS) resulted in a two- to threefold increase

(strains 1 to 4 as compared with strains 5, 8, 11,
and 14). Altogether, the engineered strains established that the MEP pathway flux can be substantial if an appropriate range of expression levels
for the endogenous upstream and synthetic downstream pathway are searched simultaneously.
To provide ample downstream pathway strength
while minimizing the plasmid-born metabolic burden (27), two new sets of four strains each were
engineered (strains 17 to 20 and 21 to 24), in
which the downstream pathway was placed under the control of a strong promoter (T7) while
keeping a relatively low number of five and 10
plasmid copies, respectively. The taxadiene maximum was maintained at high downstream strength
(strains 21 to 24), whereas a monotonic response
was obtained at the low downstream pathway
strength (strains 17 to 20) (Fig. 2C). This observation prompted the construction of two additional sets of four strains each that maintained the
same level of downstream pathway strength as
before but expressed very low levels of the upstream pathway (strains 25 to 28 and 29 to 32)
(Fig. 2D). Additionally, the operon of the upstream pathway of the latter strain set was chromosomally integrated (fig S3). Not only was the
taxadiene maximum recovered in these strains,
albeit at very low upstream pathway levels, but a
much greater taxadiene maximum was attained
(~300 mg/liter). We believe that this significant
increase can be attributed to a decrease in the
cells metabolic burden.
We next quantified the mRNA levels of 1deoxy-D-xylulose-5-phosphate synthase (dxs) and
taxadiene synthase (TS) (representing the upstream and downstream pathways, respectively)
for the high-taxadiene-producing strains (25 to
32 and 17 and 22) that exhibited varying upstream and downstream pathway strengths (fig.
S4, A and B) to verify our predicted expression
strengths were consistent with the actual pathway
levels. We found that dxs expression level correlates well with the upstream pathway strength.
Similar correlations were found for the other genes
of the upstream pathway: idi, ispD, and ispF (fig.
S4, C and D). In downstream TS gene expression, an approximately twofold improvement was
quantified as the downstream pathway strength
increased from 31 to 61 arbitrary units (a.u.)
(fig. S4B).
Metabolomic analysis of the previous strains
led to the identification of a distinct metabolite
by-product that inversely correlated with taxadiene
accumulation (figs. S5 and S6). The corresponding
peak in the gas chromatographymass spectrometry (GC-MS) chromatogram was identified as
indole through GC-MS, 1H, and 13C nuclear
magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy studies
(fig. S7). We found that taxadiene synthesis by
strain 26 is severely inhibited by exogenous indole at indole levels higher than ~100 mg/liter
(fig. S5B). Further increasing the indole concentration also inhibited cell growth, with the level of
Strain 22
Strain 17
Strain 26
32
24
16
8
0
24
48
72
96
120
24
48
72
96
120
Time (h)
Time (h)
Fig. 3. Fed-batch cultivation of engineered strains in a 1-liter bioreactor. Time courses of (A) taxadiene
accumulation, (B) cell growth, (C) acetic acid accumulation, and (D) total substrate (glycerol) addition for
strains 22, 17, and 26 during 5 days of fed-batch bioreactor cultivation in 1-liter bioreactor vessels under
controlled pH and oxygen conditions with minimal media and 0.5% yeast extract. After glycerol depletes
to ~0.5 to 1 g/liter in the fermentor, 3 g/liter of glycerol was introduced into the bioreactor during the
fermentation. Data are mean of two replicate bioreactors.
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The productivity of strain 26-At24T5aOHtTCPR was significantly reduced relative to that
of taxadiene production by the parent strain 26
(~300 mg/liter), with a concomitant increase in
indole accumulation. No taxadiene accumulation
was observed. Apparently, the introduction of an
additional medium copy plasmid (10-copy, p10T7)
bearing the At24T5aOH-tTCPR construct disturbed the carefully engineered balance in the upstream and downstream pathway of strain 26
(fig S10). Small-scale fermentations were carried
out in bioreactors so as to quantify the alcohol
production by strain 26-At24T5aOH-tTCPR. The
time course profile of taxadien-5a-ol accumulation
(Fig. 4C) indicates alcohol production of up to
58 T 3 mg/liter (SD) with an equal amount of the
OCT by-product produced. The observed alcohol
production was approximately 2400-fold higher
than previous production in S. cerevisiae (25).
The MEP pathway is energetically balanced
and thus overall more efficient in converting either
glucose or glycerol to isoprenoids (fig. S11). Yet,
during the past 10 years many attempts at engineering the MEP pathway in E. coli in order to
increase the supply of the key precursors IPP and
DMAPP for carotenoid (21, 35), sesquiterpenoid
(16), and diterpenoid (17) overproduction met
with limited success. This inefficiency was attributed to unknown regulatory effects associated
specifically with the expression of the MEP path-
ation of chimera enzymes of CYP450 and CPR,

some plant CYP450s have been expressed in
E. coli for the biosynthesis of functional molecules (15, 31). Still, every plant CYP450 has
distinct TM signal sequences and electron transfer
characteristics from its reductase counterpart (32).
Our initial studies were focused on optimizing
the expression of codon-optimized synthetic taxadiene 5a-hydroxylase by N-terminal TM engineering and generating chimera enzymes through
translational fusion with the CPR redox partner
from the Taxus species, Taxus CYP450 reductase
(TCPR) (Fig. 4A) (29, 31, 33). One of the chimera enzymes generated, At24T5aOH-tTCPR,
was highly efficient in carrying out the first oxidation step, resulting in more than 98% taxadiene
conversion to taxadien-5a-ol and the byproduct
5(12)-Oxa-3(11)-cyclotaxane (OCT) (fig. S9A).
Compared with the other chimeric CYP450s,
At24T5aOH-tTCPR yielded twofold higher (21
mg/liter) production of taxadien-5a-ol (Fig. 4B).
Because of the functional plasticity of taxadiene
5a-hydroxylase with its chimeric CYP450s enzymes (At8T5aOH-tTCPR, At24T5aOH-tTCPR,
and At42T5aOH-tTCPR), the reaction also yields
a complex structural rearrangement of taxadiene
into the cyclic ether OCT (fig. S9) (34). The byproduct accumulated in approximately equal
amounts (~24 mg/liter from At24T5aOH-tTCPR)
to the desired product taxadien-5a-ol.
Predicted 42AA TM region in T5OH
Predicted 74AA TM region in TCPR
One amino acid substituted bovine 17 hydroxylase

N-terminal 8 residue peptide MALLLAVF fused with
8, 24 and 42AA truncated from the TM region in T5OH
GSTGS peptide linker between TM engineered

T5OH and 74AA truncated TCPR
20
15
10
5
0
20
Taxadiene 5-ol
Cell growth
60
16
12
40
8
20
4
0
0
20
40
60
80
Cell growth (OD600nm)
25
Taxadiene -5-ol production

(mg equivalent of taxadiene/L)
Taxadien -5-ol production

(mg equivalent of taxadiene/L)
0
100
Time (h)
Fig. 4. Engineering Taxol P450 oxidation chemistry in E. coli. (A) TM engineering and construction of
chimera protein from taxadien-5a-ol hydroxylase (T5aOH) and Taxus cytochrome P450 reductase (TCPR).
The labels 1 and 2 represent the full-length proteins of T5aOH and TCPR identified with 42 and 74 amino
acid TM regions, respectively, and 3 represents chimera enzymes generated from three different TM engineered T5aOH constructs [At8T5aOH, At24T5aOH, and At42T5aOH constructed by fusing an 8-residue
synthetic peptide MALLLAVF (A) to 8, 24, and 42AA truncated T5aOH] through a translational fusion with
74AA truncated TCPR (tTCPR) by use of linker peptide GSTGS. (B) Functional activity of At8T5aOH-tTCPR,
At24T5aOH-tTCPR, and At42T5aOH-tTCPR constructs transformed into taxadiene producing strain 26. Data
are mean T SD for three replicates. (C) Time course profile of taxadien-5a-ol accumulation and growth
profile of the strain 26-At24T5aOH-tTCPR fermented in a 1-liter bioreactor. Data are mean of two replicate
bioreactors.
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VOL 330
way in E. coli (16). Here, we provide evidence that

such limitations are correlated with the accumulation of the metabolite indole, owing to the nonoptimal expression of the pathway, which inhibits
the isoprenoid pathway activity. Taxadiene overproduction (under conditions of indole-formation
suppression), establishes the MEP pathway as a
very efficient route for biosynthesis of pharmaceutical and chemical products of the isoprenoid
family (fig. S11). One simply needs to carefully
balance the modular pathways, as suggested by
our multivariate-modular pathwayengineering
approach.
For successful microbial production of Taxol,
demonstration of the chemical decoration of the
taxadiene core by means of CYP450-based oxidation chemistry is essential (28). Previous efforts to reconstitute partial Taxol pathways in
yeast found CYP450 activity limiting (25), making
the At24T5aOH-tTCPR activity levels an important step to debottleneck the late Taxol pathway. Additionally, the strategies used to create
At24T5aOH-tTCPR are probably applicable for
the remaining monooxygenases that will require
expression in E. coli. CYP450 monooxygenases
constitute about one half of the 19 distinct enzymatic steps in the Taxol biosynthetic pathway.
These genes show unusually high sequence similarity with each other (>70%) but low similarity
(<30%) with other plant CYP450s (36), implying
that these monooxygenases are amenable to
similar engineering.
To complete the synthesis of a suitable Taxol
precursor, baccatin III, six more hydroxylation
reactions and other steps (including some that
have not been identified) need to be effectively
engineered. Although this is certainly a daunting
task, the current study shows potential by providing the basis for the functional expression of two
key steps, cyclization and oxygenation, in Taxol
biosynthesis. Most importantly, by unlocking the
potential of the MEP pathway a new more efficient route to terpenoid biosynthesis is capable
of providing potential commercial production of
microbially derived terpenoids for use as chemicals and fuels from renewable resources.
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Eng. 8, 79 (2006).
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23. H. H. Wang et al., Nature 460, 894 (2009).
24. D. Klein-Marcuschamer, P. K. Ajikumar, G. Stephanopoulos,
Trends Biotechnol. 25, 417 (2007).
25. J. M. Dejong et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 93, 212 (2006).
27. K. L. Jones, S. W. Kim, J. D. Keasling, Metab. Eng. 2, 328
(2000).
28. R. Kaspera, R. Croteau, Phytochem. Rev. 5, 433 (2006).

29. S. Jennewein, R. M. Long, R. M. Williams, R. Croteau,
Chem. Biol. 11, 379 (2004).
30. M. A. Schuler, D. Werck-Reichhart, Annu. Rev. Plant Biol.
54, 629 (2003).
31. E. Leonard, M. A. Koffas, Appl. Environ. Microbiol. 73,
7246 (2007).
32. D. R. Nelson, Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 369, 1 (1999).
33. S. Jennewein et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 89, 588
(2005).
34. D. Rontein et al., J. Biol. Chem. 283, 6067 (2008).
35. W. R. Farmer, J. C. Liao, Biotechnol. Prog. 17, 57
(2001).
36. S. Jennewein, M. R. Wildung, M. Chau, K. Walker,
R. Croteau, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 101, 9149
(2004).
37. K. Walker, R. Croteau, Phytochemistry 58, 1 (2001).
38. We thank R. Renu for extraction, purification, and
characterization of metabolite Indole; C. Santos for
providing the pACYCmelA plasmid, constructive
suggestions during the experiments, and preparation of
the manuscript; D. Dugar, H. Zhou, and X. Huang for
helping with experiments and suggestions; and K. Hiller
for data analysis and comments on the manuscript.
We gratefully acknowledge support by the Singapore-MIT
Alliance (SMA-2) and NIH, grant 1-R01-GM085323-01A1.
Reactivity of the Gold/Water Interface

During Selective Oxidation Catalysis
Bhushan N. Zope, David D. Hibbitts, Matthew Neurock, Robert J. Davis*
The selective oxidation of alcohols in aqueous phase over supported metal catalysts is facilitated by
high-pH conditions. We have studied the mechanism of ethanol and glycerol oxidation to acids
over various supported gold and platinum catalysts. Labeling experiments with 18O2 and H218O
demonstrate that oxygen atoms originating from hydroxide ions instead of molecular oxygen are
incorporated into the alcohol during the oxidation reaction. Density functional theory calculations
suggest that the reaction path involves both solution-mediated and metal-catalyzed elementary
steps. Molecular oxygen is proposed to participate in the catalytic cycle not by dissociation to
atomic oxygen but by regenerating hydroxide ions formed via the catalytic decomposition of
a peroxide intermediate.
he selective oxidation of alcohols with molecular oxygen over gold (Au) catalysts
in liquid water offers a sustainable, environmentally benign alternative to traditional processes that use expensive inorganic oxidants and
harmful organic solvents (1, 2). These catalytic
transformations are important to the rapidly developing industry based on the conversion of biorenewable feedstocks to higher-valued chemicals
(3, 4) as well as the current production of petrochemicals. Although gold is the noblest of metals
(5), the water/Au interface provides a reaction environment that enhances its catalytic performance.
We provide here direct evidence for the predominant reaction path during alcohol oxidation at high
pH that includes the coupling of both solutionmediated and metal-catalyzed elementary steps.
Alcohol oxidation catalyzed by Pt-group metals
has been studied extensively, although the precise
Department of Chemical Engineering, University of Virginia,

102 Engineers Way, Post Office Box 400741, Charlottesville,
VA, 229044741, USA.
rjd4f@virginia.edu
74
reaction path and extent of O2 contribution are

still under debate (4, 68). The mechanism for
the selective oxidation of alcohols in liquid
water over the Au catalysts remains largely unknown (6, 9), despite a few recent studies with
organic solvents (1012). In general, supported
Au nanoparticles are exceptionally good catalysts
for the aerobic oxidation of diverse reagents
ranging from simple molecules such as CO and
H2 (13) to more complex substrates such as hydrocarbons and alcohols (14). Au catalysts are also
substrate-specific, highly selective, stable against
metal leaching, and resistant to overoxidation by
O2 (6, 15, 16). The active catalytic species has
been suggested to be anionic Au species (17), cationic Au species (18, 19), and neutral Au metal
particles (20). Moreover, the size and structure of
Au nanoparticles (21, 22) as well as the interface
of these particles with the support (23) have also
been claimed to be important for catalytic activity. For the well-studied CO oxidation reaction,
the presence of water vapor increases the observed
rate of the reaction (2426). Large metallic Au
particles and Au metal powder, which are usually
considered to be catalytically inert, have consider-
1 OCTOBER 2010
VOL 330
SCIENCE
B.P. acknowledges the Milheim Foundation Grant for

Cancer Research 2006-17. A patent application that is
based on the results presented here has been filed by MIT.
P.K.A. designed the experiments and performed the
engineering and screening of the strains; W-H.X.
performed screening of the strains, bioreactor
experiments, and GC-MS analysis; F.S. carried out the
quantitative PCR measurements; O.M. performed the
extraction and characterization of taxadiene standard;
E.L., Y.W., and B.P. supported with cloning experiments;
P.K.A., K.E.J.T., T.H.P., B.P. and G.S. analyzed the data;
P.K.A., K.E.J.T., and G.S. wrote the manuscript; G.S.
supervised the research; and all of the authors contributed
to discussion of the research and edited and commented
on the manuscript.

SOM Text
Figs. S1 to S11
Tables S1 to S4
References
29 April 2010; accepted 9 August 2010
10.1126/science.1191652
able oxidation activity under aqueous conditions

at high pH (27, 28). We provide insights into the
active intermediates and the mechanism for alcohol oxidation in aqueous media derived from
experimental kinetic studies on the oxidation of
glycerol and ethanol with isotopically labeled O2
and H2O over supported Au and Pt catalysts, as
well as ab initio density functional theory calculations on ethanol oxidation over metal surfaces.
Previous studies indicate that alcohol oxidation over supported metal catalysts (Au, Pt, and
Pd) proceeds by dehydrogenation to an aldehyde
or ketone intermediate, followed by oxidation to
the acid product (Eq. 1)
O2 ,catalyst
O2 ,catalyst
RCH2 OH
!RCHO
!RCOOH
(1)
Hydroxide ions play an important role during

oxidation; the product distribution depends on
pH, and little or no activity is seen over Au catalysts without added base. We studied Au particles of various sizes (average diameter ranging
from 3.5 to 10 nm) on different supports (TiO2
and C) as catalysts for alcohol oxidation and compared them to Pt and Pd particles supported on C.
The oxidation of glycerol (HOCH2CHOHCH2OH)
to glyceric (HOCH2CHOHCOOH) and glycolic
(HOCH2COOH) acids occurred at a turnover
frequency (TOF) of 6.1 and 4.9 s1 on Au/C and
Au/TiO2, respectively, at high pH (>13) whereas
the TOF on supported Pt and Pd (1.6 and 2.2 s1,
respectively) was slightly lower at otherwise identical conditions (Table 1). For these Au catalysts,
particle size and support composition had negligible effect on the rate or selectivity. In the absence
of base, the glycerol oxidation rate was much
lower over the Pt and Pd catalysts and no conversion was observed over the Au catalysts (Table 1).
Moreover, the products detected over Pt and Pd in
the absence of base are primarily the intermediate
aldehyde and ketone, rather than acids.
www.sciencemag.org

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The effect of initial base concentration on the
activity of glycerol oxidation on the supported Pt
catalyst was further studied by varying the initial
NaOH concentration from 0 to 0.6 M. The TOF
for glycerol oxidation over Pt was proportional to
the initial hydroxide concentration and thus the
initial glycerolate concentration formed by the
deprotonation of glycerol [Table 1, fig. S1, and
supporting online material (SOM) text], which is
consistent with prior work with a supported Au
catalyst (29). Although the turnover frequencies
for ethanol (CH3CH2OH) oxidation to acetic acid

(CH3COOH) over the above-mentioned Au and
Pt catalysts were an order of magnitude lower than
those observed for glycerol oxidation at identical
conditions, Au was still more active than Pt for
ethanol oxidation at high pH (table S1).
In an aqueous environment, the initial deprotonation of the alcohol to form an alkoxy intermediate occurs in basic solution, and the extent of
the reaction is related to the system pH [the pKa
(where Ka is the acid dissociation constant) of
Fig. 1. (A to G) Selected reaction energies and activation barriers (in kilojoules per mole) for the
oxidation of ethanol to acetic acid on Au(111) and Pt(111) surfaces in the presence of liquid water. The
reactant (R), transition state (TS), and product (P) on the surfaces were computed with density functional
theory. The solution-phase water was omitted for clarity.
www.sciencemag.org
SCIENCE
VOL 330
alcohols is approximately 16] (30). The initial activation of the alcohol can also occur on the catalyst surface. The calculated activation barriers for
the dissociative adsorption of ethanol (Fig. 1A)
over the Au(111) and Pt(111) surfaces in liquid
water are calculated to be very high at 204 and
116 kJ mol1, and thus O-H bond activation by
the metal alone is unlikely. The presence of surfacebound hydroxide intermediates, however, can facilitate O-H bond activation via proton transfer in
much the same way as it occurs in solution. This
process lowers the activation barrier to less than
25 kJ mol1 for either metal (Fig. 1B). The presence of adsorbed hydroxide intermediates also
lowers the barrier for the subsequent activation of
the C-H bond of the ensuing alkoxide intermediate to form the aldehyde over Au. (For Pt, this
step already has a very low barrier over the metal
without the assistance of adsorbed OH.) The
ability of adsorbed hydroxide to activate both the
C-H and O-H bonds so effectively on Au(111)
helps to explain the overall increase in catalytic
activity of the noble metal at high pH.
It is unclear whether O atoms derived from O2
or from hydroxide ions are involved in carboxylate formation from the intermediate aldehyde. To
determine the role of O2 in the mechanism, the
oxidation of aqueous-phase glycerol and ethanol
was performed in a batch autoclave reactor using
18
O2 in the presence of base (0.3 M glycerol or
ethanol and 0.6 M NaOH) together with either
Au/C or Au/TiO2 (0.8 and 1.6% Au, respectively,
obtained from the World Gold Council) as a
catalyst (31). The isotopomer distribution in the
product was evaluated by mass spectrometry.
Glyceric acid was the major product of glycerol
oxidation for all catalysts evaluated at high pH
(Table 1). However, no discernable amount of
labeled O was observed in the glyceric acid
product. Figure 2 shows a representative reaction
profile for the oxidation of glycerol as well as the
mass spectrum of the product glyceric acid. For
the reaction performed with 18O2, only one peak
in the mass spectrum of glyceric acid corresponding to the unlabeled product was observed
(fig. S2). Analogous experiments with ethanol
oxidation confirmed a lack of 18O incorporation
into the product acetic acid (fig. S5). Regardless
of the Au particle size, the composition of the
support, and the structure of the alcohol, 18O was
not observed in the products of alcohol oxidation.
The lack of 18O incorporation in the acid
products might be caused by an inability of
Au nanoparticles to dissociatively adsorb O2
(14, 32, 33). We studied glycerol oxidation over
C-supported Pt (1%, obtained from SigmaAldrich) and Pd (3%, Sigma-Aldrich) with 18O2
at high pH (31), because these transition metals
dissociate O2 (34). However, no labeled O was
observed in the glyceric acid product (fig. S2, B
and C). Because base is not required to oxidize
alcohols over Pt, glycerol oxidation was carried
out with 18O2 over Pt/C in neutral water. Again,
no 18O-labeled acid products were observed in
any appreciable amounts (fig. S2D), which is con-
1 OCTOBER 2010
75
REPORTS
sistent with prior work involving ethanol oxidation over Pt in neutral solution (35). To confirm
that the acid products do not exchange O appreciably with liquid water, the major products from
glycerol and ethanol oxidation (glyceric, glycolic,
and acetic acid) were dissolved separately in
H218O and heated to the reaction conditions in
the presence of base and a Au catalyst for the
duration of a typical reaction test (3 hours). No
appreciable incorporation of 18O from labeled
water was observed in the products (figs. S2 to
S5). It should be emphasized that no glycerol
oxidation was observed in the absence of O2.
To explore the role of hydroxide in Au-catalyzed
oxidation, glycerol and ethanol were oxidized
over Au/C and Au/TiO2 with labeled water
(H218O) at high pH (0.3 M glycerol or ethanol

and 0.6 M NaOH) and 16O2 as the gas-phase
oxidant. The mass spectrum for glyceric acid
produced during glycerol oxidation (Fig. 2 and
fig. S2) shows that a range from one to four 18O
atoms was incorporated into the glyceric acid
product. Incorporation of multiple labeled 18O
atoms into the acetic acid product of ethanol oxidation over Au/C and Au/TiO2 (fig. S5) and into
the minor oxidation products of glycerol was also
observed (figs. S3 and S4). Because the reaction
products do not exchange O with water on the
time scale of the reaction, the appearance of 18O
in the product during reactions performed in
H218O suggests that aqueous-phase alcohol oxidation proceeds through an alkoxy intermediate
Table 1. Glycerol oxidation over Au/C, Au/TiO2, Pt/C, and Pd/C in liquid water.
Catalyst
NaOH:
glycerol
(mol:mol)
Au/C*
2.0
Au/TiO2*
2.0
Pd/C*
2.0
Pt/C*
2.0
Pt/C*
1.0
Pt/C*
0.5
Pt/C
3 104
Pt/C
0.0
Pd/C
0.0
Au/C
0.0
Au/TiO2
0.0
TOF
(s1)
6.1
4.9
2.2
1.6
0.76
0.48
0.05
0.06
0.004
0.0
0.0
Selectivity (%)
Conversion
DihydroxyGlyceric Glycolic Tartronic
(%)
Glyceraldehyde
acetone
acid
acid
acid
6.8
33
29
16
7.1
4.7
8.0
9.0
1.3
0.0
0.0
67
64
83
70
78
72
29
25
25
0.0
0.0
33
24
6.0
21
14
28
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
2.0
5.0
7.0
7.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
50
54
50
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
21
21
25
0.0
0.0
*Reaction conditions: 0.3 M glycerol (G); 30 ml; at 333 K; PO2 = 11 bar; G:Au = G:Pt = 8000 (mol:mol); G:Pd = 2500 (mol:mol); time (t) =
0.5 hours.
Reaction conditions: 0.3 M glycerol; 5 ml; at 333 K; PO2 = 11 bar; G:Au = G:Pt = 5000 (mol:mol); G:Pd = 2000
(mol:mol); t = 5 hours. Gold particle sizes: Au/C = 10.5 nm, Au/TiO2 = 3.5 nm. Dispersion (estimated ratio of surface to total metal
atoms): Au/C = 0.05, Au/TiO2 = 0.29, Pt/C = 0.43, Pd/C = 0.33 (31).
of the geminal diol that was formed by the reaction of the aldehyde intermediate with hydroxide (Figs. 1E and 3). Rapid exchange of the
diols with 18OH accounts for the two 18O atoms
found in the acetic acid product from ethanol
oxidation. During glycerol oxidation, glyceraldehyde (HOCH2CHOHCHO) is the reaction intermediate produced by the initial dehydrogenation
of the terminal alcohol of glycerol. The basecatalyzed rapid interconversion of glyceraldehyde to dihydroxyacetone (HOCH2COCH2OH)
(DHA) during the oxidation reaction could account for more than two 18O atoms appearing in
the product (SOM text) (36). Indeed, a control
experiment with glyceraldehyde (0.05 M) in
the presence of Au/C and a small amount of
base (0.01 M NaOH to avoid degradation of
glyceraldehyde) in H218O resulted in 18O incorporation in DHA that was formed during the
experiment, as seen in fig. S6.
Theory was used to examine the basecatalyzed aqueous-phase oxidation of acetaldehyde (CH3CHO) in solution, as shown in
Eq. 2, and to explore the role of hydroxide ion
as the oxygen source
CH3 CHO HO CH3 CHOOH
The activation barrier for this reaction in solution was calculated to be 45 kJ mol1. The barrier
is largely due to the energy required to restructure
the H-bonding water network around the solvated
hydroxide anion and the aldehyde to allow them
to react together. The same reaction was also examined on the Au(111) and Pt(111) surfaces in the
presence of solvent, which resulted in activation
barriers of 5 kJ mol1 for both metals (Fig. 1E).
Fig. 2. Reaction profile for the oxidation of glycerol over Au/C in liquid
water. Reaction conditions were as follows: 0.3 M glycerol; NaOH: glycerol =
2.0 (mol:mol); glycerol: Au = 8000:1
(mol:mol); at a temperature of 333 K;
with a partial pressure of O2 (PO2) =
11 bar. (Inset at bottom) LC mass spectrum (electronegative ion mode) of
glyceric acid (molecular weight 106)
formed during glycerol oxidation over
Au/C in 18O2 + H216O or 16O2 + H218O.
Glycerol oxidation in 16O2 + H218O
results in the incorporation of multiple
18
O atoms in the product glyceric acid.
m/z, mass/charge ratio.
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REPORTS
Fig. 3. Reaction scheme for the
oxidation of alcohols to acids over
a Au surface in water at high pH.
Hydroxide facilitates elementary
steps in alcohol oxidation in both
the solution phase and at the metal/
solution interface.
These results account for the increase in reactivity

with HO either in solution or at the solution/metal
interface. The subsequent C-H activation of the
CH3CHOOH intermediate to form acetic acid
occurs quite readily over Pt as well as Au, with
barriers of only 10 to 20 kJ mol1 (Fig. 1F).
Several roles for O2 during the oxidation reactions in water at high pH have been proposed, including the direct participation of atomic O during
dehydrogenation reactions, the reduction of atomic O to water through H atoms adsorbed on the
surface, the direct oxidation of the intermediate
aldehyde with atomic O to form the O-insertion
product acids, and the removal of strongly bound
organic adsorbates such as CO through oxidation
(6). All of these routes require O2 dissociation on
the catalyst surface, which is not favored on Au
catalysts (14, 32, 33) and may be inhibited by
water or hydroxides that adsorb on Pt-group catalysts. The activation barriers for O2 dissociation
on Au(111) and Pt(111) were calculated to be
105 and 64 kJ mol1, respectively, confirming the
noble nature of Au as compared to Pt-group
metals (table S3, reaction 7).
The production of peroxide during oxidation
reactions over Au (28, 29) indicates that O2 is
first reduced during these reactions before dissociation. [For the case of Pt, O2 dissociation is
also difficult because of the high surface coverages of hydroxide intermediates (8).] Activation of
O2 occurs through the formation and dissociation of peroxide (OOH*) and hydrogen peroxide
(HOOH*) intermediates (Eqs. 3 to 5) analogous
to those formed electrocatalytically under alkaline conditions via four-electron or two-electron
processes (37)
where * represents a site on the metal surface.

This sequence accounts for the removal of electrons added to the surface during the adsorption
of hydroxide ions and the regeneration of HO
species via O2 reduction with water, thus closing
the catalytic cycle. The steady-state coverage of
hydroxide on the surface is probably limited by
the ability of the metal to accommodate the
excess negative charge.
To test the feasibility of this reduction sequence,
density functional theory calculations were carried
out over both Au and Pt surfaces. Reduction of
O2 by water had a low barrier of 16 kJ mol1 on
Au(111). The peroxide that forms can subsequently dissociate on Au to form atomic O and
hydroxide, with a barrier of 83 kJ mol1; however,
the more likely step is the further reduction of
OOH* to H2O2*, with a barrier of only 48 kJ mol1
(table S3). The decomposition of H2O2* to hydroxide has an activation barrier of 71 kJ mol1.
The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide over Pt
and Pd has a barrier of only 29 and 5 kJ mol1,
respectively. The low calculated barrier for peroxide decomposition on Pd as compared to Au
explains why Ketchie et al. observed appreciable concentrations of peroxide in the product
mixture formed during glycerol oxidation over
Au/C, whereas only trace amounts of peroxide
were detected when Pd/C was used as a catalyst
at identical reaction conditions (38). Our computational results, coupled with the isotopic labeling
studies, demonstrate that the role of O2 during
alcohol oxidation is an indirect one that does not
involve incorporation into the acid products but
instead regenerates hydroxide ions.
O2* + H2O* OOH* + HO*
(3)
OOH* + H2O* H2O2* + HO*
(4)
HO* + e HO + *
(5)
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(CTS-0624608, OISE 0730277, and EEC-0813570)
and the U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) (Basic
Energy Sciences DE-FG02-03ER15460). We also
kindly acknowledge the supercomputing time at the
Environmental Molecular Science Laboratory, a national
scientific user facility sponsored by the DOEs Office
of Biological and Environmental Research located at
Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, and the
National Center for Computational Sciences at Oak
Ridge National Laboratory.
Human Adaptation and Plant Use

in Highland New Guinea 49,000
to 44,000 Years Ago
Glenn R. Summerhayes,1* Matthew Leavesley,2 Andrew Fairbairn,3 Herman Mandui,4
Judith Field,5 Anne Ford,1 Richard Fullagar6
After their emergence by 200,000 years before the present in Africa, modern humans colonized
the globe, reaching Australia and New Guinea by 40,000 to 50,000 years ago. Understanding
how humans lived and adapted to the range of environments in these areas has been difficult
because well-preserved settlements are scarce. Data from the New Guinea Highlands (at an
elevation of ~2000 meters) demonstrate the exploitation of the endemic nut Pandanus and
yams in archaeological sites dated to 49,000 to 36,000 years ago, which are among the oldest
human sites in this region. The sites also contain stone tools thought to be used to remove
trees, which suggests that the early inhabitants cleared forest patches to promote the growth
of useful plants.
ahul, the single Pleistocene continent linking New Guinea, Australia, and Tasmania, is thought to have been colonized by
humans some time after 50,000 years ago (1).
Reaching Sahul required crossing water from
Southeast Asia. Most early sites in New Guinea
have been found along the coastal margins
(Fig. 1, inset; fig S1; and table S2). An exception first documented in the 1960s is an open
site [Papua New Guinea (PNG) National Museum site code AER] in the Ivane Valley of the
New Guinea Highlands, where excavations at
the Kosipe Mission recovered stone artefacts
including waisted tools dated then to 26,870 T
590 14C years before the present (radiocarbon lab
no. ANU-191) (calibrated to 30,350 to 32,580
years ago) (2). Kosipe Mission is located at
~2000 m above sea level, on the spur of a hill
overlooking a large swamp (Fig. 1). Further
Department of Anthropology, Gender and Sociology, University of Otago, Post Office Box 56, Dunedin, New Zealand.
Department of Anthropology, University of Papua New
Guinea, Post Office Box 320, University Post Office, National
Capital District, Papua New Guinea. 3Department of Archaeology, School of Social Science, University of Queensland,
Brisbane, Queeensland 4072, Australia. 4National Museum
and Art Gallery of Papua New Guinea, Post Office Box 5560,
Boroko National Capital District, Papua New Guinea. 5Australian Centre for Microscopy and Microanalysis F09, University of Sydney, New South Wales 2006, Australia. 6Scarp
Archaeology, Post Office Box 7241, South Sydney Hub, New
South Wales 2015, Australia.

Glenn.summerhayes@otago.ac.nz
78
excavations in 2005 (3) extended known occupation there to 41,000 to 38,000 years ago
(table S1). A carbonized kernel of a pandanus
nut was recovered in the 36,000- to 34,000-yearold levels.
Subsequent fieldwork in 2007 and 2008 has
identified late Pleistocene to Holocene occupation at seven additional locations across the Ivane
Valley, with the earliest site dating to between
49,000 and 43,000 calibrated years before the
present (table S1). Here we describe the evidence
for early occupation of these sites and the subsistence strategies employed by these early colonists.
Sediments in the Ivane valley are dominated
by a series of volcanic tephras that are probably
derived from Mount Lamington some 140 km
to the southeast. All eight highland sites have a
basic set of five identified layers: a dark brown
topsoil (layer 1), a brown-orange clay (layer 2);
a black-brown soil (layers 3a and 3b), and a
gray soil (layer 4). These occupation layers overlay culturally sterile orange clay (layer 5). Layer
3 is separated into two distinct units (a and b)
at Vilakuav (2), representing separate ash falls.
We subsequently identified these two layers (3a
and 3b) in most sites. At Vilakuav, Joes Garden,
and Kosipe Mission, they are separated by a thin
band of charcoal (fig. S2). Accelerator mass
spectrometry dates were derived from charcoal
collected in situ. We use the calibrated dates (4)
in our discussion. All dates from Joes Garden,
Vilakuav, South Kov, and Airport Mound are
presented here for the first time.
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SOM Text
Figs. S1 to S8
Scheme S1
Tables S1 to S4
References
13 July 2010; accepted 30 August 2010
10.1126/science.1195055
The earliest dates for occupation of the valley are at Vilakuav, between 49,000 and 43,000
years ago; and three sites (Vilakuav, South Kov,
and Airport Mound) contain artefacts that yield
calibrated 14C dates earlier than 42,500 years
ago, at 95.4% confidence levels. Occupation at
the Kosipe Mission site is dated to 41,400 to
38,000 years ago, again at a 95.4% confidence
level. Layer 3b shows occupation from 38,500
to 30,000 years ago, and layer 3a dates from
30,000 to 26,000 years ago. Layer 2 dates to the
Holocene (table S1).
Our radiocarbon ages are some of the oldest
dates for any Sahul site (table S2), excluding
several contentious 20-year-old claims in Australia (1). Together with indirectly dated artefacts
from Bobongara on the Huon Peninsula, the
oldest occupational layers at the highland sites of
Vilakuav, Airport Mound, and South Kov are
older than any other known sites in New Guinea
or Island Melanesia.
All highland sites lack evidence of any occupation during the Last Glacial Maximum
(LGM). The mean temperature of the coldest
month at Kosipe at the LGM has been estimated
to have been between 6.3 to 9.2C colder than
today (5, 6). The climates before the LGM
would also have been cooler than those today.
Layers 4 and 3b from the Ivane Valley correspond to marine isotope stage (MIS) 3, whereas
layer 3a corresponds with the shift to much colder
conditions from MIS 3 to MIS 2 (7). Other palynological evidence from the Ivane Valley (6)
also indicates that the tree line was lower during
the deposition of layers 4 and 3 and that the vegetation zones were compressed downward during the earliest occupation, which is consistent
with a colder climate.
Stone artefacts were recovered from the
earliest levels (layer 4) of Kosipe Mission, Airstrip Mound, South Kov, and Vilakuav (Fig. 2).
Artefacts are made from a diverse range of raw
materials, including basalt, schist, baked siliceous metasediment, dolerite, metabasalt, and
quartz. Of these, baked siliceous sediment is the
only rock type not found in the Ivane Valley.
Samples of this rock were obtained along the
Kosipe-Woitape track above Woitape, ~20 km
distant. It is valuable for making tools because it
flakes easily yet is hard.
Two waisted stone artefacts made from
schist and metabasalt were found from layer 4
at South Kov and one from layer 4 at Airstrip
Mound (Fig. 2 and fig. S3). This distinctive ar-
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REPORTS
tefact type was also found in layer 3a at South
Kov and in layer 3b at Joes Garden (Fig. 2 and
fig. S4) and Vilakuav, but disappears before the
LGM. Frequently referred to as waisted axes,
they also occur in several other Pleistocene highland and lowland sites of the New Guinea mainland. Waisted axes have been seen as implements
used to modify forest environments by opening
up patches to sunlight to promote the growth of
food and other useful plants (8). In the Ivane
Valley, other Pleistocene stone artefacts include
flaked artefacts, tool blanks, axe-like bifacially
flaked implements, and flaking debris. An expanded range of stone artefacts occurs in the
Holocene layers at all other sites except for Airstrip Mound.
Onsite stone artefact manufacture at all sites
is indicated by the presence of cores and manufacturing debris and the use of local raw materials. River cobble cortex on both igneous and
metamorphic artefacts suggests that local waterways were the primary source of raw material.
The stone assemblage is consistent with finds
from Bobongara, the only other mainland late
Pleistocene assemblage older than 35,000 years.
At this site, waisted artefacts were recovered

below tephra 2 which dates to 38,000 T 600
years by thermoluminescence (TL) dating (9),
although the excavators argue for an estimate
of 40,000 years or more, based on high moisture levels affecting the TL readings.
Abundant starch grains were extracted from
several of the stone artefacts from layer 3a at
Joes Garden and layer 4 at the South Kov site
(table S2). Several of these were consistent with
starch from yams, specifically Dioscorea species. The size and morphology of the tuber-like
starch grains (figs. S5 and S6) from the Joes
Garden samples were consistent with Dioscorea
alata (Fig. 3) comparative reference material. The
sample sizes of the yam starch grains from both
South Kov artefacts were smaller (n = 7 and n =
8 grains), although two starch grains exceeded
40 mm in size. The shape and surface features of
these starches are unlike that of D. bulbifera but
broadly similar to those of D. alata (fig. S6C)
and/or D. pentaphylla (fig. S6D). There is no
clear sculpting of the hilum end of the grain in
fig. S6C or S6D, as seen in most grains from
D. pentaphylla. However, this feature is not
present in all D. pentaphylla grains, and therefore we cannot exclude a contribution from
this species.
Charred Pandanus nutshells were identified
in Kosipe Mission layer 3, layers 3 and 4 from
Joes Garden, and all layers from South Kov
and Vilakuav. All specimens, including fragments, were from single-seeded species of highland Pandanus in the section Karuka (10), which
contain nutritious seeds. Morphometric analysis
confirmed that complete specimens from South
Kov layers 3 and 4 were not from the economically important Pandanus brosimos or P. julianettii, being most similar to an unclassified foraged
wild species known as Taip (see supporting
online material). A human source for the archaeological remains is indicated by (i) a close repeated association with charcoal, bone fragments,
and tools and (ii) the absence of rodent/cuscus
gnaw marks on the seeds. The absence of nuts
from some sites and layers may indicate variability in activity areas across the landscape.
Pandanus was absent at the Airport Mound site
and in samples from the swamp sections taken
for palynological analysis (6).
Fig. 1. Map of the Ivane

valley with archaeological
sites. Seven new late Pleistocene occupation sites
were identified. Five are
situated on spurs above
the valley floor, ranging
in altitude from 2020 to
1940 m: Joes Garden,
South Kov, Airport Mound,
Kerapa, and Vilakuav. Two
sites were located on the
western valley floor: Piaris
Ditch and Nineve.
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REPORTS
C
A
Fig. 2. Ivane Valley late Pleistocene stone tools. (A and B) Airstrip Mound (PNG National Museum
site code AAXD) from layer 4. (C) Joes Garden (AAXC) from layer 3b. (D and E) South Kov (AAXE)
from layer 4. Scale bars are in centimeters.
The preservation of food plant species in open

sites of this age is remarkable, and the analysis
confirms that Pandanus and yams were used for
subsistence in this valley from the time that the
earliest colonists arrived. Although Pandanus
would have grown abundantly in the local
environment, yams would have been found at
lower altitudes, indicating that gathering territories included lower altitudinal zones beyond
the Ivane Valley. The gathering of food plants
was accompanied by hunting of small animals.
Burnt highly fragmented bone was recovered
from the lowest levels at Vilakuav (1.1 g from
layer 4 and 0.3 g from layer 3b), although it has
been impossible to identify the species hunted.
The acidic soil ensures that only the highly fragmented burnt bone survives. Although we have
little evidence for the nature of hunted animals in
the Ivane Valley diet, the range of potential highaltitude game in New Guinea is wide and well
documented from later Highlands sites farther to
the west (11).
The nature of human impact on the local
environment is difficult to assess. In the Ivane
Valley, Hope (6) noted an increase in microscopic charcoal between 41,000 and 38,000 calibrated years before the present, soon after the
Kosipe Zone-2 stage (KOS-2) (at 42,000 years
ago). Hope argued that the early humans burned
the wet montane vegetation. The activities of
people were probably a contributing factor to the
physical changes to the Ivane basin. The base of
layer 4 is indicative of the presence of a swampy
lake (Hopes KOS-4 phase), which slowly developed into a peat swamp that extended to the
south by the time of occupation in layer 3b (6). A
human presence, increased fire, and changes in
the lake hydrology are likely to be related.
Fig. 3. Box plots of the

maximum dimensions of
starch grains through the
hilum in micrometers.
The box includes 50% of
the population, and the
horizontal line represents
the median value. The
tuber grains presented
from each archaeological preparation are only
a small portion of the
total counts from each
artefact. The K-JG-I3 sample matches entirely with
the D. alata sample. For
the K-SKR-AI4 sample, the
variation in grain length
indicates that it is likely
to represent more than
one type of yam. The third
artefact, K-SKR-AA3, comprises only seven grains,
and these overlap with
all samples except the
D. esculenta sample.
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REPORTS
Our data show that people occupied a New
Guinea valley at 2000 m above sea level soon
after their arrival in Sahul (1). As the climate
cooled, the optimal growing conditions for yams
would have occurred at lower altitudes. This
may indicate that Pandanus was the most important staple at this time and help explain the
late Pleistocene abandonment of the highland
sites. Foraging into this high-altitude environment would guarantee a high return in plant fat
and protein to complement local animal foods,
the starch-rich yams from lower altitudes, and those
foods not preserved in the archaeological record.
1. J. F. OConnell, J. Allen, J. Archaeol. Sci. 31, 835
(2004).
2. J. P. White et al., Proc. Prehistoric Soc. 36, 152 (1970).
3. A. Fairbairn, G. Hope, G. Summerhayes, World Archaeol.
38, 371 (2006).
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
P. J. Reimer et al., Radiocarbon 51, 1111 (2010).

I. Farrera et al., Clim. Dyn. 15, 823 (1999).
G. Hope, Quat. Sci. Rev. 28, 2261 (2009).
A. L. Daniau et al., Quat. Sci. Rev., 10.1016/j.
quascirev.2009.11.008 (2009).
L. Groube, in Foraging and Farming: The Evolution of
Plant Exploitation, D. R. Harris, G. C. H. Hillman, Eds.
(Unwin, London, 1989), pp. 292304.
L. Groube, J. Chappell, J. Muke, D. Price, Nature 324,
453 (1986).
B. C. Stone, Econ. Bot. 38, 304 (1984).
M. J. Mountain, in Man and a Half: Essays in Pacific
Anthropology and Ethnobiology in Honour of Ralph
Bulmer, A. Pawley, Ed. (Polynesian Society, Auckland,
New Zealand, 1991), pp. 510520.
This research was supported by the Marsden Fund
Council from government funding administered by the
Royal Society of New Zealand. We thank G. Hope for
introducing us to the Ivane Valley and companionship in
the field; the communities of the Ivane Valley for their
support; and the National Research Institute of PNG
and the National Museum and Art Gallery of PNG for
their support and affiliation. The authors acknowledge
Identifying the Driver of Pulsating Aurora

Y. Nishimura,1,2* J. Bortnik,1 W. Li,1 R. M. Thorne,1 L. R. Lyons,1 V. Angelopoulos,3,4,5
S. B. Mende,4 J. W. Bonnell,4 O. Le Contel,6 C. Cully,7 R. Ergun,8 U. Auster9
Pulsating aurora, a spectacular emission that appears as blinking of the upper atmosphere in the
polar regions, is known to be excited by modulated, downward-streaming electrons. Despite its
distinctive feature, identifying the driver of the electron precipitation has been a long-standing
problem. Using coordinated satellite and ground-based all-sky imager observations from the
THEMIS mission, we provide direct evidence that a naturally occurring electromagnetic wave,
lower-band chorus, can drive pulsating aurora. Because the waves at a given equatorial location in
space correlate with a single pulsating auroral patch in the upper atmosphere, our findings can
also be used to constrain magnetic field models with much higher accuracy than has previously
been possible.
he aurora is a spectacular natural phenomenon that occurs in Earths polar regions,
exhibiting a range of scale sizes (~1 to 100
km) and characteristic wavelengths (e.g., 427.8,
557.7, and 630.0 nm) (1, 2). Auroral features are
a visual display of the patterns of energetic particles from distant regions in Earths magnetosphere
that move along magnetic field lines, causing
photon emissions in the upper atmosphere. This
process represents an important loss of energetic
particles from the magnetosphere, and the energy
Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences, University

of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA. 2Solar-Terrestrial
Environment Laboratory, Nagoya University, Nagoya, Aichi 4648601, Japan. 3Institute of Geophysics and Planetary Physics, University of California, Los Angeles, CA 90095, USA. 4Space Sciences
Laboratory, University of California, Berkeley, CA 947207450,
USA. 5Jet Propulsion Laboratory. National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, Pasadena, CA 91109, USA. 6Laboratoire de
Physique des Plasmas, CNRS/Ecole Polytechnique/UPMC/Paris-Sud
11, F-94107 St Maur-des-Fosss, France. 7Swedish Institute of
Space Physics, SE-981 28 Uppsala, Sweden. 8Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO
803037814, USA. 9Institut fr Geophysik und extraterrestrische
Physik, Technischen Universitt Braunschweig, Braunschweig
D-38106, Germany.
toshi@atmos.ucla.edu
from these particles causes drastic changes in ionization of the upper atmosphere. One type of aurora, the pulsating aurora (PA), has attracted much
attention because of its distinctive luminosity
patches at ~100-km altitude, which have a horizontal scale size of ~100 km and switch on and
off with recurrence periods of ~5 to 40 s (3, 4).
Rocket and low-altitude spacecraft observations have revealed that auroral pulsations result
from a time-varying flux of precipitating electrons with energies exceeding ~10 keV (3, 5).
However, the driver of this precipitation has not
been uniquely identified. Theoretical investigations have shown that resonant interactions with
naturally occurring emissions, known as chorus,
could lead to the precipitation of energetic electrons in the appropriate energy range for PA (4, 6),
but this suggestion has been difficult to verify
experimentally. Chorus consists of discrete bursts
of wave power that are confined near the magnetic equator (7, 8) and typically occur in distinct
lower- and upper-frequency bands, below and
above half of the equatorial electron cyclotron
frequency ( fc). Lower- and upper-band chorus
can resonate with more than 10 and less than a
few keV electrons (9), respectively. In addition,
chorus may evolve nonlinearly for large ampli-
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VOL 330
the facilities as well as scientific and technical

assistance from the staff at the Australian Microscopy
and Microanalysis Research Facility and the Australian
Centre for Microscopy and Microanalysis at the
University of Sydney. We thank L. ONeill and
M. Hennessey for the illustrations and J. Allen and
M. Weisler for providing comments on a draft of the
paper. J.F. thanks R. Torrence for access to the
Australian Museum PNG starch reference collection.
R.F. is indebted to the Australian Museum and the
University of Sydney for facilitating the import of
quarantined material and access to laboratory space.

SOM Text
Figs. S1 to S9
Tables S1 to S3
References
2 June 2010; accepted 23 July 2010
10.1126/science.1193130
tudes (10) and is frequently associated with

electrostatic cyclotron harmonic (ECH) waves,
which occur above 1 fc and can resonate with
electrons of energies below a few keV (11).
Attempts have been made to test wave theories
using low-altitude rocket observations (12) and
high-altitude, equatorial spacecraft (1315). Although a general correspondence between PA and
electromagnetic waves has been observed, a oneto-one correlation between individual bursts of
chorus and auroral pulses has been elusive. This
discrepancy between observation and theoretical
prediction has been attributed to the difficulty in
finding the exact mapping of a distant spacecraft
to a small (~100 km) pulsating auroral patch in the
upper atmosphere along magnetic field lines.
Such mapping is particularly difficult because
adjacent auroral patches typically pulsate independently of each other (16). Additionally, the
simultaneous existence of multiple magnetospheric plasma waves (13, 17) makes it difficult
to identify the specific wave mode responsible for
electron scattering leading to PA.
Here, we report observations of PA obtained
on 15 February 2009 using one of the groundbased All-Sky Imagers (ASIs) (18) of the THEMIS
mission (19). Their broad latitudinal and longitudinal coverage (~1000 km), as well as high resolution (~1 km spatial and 3 s temporal), allowed
us to observe the evolution of localized, individual pulsating auroral patches. We also report on
plasma wave observations made in space by
THEMIS-A (2022). During the period of observation, this spacecraft was located near the
magnetic equator in the Southern Hemisphere,
and the magnetic field line threading the spacecraft was located close to the center of the imager
field of view, which avoids optical distortion.
In the model shown in Fig. 1A, electrons that
are initially trapped by Earths magnetic field
encounter chorus propagating away from the
equator. The electrons are scattered and precipitate into the upper atmosphere, resulting in
1 OCTOBER 2010
81
REPORTS
3. Scattered
electrons
Imager
Magnetic equator
Satellite
10
abc d
-6
Chorus
10
0.5 fc
-7
[nT/Hz]
1.0 fc
1000
10
100
0.05 fc
-8
10-9
10
-10
1000
10
5. Aurora
Upper atmosphere
high correlation (0.88, SE = 0.13) supports our

inference that intensity-modulated lower-band
chorus was driving this PA. Although the time
lag between these two wave forms was considered, we found that the simultaneous correlation
was much higher. This is consistent with the short
travel times (<1 s) of >10 keV precipitating equatorial electrons down the field line causing PA,
and the short lifetime (~1 s) of the excited atmospheric atoms (23). Both of these time scales fall
within the time resolution of the imager (3 s).
We also calculated spatial distributions of the
cross-correlation coefficient for all imager pixels.
The first image of Fig. 2B reveals a well-grouped
patch of high correlation. The correlation coefficient outside this patch diminishes rapidly with
distance, despite the presence of several other
pulsating auroral patches located within the
imager field of view. The high-correlation region
demarcates the auroral patch marked in panels b
and d of Fig. 1C, highlighting that this is the only
-5
Magnetic field
f [Hz]
4. Electron
precipitation
Electric field
f [Hz]
panels in Fig. 1C were obtained simultaneously

with intense chorus shown in Fig. 1B (vertical
lines b and d). A bright auroral patch to the west
of the model footprint of the spacecraft is not
present in the first and third panels. Adjacent
auroral patches do not pulsate in phase with the
chorus intensity modulation, implying a correlation between the chorus emission measured at the
spacecraft and the pulsating auroral patch. It is
thus likely that the auroral patch that best correlates with the chorus intensity modulation pinpoints the source of the precipitation in space and
the correct footprint of the spacecraft rather than
the model footprint shown in Fig. 1C.
To investigate this hypothesis, we calculated
cross-correlation coefficients between the lowerband chorus intensity and auroral luminosity in
each imager pixel using the entire period of the
wave observations shown in Fig. 1B. The auroral
pulsations have an almost one-to-one correspondence with each burst of chorus (Fig. 1D). The
[(V/m)/Hz]
the auroral light observed by the ASI. A typical

lower-band chorus spectrum at frequencies
between 0.05 and 0.3 fc (Fig. 1B) shows repetitive discrete bursts every ~10 s, which would
be composed of multiple chorus elements. Intense lower-band chorus was present during this
time period, whereas both upper-band chorus
(0.5 to 0.8 fc) and ECH (>1.0 fc) waves were not
observed, even though the spacecraft was located close to the equator.
Images from the Narsarsuaq (Greenland) ASI
(Fig. 1C) at the four selected times (see movie S1
for the entire image sequence) display discrete
aurora, which is the bright, structured emission in
the northern portion, as well as fainter, unstructured emissions to the south, called diffuse aurora.
Auroral patches with a scale size of ~100 km
pulsating at ~64 to 67 magnetic latitude (MLAT)
embedded in the diffuse aurora are PA; their
repetitive intensity modulation is seen clearly in
movie S1. The images in the second and fourth
-11
10
100
-12
2. Interaction
with chorus
100 km
58
Pulsating
patches
22 MLT
a 01:10:54 UT
6.9
22.8
-0.3
0112
6.9
22.8
-0.3
0113
D
Chorus intensity
(0.05-0.5 fc)
B [nT]
Geographic latitude [deg]
Narsarsuaq
Diffuse
aurora
65 MLAT
6.9
22.8
-0.3
0111
1. Trapped
electrons
62 Discrete aurora
60
10
b 01:11:00 UT
0.1
Correlation
coefficient: 0.88
0.01
1000
500
0
0.002
UT [hhmm]
62
1500
0111
0112
0113
Auroral intensity
(highest correlation pixel)
[count/sec]
Magnetic field line
R [RE]
MLT [h]
MLAT [deg]
UT [hhmm]
Fig. 1. Coordinated observation of PA by the Narsarsuaq ASI and THEMIS-A

spacecraft during 01:10:20 to 01:13:50 UT on 15 February 2009. (A) Schematic
diagram showing the geometry of chorus wave propagation (red arrows), electron precipitation (blue arrows), and PA. (B) THEMIS-A observation of bursts of
lower-band chorus shown in electromagnetic field spectra. The white lines indicate
58
d 01:11:18 UT
c 01:11:06 UT
0.05, 0.5, and 1.0 fc using the measured magnetic field (30). The spacecraft was
31
30
31
32
31
30
31
32
essentially stationary (R: radial distance in Earth radii). (C) Snapshots of imager
Geographic longitude [deg]
data projected onto the geographic coordinates at 110-km altitude. The pulsating
patch correlating with chorus is indicated by the red arrows. ASI snapshot times are also marked in (B) by white vertical lines. The pink square shows the
magnetic footprint of the THEMIS-A spacecraft using the Tsyganenko 96 (31) magnetic field model (the model was used only for a rough estimation of the
footprint, and the choice of the model is arbitrary). The spacecraft footprint was located close to the center of the imager field of view (green square in panel a).
Dashed lines give magnetic coordinates every 3 in latitude and 1 hour in local time. The black spot near the center of each image is an artificial object. (D)
Correlation of lower-band chorus integrated magnetic field intensity over 0.05 to 0.5 fc (red) and auroral intensity (blue) at the highest cross-correlation pixel.
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316
58
320
312
308
316
320
60
Pulsating auroral
patches
58
312
308
316
01:11:18 UT
62
62
60
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
58
312
308
320
60
Pulsating auroral
patches
312
308
316
320
62
58
316
320
01:12:27 UT
62
60
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
58
312
308
320
316
Fig. 2. Spatial distribution of the aurora-chorus cross-correlation during the observations of Fig. 1. (A)
PA and (B) cross-correlation coefficient superimposed onto the images during the 1-min time interval,
including each snapshot time in (A). Pixels with correlation coefficient below 0.6 are not color-coded. The
image format is the same as in Fig. 1C.
-6
10
0.5 fc
-7
10
0.1 fc
-8
-12
Chorus intensity
(0.2-0.4 fc)
B [nT]
0.100
250
0.010
0.001
R [RE]
MLT [h]
MLAT [deg]
UT [hhmm]
7.5
23.1
-0.3
0142
7.5
23.1
-0.3
0144
7.6
23.1
-0.2
0146
2009 Feb 15
0.1 fc
-8
10-9
10
-10
10
1000
-11
10
-12
100
4
10
500
Correlation
coefficient: 0.71
Electric field
f [Hz]
-11
10
100
-7
10
ECH intensity
(1-2 fc)
E [mV/m]
10
1000
-6
10
1000 0.5 fc
ECH
-10
Electric field
f [Hz]
ECH
-5
10
1.0 fc
100
10-9
10
100
[(V/m)/Hz]
chorus
[nT/Hz]
1.0 fc
1000
Auroral intensity
[count/sec]
Magnetic field
f [Hz]
-5
10
Magnetic field
f [Hz]
Pulsating auroral
patches
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
R [RE]
MLT [h]
MLAT [deg]
UT [hhmm]
10
900
Correlation
3 coefficient: 0.73
450
1
0
6.9
22.8
-0.3
0114
2009 Feb 15
[nT/Hz]
22 MLT
312
308
60
65 MLAT
58
Highest
correlation
[(V/m)/Hz]
60
62
auroral patch that is correlated with the chorus

intensity variation. The highest cross-correlation
(0.91) is located 0.83 MLAT north and 0.07
hour in magnetic local time (MLT) (80 km) west
of the model footprint.
The cross-correlation coefficients calculated
for the later images (second and third rows in Fig.
2B) are spatially grouped on a pulsating patch as
in the top row, again indicating that only a single
pulsating patch is correlated with the chorus intensity. While the patch shape changes with time,
the location of highest correlation stays essentially fixed, providing further support for the association of the PA to wave-induced precipitation
originating at the spacecraft location.
The dominant role of lower-band chorus in
driving the PA is further illustrated in Fig. 3 in
different times (24). During the longer-duration
chorus event (Fig. 3A and movie S2), the time
series of the wave intensity and auroral luminosity were again in close agreement (the correlation
coefficient is 0.71), indicating that the duration of
each occurrence of PA is controlled by the
modulation of lower-band chorus (25).
For the event shown in Fig. 3B measured in
another time period, lower-band chorus was
negligible but intense ECH waves were present.
As shown in movie S1, diffuse aurora without
pulsations extended over a wide latitudinal range
near the longitude of the spacecraft after 01:15
UT. The cross-correlation analysis found the diffuse aurora region as having the highest correlation (0.73) with the ECH waves. A comparison
of the time series (Fig. 3B, bottom panel) captures the simultaneous auroral intensification and
the pronounced enhancement of ECH intensity.
The aurora, however, did not pulsate but stayed at
a high intensity after the initial increase, indicating that ECH waves can indeed (11) contribute
7.0
22.8
-0.3
0115
7.0
22.9
-0.3
0116
Auroral intensity
[count/sec]
62
B
100 km
01:11:00 UT
7.0
22.9
-0.3
0117
Fig. 3. THEMIS-Aimager correlation analysis results during (A) longer-duration chorus and (B) ECH events. The format is the same as in Fig. 1, B and D. The
entire auroral sequences are given in movie S2 and the latter part of movie S1.
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1 OCTOBER 2010
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to the diffuse aurora but are not responsible for
the pulsating patches (26).
Theoretical calculations (9, 27) using the observed lower-band chorus amplitudes (~50 pT)
show that such amplitudes are sufficiently strong
to cause precipitation of ~10-keV electrons into
the atmosphere. Wave burst observations with
higher resolution (fig. S1) indicate more intense
fields (~30 mV/m and ~1 nT) that were quasi
field-aligned and propagated away from the
equator, making the interaction with electrons
that precipitate into the atmosphere and drive
PA substantially more efficient near the equator
(less than ~15) because of Landau damping and
increasing resonant energy in latitude. Each chorus element generated near the equator with a
characteristic size of ~100 to 3000 km (7, 28) and
the oblique propagation away from the original
magnetic field line (10, 29) would lead to interaction regions with a typical patch size (~100 km
in the ionosphere and ~a few thousand km in
the magnetosphere).
Magnetic field line mapping has been a
problematic issue in magnetosphere-ionosphere
coupling studies. Based on the property that the
high-correlation region occurs over a single auroral patch with the correlation coefficient outside
this area diminishing quickly with distance, PA
can be used to highlight the physical link between chorus wave activity and each auroral pul-
sation. The PA thus provides a unique opportunity

to identify the footprint of the magnetic field line
threading the spacecraft, to a precision within the
auroral patch size (less than ~100 km) and possibly even down to a few imager pixels (~km).
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
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Cellodextrin Transport in Yeast for

Improved Biofuel Production
Jonathan M. Galazka,1 Chaoguang Tian,2,3 William T. Beeson,4 Bruno Martinez,5
N. Louise Glass,2 Jamie H. D. Cate1,4,5*
Fungal degradation of plant biomass may provide insights for improving cellulosic biofuel production.
We show that the model cellulolytic fungus Neurospora crassa relies on a high-affinity cellodextrin
transport system for rapid growth on cellulose. Reconstitution of the N. crassa cellodextrin transport
system in Saccharomyces cerevisiae promotes efficient growth of this yeast on cellodextrins. In
simultaneous saccharification and fermentation experiments, the engineered yeast strains more rapidly
convert cellulose to ethanol when compared with yeast lacking this system.
he bioethanol industry uses the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae to ferment sugars
derived from cornstarch or sugarcane into
ethanol (1). Plant cell walls provide an abundant
alternate sugar source yet remain largely unused
(2, 3). Present strategies for using plant biomass
use large quantities of cellulase cocktails to release
T
1
Department of Molecular and Cell Biology, University of

California at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA. 2Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California
at Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA. 3Tianjin Institute of
Industrial Biotechnology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Xiqi
Dao 32, Tianjin Airport Economic Area, Tianjin 300308, China.
4
Department of Chemistry, University of California at Berkeley,
Berkeley, CA 94720, USA. 5Physical Biosciences Division,
Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, Berkeley, CA 94720,
USA.
jcate@lbl.gov
84
glucose from plant cell walls, posing economic and

logistical challenges for implementation of these
processes (4). Furthermore, S. cerevisiae cannot
ferment the cellodextrins naturally released by cellulases (5, 6) and require cellulase cocktails supplemented by b-glucosidases to quantitatively produce
fermentable glucose (7).
In contrast to S. cerevisiae, cellulolytic fungi
grow well on cellodextrins. The model cellulolytic fungus Neurospora crassa, when grown on
pure cellulose, increases transcription of seven
major facilitator superfamily (MFS) sugar transporters as well as an intracellular b-glucosidase
(8). A strain carrying a deletion for one of these
predicted transporters, NCU08114, grew slowly
on cellulose (fig. S1) (9), and strains lacking either
NCU08114 or NCU00801 poorly consumed cellobiose, cellotriose, and cellotetraose (fig. S2).
1 OCTOBER 2010
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20. J. Bonnell et al., Space Sci. Rev. 141, 303 (2008).

21. O. Le Contel et al., Space Sci. Rev. 141, 509 (2008).
22. C. Cully, R. E. Ergun, K. Stevens, A. Nammari, J. Westfall,
Space Sci. Rev. 141, 343 (2008).
23. A. Brekke, K. Henriksen, Planet. Space Sci. 20, 53
(1972).
24. We also analyzed other events (table S1).
25. Weak ECH waves that may lead to weak auroral emission
were also observed in the electric field spectra above 1.0 fc.
26. The auroral intensity did not diminish following the
decrease in the ECH intensity but stayed at a high level.
This is attributable to the long lifetime (~1 min) of
excited oxygen atom at higher altitudes (32) due to the
precipitation of lower-energy electrons (~1 keV), as
expected from resonance with ECH (11).
27. W. Li, Y. Y. Shprits, R. M. Thorne, J. Geophys. Res. 112,
A10220 (2007).
28. O. Agapitov et al., Ann. Geophys. 28, 1377 (2010).
29. W. Li et al., J. Geophys. Res. 114, A00C14 (2009).
30. H. Auster et al., Space Sci. Rev. 141, 135 (2008).
31. N. Tsyganenko, D. Stern, J. Geophys. Res. 101 (A12),
27187 (1996).
32. A. Omholt, Planet. Space Sci. 2, 246 (1960).
33. This work was supported by NASA contract NAS5-02099,
9F007-046101; NSF grants ATM-0802843 and
AGS-0840178; and a Research Fellowship from the
Japan Society for the Promotion of Science. The French
involvement (Search-coil magnetometer) on THEMIS
is supported by CNES and CNRS.

Fig. S1
Table S1
Movies S1 and S2
10.1126/science.1193186
Orthologs of NCU08114 and NCU00801 are

widely distributed in the fungal kingdom (Fig.
1A) (1013), and recent whole-genome transcriptional profiling studies show their importance to interactions between fungi and plants. For
example, some cellulolytic fungi increase expression levels of NCU08114 orthologs while degrading plant wall material (10), and the Prigord black
truffle increases the expression of a NCU00801
ortholog during symbiotic interactions with plant
roots (11). In addition, certain yeasts that grow on
cellobiose contain orthologs of NCU08114 and
NCU00801 (12). All of these organisms also contain genes for intracellular b-glucosidases (10),
suggesting that cellodextrin transport systems are
widespread in nature and are essential for optimal
growth of fungi on cellulose-derived sugars.
Because cellobiose is not catabolized by S.
cerevisiae (5, 6) and is not accumulated in the
cytoplasm (fig. S3), we reasoned that expression
of a functional cellodextrin transport system from
N. crassa might allow S. cerevisiae to grow with
cellobiose as the sole carbon source. Yeast strains
expressing NCU00801 or NCU08114, together
with the intracellular b-glucosidase NCU00130
(hereafter named GH1-1), grew on cellobiose at
rates of about 30 and 12% of the rate of S. cerevisiae
on glucose, respectively (Fig. 1B and fig. S4). Cellodextrins longer than cellobiose also support
the growth of yeast expressing these transporters
(Fig. 1C), indicating that cellodextrins longer than
cellobiose are transported by NCU00801 and
NCU08114, hereafter called CDT-1 and CDT-2,
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REPORTS
respectively. Growth cannot be explained by the extracellular hydrolysis of cellodextrins to glucose followed by transport because a strain expressing only
the intracellular b-glucosidase GH1-1 grew slowly
on cellodextrins (Fig. 1, B and C, and fig. S4). Fur-
thermore, the activity of b-glucosidase GH1-1

which is able to hydrolyze cellobiose, cellotriose,
and cellotetraose (fig. S5)is negligible in culture
supernatants and cannot explain the growth of yeast
expressing the transporters (fig. S6).
S.cerevisiae_HXT1
K.lactis_LACP
0.466
N.crassa_NCU00801
0.86
No transporter
cdt-1
cdt-2
T.melanosporum
P.stipitis
0.562
N.crassa_NCU08114
0.616
A.oryzae
0.938
L.bicolor
0.862
P.placenta
1
P.chrysosporium
0.2
Fig. 1. Cellodextrin transport by N. crassa transport

systems expressed in S. cerevisiae. (A) Maximum C
No transporter G3
cdt-1 G3
likelihood phylogenetic analysis of the cellobiose transcdt-2 G3
porters NCU08114 and NCU00801. With the exception
No transporter G4
of S. cerevisiae HXT1 and K. lactis LACP (12), all genes
cdt-1 G4
encoding proteins shown are reported to increase in
cdt-2 G4
expression level when the fungus comes into contact
with plant cell wall material or cellobiose (8, 10, 11, 13).
S. cerevisiae HXT1, a low-affinity glucose transporter
(19), was used as an outgroup. Accession numbers for
*
each gene are listed in (9). (B) Cellobiose-mediated
growth of yeast strains expressing the gene NCU00801
(named cdt-1, open circle), NCU08114 (named cdt-2,
solid triangle), or no transporter (solid circle). All strains
also express the intracellular b-glucosidase, NCU00130
(named gh1-1). A representative experiment is shown. Growth rates from three independent experiments
are as follows: cdt-1, 0.0341 T 0.0010 hours1; cdt-2, 0.0131 T 0.0008 hours1; and no transporter,
0.0026 T 0.0001 hours1 (mean T SD). (C) Growth of yeast strains on cellotriose and cellotetraose. Strains
expressing the intracellular b-glucosidase, gh1-1, as well as the transporters listed in the legend, were
grown with 0.5% (w/v) of cellotriose (G3) or cellotetraose (G4) serving as the sole carbon source. A
representative experiment is shown. Growth rates from three independent experiments are as follows:
cdt-1 cellotriose, 0.0332 T 0.0004 hours1; cdt-1 cellotetraose, 0.0263 T 0.0020 hours1; no transporter
cellotriose, 0.0043 T 0.0015 hours1; cdt-2 cellotriose, 0.0178 T 0.0005 hours1; cdt-2 cellotetraose
0.0041 T 0.0003 hours1; and no transporter cellotetraose, 0.0031 T 0.0008 hours1 (mean T SD). The
data for yeast growth on cellotetraose with cdt-2 overlaps the data in the absence of transporter (asterisk).
To directly assay transporter function, the uptake

of [3H]-cellobiose into yeast cells was measured.
Both CDT-1 and CDT-2 are high-affinity cellobiose
transporters, with Michaelis constant (Km) values of
4.0 T 0.3 mM and 3.2 T 0.2 mM (mean T SD),
respectively (fig. S7). The expression-normalized
maximum velocity (Vmax) of CDT-1 is over twice
that of CDT-2 (fig. S7), which might explain differences in the observed growth rates of the yeast
strains (Fig. 1, B and C). Cellobiose transport by
CDT-1 and CDT-2 is inhibited by excess cellotriose, and CDT-1 activity is also inhibited by
cellotetraose (fig. S8). These data further support
that CDT-1 and CDT-2 directly transport the longer
cellodextrins in growth assays (Fig. 1C). Thus,
the combinations of CDT-1 or CDT-2 with GH11 constitute fully functional cellodextrin transport
systems.
We next tested whether, in addition to growth,
a complete cellodextrin catabolism pathway would
be useful in S. cerevisiae for lignocellulosic biofuel production. Fungal cellulases evolved to function in conjunction with the consumption of sugars
released from plant cell walls and work most effectively in this context (14). Simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) mimics this
natural synergy by the addition of fermenting microbes to the plant biomass depolymerization reaction, resulting in a more efficient process (15, 16).
Current SSF schemes are limited by the need for
quantitative conversion of cellulose to glucose outside yeast cells (7). A cellodextrin transport system
could be particularly useful during SSF because it
would remove the requirement for full hydrolysis
of cellulose to glucose by extracellular b-glucosidases
(17) and would reduce the risk of contamination by
glucose-dependent organisms (18). Furthermore,
both CDT-1 and CDT-2 have a higher apparent
affinity for cellobiose (Km 3 to 4 mM) (fig. S7)
when compared with secreted fungal b-glucosidases
Fig. 2. Cellobiose fermentation, and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation of cellulose, by

S. cerevisiae expressing the cellobiose transport system from N. crassa. (A) Cellobiose fermentation to
ethanol. Ethanol was produced by yeast strains with CDT-1 (solid circle) or without CDT-1 (open circle)
under anaerobic conditions. Also shown are cellobiose concentrations during the fermentation reaction
using yeast strains with CDT-1 (solid triangle), or without CDT-1 (open triangle). (B) SSF using yeast strains
with and without CDT-1, under anaerobic conditions. Shown are cellobiose (solid circle) and glucose (solid
triangle) concentrations in the presence of a strain with CDT-1, and cellobiose (open circle) and glucose
(open triangle) concentrations in the presence of a strain lacking CDT-1. 0.1 mg/ml cellobiose = 292 mM.
(C) Ethanol produced during SSF by using a strain with CDT-1 (solid circle) or without CDT-1 (open circle).
In (A) to (C), values are the mean of three biological replicates. Error bars are the SD between these
replicates. All strains also express the intracellular b-glucosidase, gh1-1.
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VOL 330
Fig. 3. Use of cellodextrin transport pathways

from filamentous fungi in yeast during simultaneous saccharification and fermentation of cellulose. The cellodextrin (Cdex) transport pathway
(black) includes a cellodextrin transporter (CDT)
and intracellular b-glucosidase (bG). The sugar catabolism pathway present in standard yeast includes hexose transporters (HXT). In SSF, cellulases
(GH) and extracellular b-glucosidase (bG) may
both be used.
1 OCTOBER 2010
85
REPORTS
[Km 100 to 1000 mM (17)] and to S. cerevisiae
hexose transporters apparent affinity for glucose
[Km 1000 to 10,000 mM (19)]. Therefore, the
cellodextrin transport systems should more effectively maintain soluble sugar levels below the concentration at which they inhibit fungal cellulases
[inhibition constant (Ki) of cellobiose 19 to 410
mM (20)].
With little optimization, yeast expressing cdt-1 and
gh1-1 fermented cellobiose with an ethanol yield of
0.441 T 0.001 (grams of ethanol/grams of glucose T
SD), which is 86.3% of the theoretical value (Fig.
2A) (21). This yield is close to present industrial
yields of ethanol from glucose of 90 to 93% (22).
Yeasts expressing a cellodextrin transport system
markedly improve the efficiency of SSF reactions
by reducing the steady-state concentration of both
cellobiose and glucose and by increasing the
ethanol production rate (Fig. 2, B and C). The
addition of a cellodextrin transport system to
biofuel-producing strains of yeast (Fig. 3) overcomes a major bottleneck to fermentation of
lignocellulosic feedstocks and probably will help
to make cellulosic biofuels economically viable.

1. United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), The
economic feasibility of ethanol production from sugar in
the United States (USDA, Washington, DC, 2006).
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4. M. E. Himmel et al., Science 315, 804 (2007).
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Microbiol. Mol. Biol. Rev. 66, 506 (2002).
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Biotechnol. 31, 401 (2004).
Sequencing of Culex quinquefasciatus

Establishes a Platform for Mosquito
Comparative Genomics
Peter Arensburger,1* Karine Megy,2 Robert M. Waterhouse,3,4 Jenica Abrudan,5 Paolo Amedeo,6
Beatriz Antelo,7 Lyric Bartholomay,8 Shelby Bidwell,9 Elisabet Caler,6 Francisco Camara,9
Corey L. Campbell,10 Kathryn S. Campbell,11 Claudio Casola,12 Marta T. Castro,13
Ishwar Chandramouliswaran,6 Sinad B. Chapman,14 Scott Christley,5 Javier Costas,15 Eric Eisenstadt,6
Cedric Feschotte,16 Claire Fraser-Liggett,17 Roderic Guigo,9 Brian Haas,14 Martin Hammond,2
Bill S. Hansson,18 Janet Hemingway,19 Sharon R. Hill,20 Clint Howarth,14 Rickard Ignell,20
Ryan C. Kennedy,5 Chinnappa D. Kodira,21 Neil F. Lobo,5 Chunhong Mao,22 George Mayhew,23
Kristin Michel,24 Akio Mori,5 Nannan Liu,25 Horacio Naveira,26 Vishvanath Nene,17,27 Nam Nguyen,16
Matthew D. Pearson,14 Ellen J. Pritham,16 Daniela Puiu,28 Yumin Qi,22 Hilary Ranson,19
Jose M. C. Ribeiro,29 Hugh M. Roberston,30 David W. Severson,5 Martin Shumway,29 Mario Stanke,31
Robert L. Strausberg,6 Cheng Sun,16 Granger Sutton,6 Zhijian (Jake) Tu,22 Jose Manuel C. Tubio,7
Maria F. Unger,5 Dana L. Vanlandingham,33 Albert J. Vilella,2 Owen White,17 Jared R. White,14
Charles S. Wondji,19 Jennifer Wortman,17 Evgeny M. Zdobnov,3,4,33 Bruce Birren,14
Bruce M. Christensen,23 Frank H. Collins,5 Anthony Cornel,32 George Dimopoulos,35
Linda I. Hannick,6 Stephen Higgs,33 Gregory C. Lanzaro,34 Daniel Lawson,2 Norman H. Lee,36
Marc A. T. Muskavitch,14,37,38 Alexander S. Raikhel,1 Peter W. Atkinson1
Culex quinquefasciatus (the southern house mosquito) is an important mosquito vector of viruses such as
West Nile virus and St. Louis encephalitis virus, as well as of nematodes that cause lymphatic filariasis.
C. quinquefasciatus is one species within the Culex pipiens species complex and can be found throughout
tropical and temperate climates of the world. The ability of C. quinquefasciatus to take blood meals from
birds, livestock, and humans contributes to its ability to vector pathogens between species. Here, we
describe the genomic sequence of C. quinquefasciatus: Its repertoire of 18,883 protein-coding genes is
22% larger than that of Aedes aegypti and 52% larger than that of Anopheles gambiae with multiple
gene-family expansions, including olfactory and gustatory receptors, salivary gland genes, and genes
associated with xenobiotic detoxification.
M
86
osquitoes are the most important vectors of human disease and are responsible for the transmission of pathogens
that cause malaria (Anopheles), yellow fever and

dengue (Aedes), as well as lymphatic filariasis
and encephalitis viruses (Culex, Aedes, Anopheles).
1 OCTOBER 2010
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19. E. Reifenberger, E. Boles, M. Ciriacy, Eur. J. Biochem.

245, 324 (1997).
20. S. P. Voutilainen et al., Biotechnol. Bioeng. 101, 515 (2008).
21. F. W. Bai, W. A. Anderson, M. Moo-Young, Biotechnol.
Adv. 26, 89 (2008).
22. L. C. Basso, H. V. de Amorim, A. J. de Oliveira,
M. L. Lopes, FEM. Yeast Res. 8, 1155 (2008).
23. We thank J. Doudna, M. Marletta, J. Taylor, T. Bruns, and
C. Phillips for helpful discussions and comments on the
manuscript; M. Toews for help with growth assays;
S. Bauer and A. Ibanez for help with analytical methods;
and C. Anderson for help with confocal microscopy. This
work was supported by funding from the Energy
Biosciences Institute to J.H.D.C. and N.L.G. The Regents
of the University of California, the authors, and British
Petroleum Technology Ventures (through the Energy
Biosciences Institute) have submitted a patent for the use
of cellodextrin transporters in fermenting organisms for
the use of plant biomass.

Figs. S1 to S8
References
10.1126/science.1192838
Sequencing the Anopheles gambiae and Aedes

aegypti genomes has provided important insights
into the genomic diversity underlying the complexity of mosquito biology (1, 2). We describe the
sequencing of the Culex quinquefasciatus (the
southern house mosquito) genome, which offers
a reference genome from the third major taxonomic group of disease-vector mosquitoes. With
more than 1200 described species, Culex is the
most diverse and geographically widespread of
these three mosquito genera. Apart from contributing to the spread of West Nile encephalitis,
it also transmits St. Louis encephalitis and other
viral diseases and is a major vector of the parasitic Wuchereria bancrofti nematode that has
caused the majority of the 120 million current
cases of lymphatic filariasis (3).
Taxonomy of the Culex pipiens species complex is the subject of a long-standing debate, an
issue complicated by the occurrence of viable
species hybrids in many geographic areas [reviewed in (4, 5)]. We followed the standard set by
the National Center for Biotechnology Information and refer to the species sequenced here as
C. quinquefasciatus. The Johannesburg strain
of C. quinquefaciatus was established from a
single pond in Johannesburg, South Africaan
area where the two taxa, C. quinquefasciatus and
C. pipiens, were found to be sympatric [(5) therein
described as subspecies C. pipiens quinquefasciatus
and C. pipiens pipiens] but have remained much
more genetically distinct than the same two sympatric taxa found in California.
We were able to map 9% of the C. quinquefasciatus genes (1768 genes) on the three
chromosomes with the use of published and new
C. quinquefasciatus and Ae. aegypti markers (6).
Of these mapped genes, 803 had An. gambiae
orthologs and 641 had Drosophila melanogaster
www.sciencemag.org

REPORTS
1
Center for Disease Vector Research, University of California

Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, USA. 2European Bioinformatics Institute (EMBL-EBI), Wellcome Trust Genome Campus,
Hinxton, Cambridge CB10 1SD, UK. 3University of Geneva
Medical School, 1 rue Michel-Servet, 1211 Geneva, Switzerland.
4
Swiss Institute of Bioinformatics, 1 rue Michel-Servet, 1211
Geneva, Switzerland. 5University of Notre Dame, Notre Dame, IN
46556, USA. 6J. Craig Venter Institute, Rockville, MD 20850, USA.
7
Complexo Hospitalario Universitario de Santiago, Santiago de
Compostela 15706, Spain. 8Iowa State University, Ames, IA
50011, USA. 9Center for Genomic Regulation, Universitat
Pompeu Fabra, E-08003 Barcelona, Catalonia, Spain. 10Colorado
State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA. 11Harvard University, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA. 12Indiana University,
Bloomington, IN 474053700, USA. 13Programa dEpigentica
i Biologia del Cncer, Hospital Duran i Reynals, 08907 Hospitalet
de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain. 14The Broad Institute, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA. 15Fundacin Pblica Galega de Medicina
XenmicaServizo Galego de Sade, Santiago de Compostela
15706, Spain. 16University of Texas Arlington, Arlington, TX 76019,
USA. 17Institute for Genome Sciences, University of Maryland
School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21201, USA. 18Max Planck
Institute for Chemical Ecology, 07749 Jena, Germany. 19Liverpool
School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK. 20Swedish
University of Agricultural Sciences, 230 53 Alnarp, Sweden. 21454
Life Sciences, the Roche Group, Branford, CT 06405, USA. 22Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA
24061, USA. 23University of Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA.
24
Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506, USA. 25Auburn
University, Auburn, AL 36849, USA. 26Departamento de Bioloxa
Celular e Molecular, Universidade da Corua, 15071 A, Corua,
Spain. 27International Livestock Research Institute, Nairobi, Kenya.
28
Center for Bioinformatics and Computational Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA. 29National Institutes
of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA. 30University of Illinois UrbanaChampaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA. 31University of Gttingen,
37077 Gttingen, Germany. 32University of Texas Medical Branch,
Galveston, TX 77555, USA. 33Imperial College London, South
Kensington Campus, London SW7 2AZ, UK. 34University of
California Davis, Parlier, CA 93648, USA. 35Bloomberg School of
Public Health, Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD 21205,
USA. 36George Washington University Medical Center, Washington,
DC 20037, USA. 37Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA 02467, USA.
38
Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
arensburger@gmail.com
orthologs, consistent with the established species phylogeny (Fig. 1A). Examining correlations
between chromosomal arms indicated wholechromosome conservation between C. quinquefasciatus, An. gambiae, and D. melanogaster (Fig.
1B) (6), whereasand as suggested from earlier
work (7)Ae. aegypti appears to have experienced an arm exchange between the two longest
chromosomes after the Aedes/Culex divergence
(fig. S1).
A significant fraction of the assembled C.
quinquefasciatus genome (29%) was composed of
transposable elements (TEs) (fig. S2). This amount
is less than the TE fraction of Ae. aegypti (42 to
47%), but greater than that of An. gambiae (11 to
16%) (1, 2, 6), suggesting an increased level of
TE activity and/or reduced intensity of selection
against TE insertions in the two culicinae lineages
since their divergence from the An. gambiae lineage.
A comparative analysis of the age distribution of
the different TE types in the three sequenced mosquito genomes revealed that retrotransposons have
consistently been the dominant TE type in the
Ae. aegypti lineage over time (fig. S3). More recently, retrotransposons have become the predominant type of TEs active in all three species.
The C. quinquefasciatus repertoire of 18,883
protein-coding genes is 22% larger than that of
Ae. aegypti (15,419 genes) and 52% larger than
that of An. gambiae (12,457 genes) (Fig. 1C). Our
estimated gene number combines ab initio and
similarity-based predictions from three independent
automated pipelines, optimizing gene identification
(6). The relative increase in C. quinquefasciatus
gene number is explained in part by the presence
of substantially more expanded gene families, including olfactory and gustatory receptors, immunerelated genes, and genes with possible xenobiotic
52 54 mya.
145 200 mya.
Cq
Aa
Ag
260 mya.
Dm
Proteins
5,000
10,000
15,000
Cq
Aa
Ag
www.sciencemag.org
detoxification functions (table S1). Expert curation

of selected gene families revealed expansions in
cytosolic glutathione transferases and a substantial
expansion of cytochrome P450s. A large cytochrome P450 repertoire may reflect adaptations
to polluted larval habitats and may have played a
role in rendering this species particularly adaptable
to evasion of insecticide-based control programs,
with several C. quinquefasciatus P450s being associated with resistance (8, 9).
Mosquitoes are the subject of intense efforts
aimed at designing novel vector control methods
that are often based on the ability of the insect to
sense its environment (10, 11). C. quinquefasciatus
has the largest number of olfactory-receptorrelated
genes (180) of all dipteran species examined to
date (table S1). This expansion may reflect culicine olfactory behavioral diversity, with particular regard to host and oviposition site choice. C.
quinquefasciatus females are opportunistic feeders,
being able to detect and feed on birds, humans, and
livestock, depending on their availability. This plasticity in feeding behavior contributes to the ability
of C. quinquefasciatus to vector pathogens, such
as West Nile virus and St. Louis encephalitis
virus, from birds to humans. The repertoire of gustatory receptors, which are known to mediate perception of both odorants and tastants (12), has also
expanded in C. quinquefasciatus, primarily through
a large alternatively spliced gene locus.
The saliva of blood-sucking arthropods contains
a complex cocktail of pharmacologically active
components that disarm host hemostasis (13). The
ability of C. quinquefasciatus to feed on birds,
humans, and livestock would suggest that it contains
an expanded number of proteins that would increase
its ability to imbibe blood from multiple host species. Consistent with this idea, a large protein family
Fig. 1. (A) Codon-based estimates of DNA substitutions along

the mosquito phylogeny: C. quinquefasciatus (Cq), Ae. aegypti (Aa),
and An. gambiae (Ag) with D. melanogaster (Dm) as an outgroup.
Dates of divergence were taken
from previous studies (6). mya,
million years ago. (B) Chromosomal synteny between C. quinquefasciatus, Ae. aegypti, An.
gambiae, and D. melanogaster.
Solid lines indicate main orthologous chromosomes; the dashed
line denotes secondary orthologous chromosomes. Colors indicate syntenic chromosome arms.
Chromosomes are not drawn to
scale. (C) Orthology delineation
among the protein-coding gene
repertoires of the three sequenced mosquito species. Categories of orthologous groups
with members in all three species include single-copy orthologs in each species (1:1:1)
and multicopy orthologs in all three (N:N:N), one (N in 1), or two (N in 2) species.
Remaining orthologous groups include single or multicopy groups with genes in only two
species (X:X:0, X:0:X, 0:X:X). The remaining fractions in each species (Cq/Aa/Ag-specific)
exhibit no orthology with genes in the other two mosquitoes.
SCIENCE
VOL 330
1 OCTOBER 2010
87
REPORTS
unique to the Culex genus, the 16.7 kD family, was
previously discovered after salivary transcriptome
analysis (13). The genome of C. quinquefasciatus
revealed 28 additional members of this family.
We have outlined and quantified general similarity and differences at the chromosomal and genomic levels between three disease-vector mosquito
genomes, building a foundation for more in-depth
future analyses. We found substantial differences
in the relative abundance of TE classes among the
three mosquitoes with sequenced genomes. Most
unexpectedly, this study revealed numerous instances of expansion of C. quinquefasciatus gene
families compared with An. gambiae and the more
closely related Ae. aegypti. The consequent diversity in many different genes may be an important
factor that led to the wide geographic distribution
of C. quinquefasciatus.

1. R. A. Holt et al., Science 298, 129 (2002).
2. V. Nene et al., Science 316, 1718 (2007); published
online 17 May 2007 (10.1126/science.1138878).
3. World Health Organization, WHO Wkly. Epidemiol. Rec.
84, 437 (2009).
4. E. B. Vinogradova, Culex pipiens pipiens Mosquitoes:
Taxonomy, Distribution, Ecology, Physiology, Genetics,
Applied Importance and Control (Pensoft, Sofia, Bulgaria,
Moscow, Russia, 2000).
5. A. J. Cornel et al., J. Med. Entomol. 40, 36 (2003).
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160 (1999).
8. S. Kasai, I. S. Weerashinghe, T. Shono, M. Yamakawa,
Insect Biochem. Mol. Biol. 30, 163 (2000).
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Biol. 40, 146 (2010).
10. L. Alphey et al., Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis. 10, 295 (2010).
11. M. Benedict et al., Vector-Borne Zoonotic Dis. 8, 127
(2008).
Pathogenomics of Culex quinquefasciatus

and Meta-Analysis of Infection
Responses to Diverse Pathogens
Lyric C. Bartholomay,1* Robert M. Waterhouse,2,3,15* George F. Mayhew,4 Corey L. Campbell,5
Kristin Michel,6 Zhen Zou,7 Jose L. Ramirez,8 Suchismita Das,8 Kanwal Alvarez,7
Peter Arensburger,9 Bart Bryant,6,7 Sinead B. Chapman,10 Yuemei Dong,8 Sara M. Erickson,4
S. H. P. Parakrama Karunaratne,11,12 Vladimir Kokoza,7 Chinnappa D. Kodira,13
Patricia Pignatelli,11 Sang Woon Shin,7 Dana L. Vanlandingham,14 Peter W. Atkinson,9
Bruce Birren,10 George K. Christophides,15 Rollie J. Clem,6 Janet Hemingway,11
Stephen Higgs,14 Karine Megy,16 Hilary Ranson,11 Evgeny M. Zdobnov,2,3,15
Alexander S. Raikhel,7 Bruce M. Christensen,4 George Dimopoulos,8 Marc A. T. Muskavitch10,17,18
The mosquito Culex quinquefasciatus poses a substantial threat to human and veterinary health as a
primary vector of West Nile virus (WNV), the filarial worm Wuchereria bancrofti, and an avian malaria
parasite. Comparative phylogenomics revealed an expanded canonical C. quinquefasciatus immune gene
repertoire compared with those of Aedes aegypti and Anopheles gambiae. Transcriptomic analysis of
C. quinquefasciatus genes responsive to WNV, W. bancrofti, and non-native bacteria facilitated an
unprecedented meta-analysis of 25 vector-pathogen interactions involving arboviruses, filarial worms,
bacteria, and malaria parasites, revealing common and distinct responses to these pathogen types in
three mosquito genera. Our findings provide support for the hypothesis that mosquito-borne pathogens
have evolved to evade innate immune responses in three vector mosquito species of major medical importance.
he Southern house mosquito, Culex
quinquefasciatus, is a geographically widespread, often abundant mosquito that is an
epidemiologically important vector for an exceptionally diverse array of pathogens, including
multiple arboviruses, filarial worms, and protozoa. C. quinquefasciatus transmits West Nile
virus (WNV), St. Louis encephalitis virus, and
other arboviruses, and acts as the most important
vector of the causative agent of lymphatic
filariasis, Wuchereria bancrofti, and Plasmodium
relictum, an avian malaria parasite. Despite the
public health importance of C. quinquefasciatus,
knowledge of the insects response capacities to
this diverse array of pathogens is limited.
Availability of the C. quinquefasciatus genome
sequence (1) enabled comparative phylogenomic
analyses with Aedes aegypti (2), Anopheles gambiae
88
(3), and Drosophila melanogaster (4) that identified 500 C. quinquefasciatus immunity genes from
39 (sub)families or processes (table S1). Conservation of C. quinquefasciatus gene family members
follows the species phylogeny, showing greatest
similarities with A. aegypti. Expansions of C-type
lectins (CTLs), fibrinogen-related proteins (FREPs),
and serine protease inhibitors (SRPNs) account
for much of the 20 to 30% increase in C. quinquefasciatus immunity gene number compared with
A. aegypti (417 genes) and A. gambiae (380 genes)
(figs. S1 to S4). This apparent diversification in immune surveillance and immune signal amplification
processes seems consistent with selection driven
by polluted, microbially complex habitats in which
C. quinquefasciatus oviposits and develops (5).
Whole genome microarray analysis revealed
dynamic changes in infection response gene
1 OCTOBER 2010
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SCIENCE
12. E. A. Hallem, A. Dahanukar, J. R. Carlson, Annu. Rev.

Entomol. 51, 113 (2006).
13. J. M. C. Ribeiro, B. Arc, Adv. Insect Physiol. 37, 59
(2009).
14. This work was supported by NIH grant
HHSN266200400039C and by the National
Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases,
NIH, Department of Health and Human Services
under contract numbers N01-AI-30071 and
HHSN266200400001C. The assembled genome
was deposited in the GenBank database with
accession number AAWU00000000.

Figs. S1 to S12
Tables S1 to S14
References
10.1126/science.1191864
(IRG) transcription in WNV-infected mosquitoes

(fig. S5). Significant changes are observed for
22 transcripts in the midgut and 309 in the carcass (i.e., the remainder of the body) at 7 days
postinfection (dpi), with the greater number of
IRGs in the latter apparently reflecting the diversity of infected cell and tissue types in the carcass.
At 14 dpi, more IRGs are modulated in midgut
(539) and carcass (490) when WNV infection has
spread in midgut cells and has disseminated to
the salivary glands (6). Few canonical immunity
genes are represented among C. quinquefasciatus
WNV IRGs (fig. S5). Five CTL genes within a
C. quinquefasciatusspecific gene expansion (fig.
S3) are up-regulated. Several genes related to the
1
Department of Entomology, Iowa State University, Ames,
IA 50011, USA. 2Department of Genetic Medicine and Development, University of Geneva Medical School, 1 Rue MichelServet, 1211 Geneva, CH, Switzerland. 3Swiss Institute of
Bioinformatics, 1 Rue Michel-Servet, 1211 Geneva, CH, Switzerland. 4Department of Pathobiological Sciences, University of
Wisconsin, Madison, WI 53706, USA. 5Microbiology, Immunology, and Pathology Department, Colorado State University,
Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA. 6Division of Biology, Arthropod
Genomics Center, Molecular and Cellular Developmental Biology Program, Kansas State University, Manhattan, KS 66506,
USA. 7Department of Entomology, University of California,
Riverside, CA 92521, USA. 8W. Harry Feinstone Department of
Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Malaria Research
Institute, Bloomberg School of Public Health, Johns Hopkins
University, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA. 9Department of Entomology, Center for Disease Vector Research, University of
California, Riverside, CA 92521, USA. 10The Broad Institute,
Cambridge MA 02142, USA. 11Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, L3 5QA, UK. 12Faculty of Science and Department of Zoology, University of Peradeniya, Peradeniya
20400, LK, Sri Lanka. 13454 Life Sciences, Branford, CT 06405,
USA. 14Pathology Department, University of Texas Medical
Branch, Galveston, TX 77555, USA. 15Division of Cell and Molecular Biology, Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College
London, Exhibition Road, London SW7 2AZ, UK. 16European
Bioinformatics Institute (EMBL), Hinxton CB10 1SD Cambridge,
UK. 17Biology Department, Boston College, Chestnut Hill, MA
02467, USA. 18Department of Immunology and Infectious
Diseases, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA 02115,
USA.
*These authors contributed equally to this work.

marc.muskavitch@bc.edu
www.sciencemag.org

REPORTS
Toll, Imd, and JAK-STAT pathways, including
Spaetzle, REL1, IAP2, and STAT orthologs, are
activated in C. quinquefasciatus and in A. aegypti
(7, 8) by WNV and dengue virus (DENV) infection, respectively, further supporting a key role of
these defense systems in controlling viral pathogens.
Although the C. quinquefasciatus genome
encodes orthologs for all components of the antiviral defense RNA interference (RNAi) pathway
(9), none of them is transcriptionally modulated
significantly during WNV infection. Similarly,
RNAi components are not transcriptionally modulated during arbovirus infection in A. aegypti (10),
even though RNAi function is key to limiting
these infections in mosquitoes (1012). Apoptosis
is evident, and C. quinquefasciatus IAP1 is repressed in WNV-infected salivary glands (6, 13).
However, no significant changes in transcript
abundance for caspases, caspase activators, IAP
genes (other than IAP2), or autophagy-related genes
are evident in WNV-infected C. quinquefasciatus,
even though modulation of apoptosis (14) or autophagy (15) pathway function affects viral infection in flies. The nonresponsiveness of these genes
appears to reflect the persistent and generally
noncytolytic nature of arbovirus infections in a susceptible vector; overt activation of these responses
would counteract virus persistence and transmission.
Comparative analysis of expressed sequence
tags (tables S3 and S4) from W. bancroftiinfected
C. quinquefasciatus revealed many novel IRGs,
presumably because infection with a large metazoan parasite inflicts traumatic injury. Infection
with non-native bacteria elicits acute cellular and
humoral immune responses in C. quinquefasciatus

and other vector mosquitoes (1618). About 60%
of W. bancrofti or bacteria IRGs are of diverse or
unknown function (fig. S6), and only small proportions (4% W. bancrofti and 6% bacteria) are immunity genes. Comparison of C. quinquefasciatus
virus, filarial worm, and bacteria IRGs reveals
unexpected and extensive overlap (548 genes)
between W. bancrofti and bacteria IRGs (Fig. 1A
and fig. S6). Overall, 38 C. quinquefasciatus IRGs
are common among all three infections (table S5).
The identification of C. quinquefasciatus IRGs
provided an unprecedented opportunity to undertake a meta-analysis of 25 vector-pathogen interactions in C. quinquefasciatus, A. aegypti, and
A. gambiae infected with arboviruses, parasites,
and bacteria (Fig. 1B and table S6) within the
context of orthologous groups (OGs) that define
evolutionarily related genes. A set of 69 arbovirus
IRG OGs (representing 93 C. quinquefasciatus
and 89 A. aegypti genes) was implicated in C.
quinquefasciatusWNV, A. aegyptiDENV, and
A. aegyptiSindbis virus (SINV) responses (fig.
S7 and table S7). A cytochrome P450 DENV IRG
from Drosophila (Cyp6a19, FBgn0033979) and
mammalian cells (19) is similar to genes that respond significantly in C. quinquefasciatusWNV
(CPIJ004411) infection and in A. aegyptiSINV
and A. aegyptiDENV (AAEL009117) infections,
highlighting the potential importance of this
molecule as a universal arbovirus IRG. Filarial
worm IRGs comprised 41 OGs modulated during
C. quinquefasciatusW. bancrofti infection and
infection of A. aegypti with Brugia malayi (fig.
Fig. 1. Infection response genes (IRGs) in the mosquitoes Culex quinquefasciatus (Cq), Aedes aegypti
(Aa), and Anopheles gambiae (Ag). (A) Shared and unique infection response genes in C. quinquefasciatus
infected with a filarial worm, bacteria, or virus. (B) Proportions of shared and unique IRGs postinfection
with viruses (1), filaria (2), or bacteria (3) in C. quinquefasciatus and A. aegypti, in C. quinquefasciatus and
A. gambiae (4), and in all three species (5); and common IRGs in C. quinquefasciatus, A. aegypti, and
A. gambiae (6). (C) Orthology relationships for IRG sets (Rows 1 to 6). IRGs with orthologs in at least 20
arthropod species were classified as Universal, as compared to Non-Universal or Mosquito-Specific. Gene
copynumber counts distinguish mostly single- and multicopy orthologous groups. IRG sets 1 to 6 were
compared to 10,083 mosquito OGs (Row M) to identify significantly greater or smaller (asterisks)
proportions (Fishers Exact Tests; P < 15). (D) Consensus functional categories of universal single-copy
(left) and multicopy (right) orthologous groups of IRG sets (Rows 1 to 6), and all mosquito groups (Row M).
Functional groups are described in supporting online material and (24). Each set of IRGs is described in
tables S7 to S12.
www.sciencemag.org
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VOL 330
S8 and table S8). The IRGs represented most

frequently include serine proteases and cuticle
proteins. Changes in the latter may be associated
with tissue repair necessitated by parasite invasion, migration, and development (20). Increased
representation of heat shock protein and cytochrome P450 IRGs appears to reflect stress during
the infection response. The most extensive overlap
(113 OGs) in bacterial IRGs was observed between Culicine mosquitoes, C. quinquefasciatus,
and A. aegypti (table S9). Only 34 OGs and 26
OGs represent IRGs (fig. S9) in bacteria-infected
C. quinquefasciatus and A. gambiae (table S10)
and A. aegypti and A. gambiae, respectively.
Among 16 OGs containing bacteria IRGs from all
three species, serine proteases, cecropins, myosin
light chain, and components of the 26S proteasome
are highly represented (table S11). A meta-analysis
of bacteria, filarial worm, virus, and malaria parasite infection data sets from C. quinquefasciatus,
A. aegypti, and A. gambiae reveals 95 orthologous IRGs that span mosquito species and pathogen types (Fig. 1B, fig. S10, and table S12).
Orthology data (21) were employed to distinguish universal (see Fig. 1) multi- or single-copy
OGs from mosquito-specific OGs, revealing that
the majority of IRGs have orthologs across Arthropoda (Fig. 1C and table S13). Universal multicopy OGs are overrepresented among IRGs for
viruses, filaria, and bacteria; and universal singlecopy OGs are underrepresented among arbovirus and filarial worm IRGs (and among IRGs
common to all pathogens in C. quinquefasciatus,
A. aegypti, and A. gambiae) compared with the
complete set of mosquito OGs (Fig. 1C). Immunity genes (IMM) (Fig. 1D), including CTLs,
CLIPs, and SRPNs, are generally more prevalent
among responsive multicopy OGs than among responsive single-copy OGs. In fact, no canonical
immunity genes are found among arbovirus- or filarial wormresponsive universal single-copy OGs.
The cosmopolitan distribution of C. quinquefasciatus across continents and ecozones
generally south of 39N latitude implies that
this species has the plasticity to adapt to diverse
habitats, and this plasticity may be enhanced by
an expanded immunity gene repertoire. Overrepresentation of universal multicopy OGs among
pathogen IRGs implies that members of expanded
gene families have been recruited into pathogenresponsive defense pathways. Arboviral and filarial worm infections constitute susceptible,
long-term vector-pathogen interactions in which
the pathogen undergoes amplification or develops
intracellularly, whereas acute infections with nonnative bacteria trigger systemic immunity and are
cleared rapidly (22, 23). Our meta-analysis reveals that arboviral and filarial worm pathogens
transmitted by vector mosquitoes modulate very
few canonical immunity genes and fail to affect
expression of RNAi and most programmed cell
death pathway genes in these vectors. Our results
therefore provide strong support for the hypothesis that pathogens that successfully develop in,
and are transmitted by, vector mosquitoes have
1 OCTOBER 2010
89
REPORTS
evolved to avoid most immune responses in the
three mosquito genera responsible for the vast
majority of human morbidity and mortality attributable to insect-transmitted pathogens.
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17240 (2004).
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89, 2651 (2008).
15. S. Shelly, N. Lukinova, S. Bambina, A. Berman, S. Cherry,
Immunity 30, 588 (2009).
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89, 62 (2003).
17. L. C. Bartholomay, H. A. Farid, R. M. Ramzy,
B. M. Christensen, Mol. Biochem. Parasitol. 130, 43 (2003).
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8814 (2002).
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E. M. Zdobnov, Nucleic Acids Res. 36, D271 (2008).
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25. This work was supported by Iowa Agriculture and Home
Economics Experiment Station, Ames, IA, USA, to L.C.B.;
funding from the Foundation for the National Institutes
of Health, Grand Challenges in Global Health Initiative
to C.L.C.; NIH grant P20 RR017686 to K.M.; NIH grant
R21 AI067642 to R.J.C.; CDC grant T01CCT622892
to S.H.; NIAID/NIH/DHHS contract number
HHSN266200400039C to University of Notre Dame
(VectorBase); NIAID/NIH/DHHS contract number
HHSN266200400001C to the Broad Institute; Swiss
A Critical Role for LTA4H in

Limiting Chronic Pulmonary
Neutrophilic Inflammation
Robert J. Snelgrove,1,2* Patricia L. Jackson,1 Matthew T. Hardison,1 Brett D. Noerager,3
Andrew Kinloch,4 Amit Gaggar,1,5,6 Suresh Shastry,1 Steven M. Rowe,1,5,7 Yun M. Shim,8
Tracy Hussell,2 J. Edwin Blalock1,5
Leukotriene A4 hydrolase (LTA4H) is a proinflammatory enzyme that generates the inflammatory
mediator leukotriene B4 (LTB4). LTA4H also possesses aminopeptidase activity with unknown
substrate and physiological importance; we identified the neutrophil chemoattractant prolineglycine-proline (PGP) as this physiological substrate. PGP is a biomarker for chronic obstructive
pulmonary disease (COPD) and is implicated in neutrophil persistence in the lung. In acute
neutrophil-driven inflammation, PGP was degraded by LTA4H, which facilitated the resolution of
inflammation. In contrast, cigarette smoke, a major risk factor for the development of COPD,
selectively inhibited LTA4H aminopeptidase activity, which led to the accumulation of PGP and
neutrophils. These studies imply that therapeutic strategies inhibiting LTA4H to prevent LTB4
generation may not reduce neutrophil recruitment because of elevated levels of PGP.
eutrophils are a critical component of the
hosts defense against microorganisms
(1, 2); however, cessation of neutrophil
recruitment and clearance by apoptosis is mandatory to restore homeostasis and limit host tissue
damage (3, 4). Chronic neutrophilic inflammation is observed in lung diseases such as cystic
fibrosis (CF) and chronic obstructive pulmonary
disease (COPD), mediating extensive tissue damage and contributing to organ dysfunction (5, 6).
A classical chemoattractant for neutrophils is the
glutamic acidleucinearginine (ELR+) motif containing CXC chemokines (7), such as interleukin
(IL)8 (CXCL8) in humans and keratinocytederived chemokine (KC) (CXCL1) and macrophage inflammatory protein (MIP)2 (CXCL2)
in mice. Proline-glycine-proline (PGP) is a
90
tripeptide generated from the breakdown of extracellular matrix collagen and is specifically chemotactic for neutrophils in vitro and in vivo (8, 9).
N-terminal acetylation of PGP (AcPGP), which
occurs through an unknown mechanism, can enhance its chemotactic potential (10). PGP and
AcPGP share sequence homology to key motifs
found in the majority of ELR+ CXC chemokines
and bind to their receptors, CXCR1 and CXCR2
(8, 9). PGP is generated from native collagen by
the action of matrix metalloproteinase8 (MMP-8)
and/or MMP-9, followed by a secondary cleavage by prolyl endopeptidase (PE) (9). We have
subsequently identified substantial quantities of
PGP or AcPGP in clinical samples from patients
with chronic lung diseases such as CF, COPD, and
bronchiolitis obliterans syndrome (8, 9, 11, 12),
1 OCTOBER 2010
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SCIENCE
National Science Foundation grant 3100A0 to E.M.Z.;

NIH grant R01 AI59492 to A.S.R.; NIH grants R01
AI19769 and R01 AI67698 to B.M.C; NIH grants R01
AI061576, R01 AI059492, and R01 AI078997 and Johns
Hopkins Malaria Research Institute Core Facilities at the
Johns Hopkins Malaria Research Institute to G.D.; and the
DeLuca Professorship from Boston College to M.A.T.M.
R.M.W. was supported by the Giorgi-Cavlieri Foundation,
Swiss National Science Foundation grant 3100A0 to
E.M.Z. and a Wellcome Trust Ph.D. fellowship. J.L.R.
was supported by NIH individual NRSA training grant
F31 AI080161-01A1 and by the American Society for
Microbiology Robert D. Watkins Graduate Research
Fellowship. S.H.P.P.K. was supported by a Wellcome
Trust Fellowship. D.L.V. was supported by NIH grant
T32 A107536. The microarray data reported in this paper
have been deposited in the Gene Expression Omnibus
(GEO)database (accession #: GSE23045).

Figs. S1 to S12
Tables S1 to S13
References
10.1126/science.1193162
where it functions to promote the maintenance of

neutrophilic inflammation at a time of declining
classical chemokine levels. Here, we investigate
the role of PGP in acute pulmonary neutrophilic
inflammation.
Influenza infection of mice elicits an acute
neutrophilic inflammation peaking at 24 hours
post-infection (fig. S1, A and B) (13), coinciding
with peak KC and MIP-2 levels (fig. S1, C and
D). MMP-9 protein expression and activity were
elevated at 24 hours post-infection and persisted
for several days before subsiding to baseline
levels (fig. S1, E to G). PE activity (fig. S1H) and
protein amounts (fig. S1I) were also rapidly elevated
in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) after
influenza infection, peaking at 24 hours after
infection. Thus, the entire enzyme repertoire
required for PGP generation was present. Neutrophils were demonstrated to be a prominent source
of both MMP-9 and PE (fig. S1, J and K) (13).
Despite the presence of MMP-9 and PE, however, no PGP was detectable at any time point
that we analyzed (fig. S2A) with the use of a
highly sensitive mass spectrometry technique (8).
1
Division of Pulmonary, Allergy and Critical Care Medicine,
University of Alabama at Birmingham Lung Health Center,
Department of Medicine, University of Alabama at Birmingham,
Birmingham, AL 35294, USA. 2Leukocyte Biology Section, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London,
London SW7 2AZ, UK. 3Department of Biology, Chemistry and
Mathematics, University of Montevallo, Montevallo, AL 35115,
USA. 4Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology, Imperial College
London, London W6 8LH, UK. 5Gregory Fleming James Cystic
Fibrosis Center, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA. 6Birmingham VA Medical Center, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA. 7Department of Pediatrics, University of
Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA. 8Division of
Pulmonary and Critical Care Medicine, Department of Medicine,
University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22908, USA.

rjs198@imperial.ac.uk
www.sciencemag.org

REPORTS
The absence of PGP during influenza infection led us to question whether an enzyme was
present that degraded PGP. BALF from 24 hours
postinfluenza infection (maximal MMP-9/PE)
exhibited a potent capacity to degrade exogenous
PGP, as determined by mass spectrometry (Fig.
1A). Generation of free proline (from PGP degradation) by influenza BALF correlated with the
loss of PGP by mass spectrometry (Fig. 1B), with
one proline being cleaved per PGP molecule. Nterminal acetylation of PGP protected it from
degradation (fig. S2B). BALF from different time
points postinfluenza infection was subsequently
incubated with PGP, and degradation was assessed by mass spectrometry and free-proline
generation (Fig. 1C). Nave BALF had the capacity to degrade PGP, but activity was markedly
increased after influenza infection (peaking at 24
to 48 hours) before subsiding to basal activity.
Lung epithelial cells and neutrophils were shown
to be prominent sources of this PGP-degrading
activity (fig. S2, C to E) (13). Thus, both PGPgenerating and -degrading enzymes are similarly
up-regulated during influenza infection coinciding with neutrophilic inflammation.
The enzyme responsible for degrading PGP
was isolated from influenza BALF and demonstrated to be leukotriene A4 hydrolase (LTA4H)
(fig. S3 and table S1) (13). LTA4H acts as an
epoxide hydrolase to catalyze the conversion of
LTA4 to the proinflammatory mediator leukotriene
B4 (LTB4) (14, 15). It has also been suggested to
have aminopeptidase capacity, but no physiological substrate has been identified (16, 17). We
incubated recombinant human LTA4H with PGP
with and without bovine serum albumin (BSA)
because its aminopeptidase activity is reportedly
enhanced by albumin (18)and assessed PGP
degradation (Fig. 2, A and B). LTA4H had a potent
capacity to degrade PGP, which was augmented at
lower enzyme concentrations by BSA. Recombinant LTA4H did not degrade AcPGP (fig. S4A).
LTA4H displayed a significantly greater catalytic
constant (kcat) for a PGP substrate than for LTA4, but
it also possessed a greater Michaelis constant (KM).
Consequently, the catalytic efficiency (kcat/KM)
of LTA4H for PGP was ~1 105 s1 M1, which
compares favorably with reported specific activities for LTA4H with LTA4 (fig. S4, B to D, and
table S2) (13, 17). Murine recombinant LTA4H
was expressed and purified (fig. S5, A to C) and
demonstrated to possess a comparable capacity to
degrade PGP (fig. S5, D to G).
LTA4H selectively cleaved the N-terminal
amino acid from tripeptides and was inhibited by
the tripeptide aminopeptidase inhibitor bestatin,
but not other general aminopeptidase inhibitors
such as amastatin (fig. S6, A and B) (13). Biological samples containing MMP-9/PE can generate PGP from collagen ex vivo (9). Although
BALF incubated with collagen failed to generate
PGP, co-incubation with bestatin yielded small
quantities of PGP with nave BALF and substantial quantities with BALF from 24 hours post
influenza infection (Fig. 2C and fig. S2C). Bestatin
or amastatin was subsequently administered intratracheally to influenza-infected mice. Although we
did not detect PGP in the BALF from untreated
mice at 24 hours post-infection, those administered
bestatin generated substantial concentrations of
PGP in their BALF (Fig. 2D) and possessed significantly greater numbers of neutrophils in their
lung tissue (Fig. 2E). It would, therefore, appear
that LTA4H degrades collagen-derived PGP,
limiting neutrophilic inflammation.
To verify a role for LTA4H in PGP degradation in vivo, we next assessed the amount of PGP
in the BALF of wild-type (WT) (fig. S7, A to D)
(13) and Lta4h/ mice. Nave WT mice possessed no PGP, whereas Lta4h/ mice exhibited
low but reproducible concentrations of PGP (Fig.
3A). This phenotype was more pronounced at
day 3 postinfluenza infection (peak neutrophil
infiltrate) (Fig. 3B). Lta4h/ mice failed to produce
LTB4 but also possessed lower amounts of KC
and MIP-2 in BALF relative to wild types (Fig. 3,
A and B). There was a small yet significant
increase in neutrophil numbers in the lungs of
Lta4h/ mice at day 3 of influenza infection (Fig.
3C); however, the contribution of PGP may be
partially masked because of the reduced amounts
of other chemoattractants. To address this, we measured neutrophil chemotaxis ex vivo to WT and
Lta4h/ BALF (day 3 postinfluenza infection) in
the presence of a PGP-neutralizing antibody.

BALF from both groups of mice was chemotactic
for neutrophils, and chemotaxis was suppressed
by neutralization of KC/MIP-2 (fig. S8A). Neutralization of PGP, however, caused a marked
reduction in the chemotactic potential of Lta4h/
BALF only (Fig. 3D). The BALF of WT mice
could degrade exogenous PGP, which was markedly increased with influenza infection; however,
degradation was absent with BALF from Lta4h/
mice (Fig. 3, E and F). Furthermore, whereas
BALF from influenza-infected WT mice generated
negligible levels of PGP from collagen ex vivo
(fig. S8, B and C), BALF from Lta4h/ mice
generated significant quantities. PGP generation
was significantly reduced by co-incubation with
inhibitors to MMP-9 and PE, verifying the importance of these enzymes in the generation of the
tripeptide (fig. S8, B and C).
Failure to detect PGP owing to degradation of
the tripeptide was not unique to influenza infection, because we obtained comparable results in
response to Streptococcus pneumoniae (fig. S9)
(13). We next questioned why PGP was present
in chronic neutrophilic conditions such as COPD
(12), because LTA4H so potently degrades it.
Chronic instillation of AcPGP into the lungs of
mice results in neutrophil recruitment and an emphysematous lung phenotype (8, 19). We demonstrated that cigarette smoke condensate (CSC)
could N-terminally acetylate PGP (Fig. 4A), not
only protecting PGP from degradation by LTA4H
but also enhancing its chemotactic capacity (10).
Exposure to CSC also dose-dependently inhibited the capacity of LTA4H to degrade PGP (Fig.
4, B and C). CSC appeared to exhibit selective
inhibition of the aminopeptidase activity of LTA4H,
with minimal inhibition of the hydrolase activity
observed (Fig. 4D). Furthermore, no difference
was observed in LTB4 generation in response to
the chemoattractant formyl-methionine-leucinephenylalanine when neutrophils were in the presence of CSC (fig. S10). Selective inhibition of
aminopeptidase activity is feasible because residues have been delineated that are critical to one
activity but have no role in the other (20, 21), and
selective modulation has previously been observed
www.sciencemag.org
SCIENCE
VOL 330
1 OCTOBER 2010
Abs. (520nm)
% PGP Degradation
Abs. (520 nm)
% PGP degradation
2.5 B
2.5
Fig. 1. Influenza infection induces the
A
C
release of PGP-degrading enzymes.
100
100
(A and B) Undiluted, diluted by 1/10,
2
2
1
or diluted by /100 BALF from 24 hours
90
80
after influenza infection was incubated
1.5
1.5
80
with PGP, and degradation was as60
sessed by mass spectrometry (A), ex70
1
1
pressed as percentage degradation
40
relative to peptide alone, or (B) gen60
0.5
0.5
eration of free proline. (C) BALF diNeat BALF
Neat BALF
20
50
1/10 BALF
luted by 1/ 10 from indicated times
1/10 BALF
1/100 BALF
1/100 BALF
postinfluenza infection was incu0
0
40
0
0
400
800
1200
1600
0
400
800
1200
1600
0
2
4
6
8
10
bated with PGP, and degradation
Time (min)
Time (min)
Days
post
infection
was assessed after 2 hours by mass
spectrometry or free-proline generation. Data [error bars indicate mean T SD (A and B) or mean T SEM (C)] are representative of three experiments with triplicates (A and B) or four mice per
group (C). Abs, absorbance.
91
REPORTS
the detectable amount of total LTA4H protein
released (Fig. 4G). It is important to note that, in
this instance, although the apparent percentage
inhibition of activity is less than 30%, the amount
of LTA4H protein released by the CSC-stimulated
epithelial cells is well in excess of that released by
control-treated cells, so the actual inhibition is far
greater. The increase in total LTA4H protein with
CSC is in excess of 10-fold; thus, the actual relative inhibition is likely to be in excess of 95%.
Furthermore, single exposure of mice to intranasal
cigarette smoke extract (CSE) markedly reduced
the capacity of BALF (24 hours later) to degrade
PGP ex vivo (Fig. 4, H and I) and led to significant concentrations of AcPGP in BALF (Fig.
4J) and neutrophil recruitment (Fig. 4K) in vivo.
In this study, we propose disparate functions
of LTA4H in generating one neutrophil chemoattractant (LTB4) while degrading another (PGP).
LTA4H is generally assumed to be a cytosolic enzyme, but we report an extracellular role, corroborating detection of this enzyme previously in the
plasma of various mammals and in human BALF
(24, 25). The peptidase, but not the epoxide hydrolase, activity of LTA4H is augmented in the
presence of albumin (18) and chloride ions (22).
The disparate concentrations of Cl and albumin,
intracellularly and extracellularly, support the notion
that the epoxide hydrolase activity of LTA4H operates intracellularly, and the aminopeptidase capacity occurs extracellularly. Neutrophils are a
source of enzymes that both generate and degrade
PGP and are therefore capable of promoting and
then restricting their own recruitment.
Our results also suggest that cigarette smoke
shifts the emphasis of LTA4H, which has dual
pro- and anti-inflammatory functions, toward a
proinflammatory phenotype. Consequently, a combination of LTB4 and PGP, both implicated in the
sure of primary human bronchial epithelial cells

to a nonlethal dose of CSC significantly reduced
the aminopeptidase activity of the released LTA4H
(Fig. 4, E and F), while substantially increasing
in response to biological and chemical mediators

(18, 22, 23).
We have previously demonstrated that lung
epithelial cells release LTA4H (fig. S2C). Expo-
1.2
100
1 g/ml LTA4H + BSA

0.1 g/ml LTA4H
Abs. (520nm)
0.1 g/ml LTA4H + BSA

0.1 g/ml LTA4H
1 g/ml LTA4H
0.6
0.1 g/ml LTA4H

0.4

0.1 g/ml LTA4H
20
0.2
0
25
10
15
Time (hrs)
**
0.5
**
1
[PGP] (ng/ml)
0.2
0.1
0.4
0.2
Flu
Flu
BALF BALF +
Bestatin
UT
Amast .
Best.
UT
Amast .
Best.
Fig. 2. Leukotriene A4 hydrolase degrades PGP. (A and B) Degradation of PGP by 1, 0.1, and 0.01 mg/ml
recombinant human LTA4H with or without BSA, as determined by (A) mass spectrometry or (B) generation of
free proline. (C) Generation of PGP from type II collagen by BALF from nave and influenza-infected (24 hours)
mice, with or without bestatin. (D) PGP in BALF and (E) neutrophil numbers in lung tissue 24 hours after
influenza infection in mice that received intratracheal phosphate-buffered saline (untreated), bestatin (Best.),
or amastatin (Amast.). *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01. Data [error bars indicate mean T SD (A) to (C) or mean T SEM (D)
and (E)] are representative of three experiments with triplicates (A) to (C) or four mice per group (D) and (E).
50
pg/ml
**
20
100
*
50
10
**
35
1.2
-2
M
80
% PGP degradation
% Inhibition
0.5
**
**
Lta4h -/-
Wild type
30
1.5
IP
PG
IP
-2
LT
B
Lta4h -/ -
Wild type
2.5
PG
LT
B
-2
IP
PG
pg/ml
**
150
30
25
20
15
10
WT Lta4h -/-
WT Lta4h -/-
1 OCTOBER 2010
Wild type Lta4h -/-
60
40
**
20
Day 3
VOL 330
**
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
WT Lta4h-/Day 0
SCIENCE
Day 0
92
200
40
No. neutrophils (x 106)
Fig. 3. Lta4h/ mice lose capacity to degrade PGP. The concentrations of KC, MIP-2, LTB4, and
PGP in BALF of (A) nave or (B)
influenza-infected (day 3) WT and
Lta4h/ mice are shown. (C) Neutrophil numbers in the lungs of
nave or influenza-infected (day 3)
WT or Lta4h/ mice. (D) Inhibition
of WT and Lta4h/ BALF induced
neutrophil chemotaxis ex vivo by
PGP neutralization. (E and F) BALF,
diluted by 1/ 10, from nave or
influenza-infected (day 3) WT and
Lta4h/ mice incubated with PGP
and degradation assessed after 2
hours by (E) mass spectrometry or
(F) free-proline generation. *P <
0.05; **P < 0.01. Data [error bars
indicate mean T SEM (A to C) or
mean T SD (D to F)] are from four
mice per group (A) to (C) or triplicates (D) to (F).
Naive
BALF +
Bestatin
LT
B
Naive
BALF
-2
0.2
0.6
IP
0.4
0.3
0.6
0.8
0.4
0.8
25
20
1.2
Abs. (520 nm)
20
10
15
Time (hrs)
No. neutrophils (x 106)
[PGP] (ng/ml)
1 g/ml LTA4H + BSA
PG
40
0.8
60
LT
B
% PGP degradation
1 g/ml LTA4H
80
WT Lta4h-/Day 3
www.sciencemag.org
WT Lta4h-/Day 0
WT Lta4h-/Day 3

REPORTS
% PGP degradation
2% CSC
4% CSC
600
400
200
0
5
10
15
Time (hrs)
20
25
% PGP degradation
% Inhibition of activity
80
60
40
**
20
0.8
60
40
Vehicle
0.5% CSC
1% CSC
2% CSC
20
Peptidase
**
60
40
20
0.2
Vehicle
CSE
2 % CSC
Vehicle
control
K
**
0.4
0.5
0.4
0.3
**
0.2
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.1
0
Vehicle
CSE
pathogenesis of COPD (8, 12, 19, 26), could drive

the observed inflammation. Such selective modulation of the disparate activities of LTA4H may not
be unique to COPD. Extracellular levels of chloride ions, which selectively activate the aminopeptidase activity, are diminished in CF patients
owing to defective CF transmembrane conductance regulators (27) and could explain the PGP
observed in these patients (9).
Finally, LTB4 is implicated in acute and chronic
inflammatory diseases (2831). The development
of drugs that seek to inhibit LTA4H activity and
LTB4 generation to alleviate pathologies of inflammatory disease is under way. When developing
these drugs, it will be critical to consider the potential repercussions of preventing PGP degradation.
1.
2.
3.
4.
**
0.3
J
[AcPGP] (ng/ml)
Abs. (520 nm)
**
0.4
CSC
0.6
10
0.5
2 % CSC
0.7
20
25
0
Vehicle
control
30
0
20
0.1
Vehicle control
40
0.4
80
Hydrolase
0.6
0.2
10
15
Time (hrs)
% PGP degradation
80
100
100
E. P. Reeves et al., Nature 416, 291 (2002).

L. M. Stuart, R. A. Ezekowitz, Immunity 22, 539 (2005).
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6. S. M. Rowe, S. Miller, E. J. Sorscher, N. Engl. J. Med. 352,
1992 (2005).
Vehicle
CSE
3.5
No. neutrophils ( x 105)
800
Abs. (520 nm)
1000
[AcPGP] (ng/ml)
B
Vehicle
0.5% CSC
1% CSC
Abs. (520 nm)
1200
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
Vehicle
CSE
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1123, 275 (1992).
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www.sciencemag.org
SCIENCE
Fig. 4. Cigarette smoke inhibits PGP degradation by

LTA4H. (A) Acetylation of
PGP by 0.5, 1, 2, and 4%
CSC or vehicle control (2%
dimethyl sulfoxide). (B and
C) Degradation of PGP by
LTA4H alone or in the presence of 0.5, 1, or 2% CSC
or vehicle control, as determined by (B) mass spectrometry or (C) generation
of free proline. (D) Inhibi10
15
20
25
tion of hydrolase and aminoTime (hrs)
peptidase activities by 2%
CSC. (E to G) Human lung epithelial cells cultured with 2% CSC or vehicle control for 24 hours.
(E and F) Degradation of PGP after 2 hours by
apical supernatant (diluted 1/ 10), as assessed by
(E) mass spectrometry or (F) free-proline generation. (G) Western blot for LTA4H in apical supernatant from 2% CSC or vehicle controltreated
cells. Each lane represents apical supernatant
from a different experiment. (H and I) BALF,
diluted 1/10, from vehicle control or CSE-treated
mice (24 hours post-treatment) incubated with
PGP and degradation assessed after 2 hours by
(H) mass spectrometry or (I) free-proline generation. AcPGP (J) and neutrophil numbers (K) in
BALF of mice 24 hours post-administration of vehicle control or CSE. *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01. Data
[error bars indicate mean T SD (A) to (F) or
mean T SEM (H) to (K)] are representative of at
least triplicates (A) to (F) or three experiments
with four mice per group (H) to (K).
VOL 330
24. F. Fitzpatrick, J. Haeggstrm, E. Granstrm, B. Samuelsson,

Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 80, 5425 (1983).
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(1995).
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31. X.-S. Chen, J. R. Sheller, E. N. Johnson, C. D. Funk,
Nature 372, 179 (1994).
32. This project was supported by grants from the Wellcome
Trust (082727/Z/07/Z to R.J.S.), the National Heart, Lung,
and Blood Institute (HL07783, HL090999, and
HL087824 to J.E.B. and HL102371-A1 to A.G.), the Cystic
Fibrosis Foundation (GAGGAR07 to A.G.), the National
Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases
(1K23DK075788 and 1R03DK084110-01 to S.M.R.), the
Flight Attendant Medical Research Institute (Young
Clinical Scientist Award to Y.M.S.) and the National Heart,
Lung, and Blood Institute (K08HL091127 to
Y.M.S.), and the Medical Research Council (P171/03/C1/
048 to T.H.). The Univ. of Alabama Birmingham (UAB)
Lung Health Center Pulmonary Proteomics Laboratory is
funded through the NIH (by grants RR19231,
P30CA13148, P50 AT00477, U54CA100949,
P30AR050948, and P30 DK079337). We thank R. Moore
and L. Wilson of the UAB Targeted Metabolomics and
Proteomics Laboratory for their technical assistance with
1 OCTOBER 2010
93
REPORTS
mass spectrometry, D. Muccio of the UAB Chemistry
Department for the use of his fast protein liquid
chromatography system, G. Xia for technical assistance,
and D. Saliba of the Kennedy Institute of Rheumatology,
Imperial College London, for his technical assistance in
the generation of murine LTA4H. The content is solely the
responsibility of the authors and does not necessarily
represent the official views of the National Heart, Lung,

and Blood Institute or the NIH.

SOM Text
Mitotic Recombination in Patients

with Ichthyosis Causes Reversion
of Dominant Mutations in KRT10
Keith A. Choate,1,2 Yin Lu,2 Jing Zhou,1 Murim Choi,2 Peter M. Elias,3 Anita Farhi,2
Carol Nelson-Williams,2 Debra Crumrine,3 Mary L. Williams,3 Amy J. Nopper,4 Alanna Bree,5
Leonard M. Milstone,1 Richard P. Lifton2*
Somatic loss of wild-type alleles can produce disease traits such as neoplasia. Conversely,
somatic loss of disease-causing mutations can revert phenotypes; however, these events are
infrequently observed. Here we show that ichthyosis with confetti, a severe, sporadic skin disease
in humans, is associated with thousands of revertant clones of normal skin that arise from loss
of heterozygosity on chromosome 17q via mitotic recombination. This allowed us to map and
identify disease-causing mutations in the gene encoding keratin 10 (KRT10); all result in
frameshifts into the same alternative reading frame, producing an arginine-rich C-terminal peptide
that redirects keratin 10 from the cytokeratin filament network to the nucleolus. The high
frequency of somatic reversion in ichthyosis with confetti suggests that revertant stem cell clones
are under strong positive selection and/or that the rate of mitotic recombination is elevated in
individuals with this disorder.
chthyosis with confetti (IWC; also known as
ichtyose en confettis, congenital reticular ichthyosiform erythroderma, and ichthyosis
variegata) is a very rare, sporadic severe skin
disease of unknown cause (13). Affected subjects are born with erythroderma (red skin) owing
to defective skin barrier function, prominent scale,
and palmoplantar keratoderma (thickening of skin
on palms and soles). Poor skin integrity leads to
bacterial infections and, frequently, impaired
growth and development. Early in life, hundreds
to thousands of pale confetti-like spots appear
across the body surface and increase in number and
size with time (Fig. 1, A and B). Histology of
ichthyotic skin shows epidermal thickening and
disordered differentiation above the basal layer,
with perinuclear vacuolization, lack of a granular
layer, and hyperkeratosis (thickening) with retained
nuclei in the stratum corneum (Fig. 1, C and D).
We studied seven kindreds with characteristic
IWC (fig. S1). In five kindreds, there was a single
affected offspring of unaffected, unrelated parents, and in two an affected parent had affected
offspring. Biopsy of confetti spots in different
Department of Dermatology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA. 2Department of Genetics,
Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Yale University School of
Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA. 3Department of Dermatology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco,
CA 94122, USA. 4Childrens Mercy Hospitals and Clinics,
Kansas City, MO 64108, USA. 5Texas Children's Hospital,
Houston, TX 77030, USA.
richard.lifton@yale.edu
94
kindreds revealed that these have normal histology (Fig. 1, E to H), consistent with each representing a revertant from clonal expansion of a
Figs. S1 to S10
Tables S1 and S2
7 April 2010; accepted 30 July 2010
10.1126/science.1190594
normal stem cell. This observation suggested that

IWC might be caused by dominant mutations
that are lost in revertant spots, and the high
frequency of reversion suggested deletion, gene
conversion, or recombination as possible mechanisms. To test this, we compared genotypes of
DNA from blood and cultured keratinocytes from
biopsies of diseased and revertant skin of subject
106-1 typed on Illumina arrays (4). In contrast to
blood and disease keratinocytes, revertant DNA
showed a single large segment of copy-neutral
loss of heterozygosity (LOH) on chromosome
17q extending from 34.5 megabase (Mb) to the
telomere at 78.7 Mb (Fig. 2A and fig. S2). Three
additional revertant spots from this subject also
showed copy-neutral LOH extending from proximal 17q to the telomere, each with different inferred start sites for LOH (Fig. 2B), which excludes
simple genetic mosaicism. These findings are consistent with mitotic recombination as the mechanism of LOH (Fig. 2C). In each revertant, the
same parental haplotype was lost, consistent with
loss of a dominant mutation. We then analyzed
28 revertant spots from five additional patients.
Again, all revertants showed copy-neutral LOH
on 17q extending to the telomere (Fig. 2B). Sites
of inferred recombination are distinct and are
Fig. 1. Frequent revertants in ichthyosis with

confetti. (A and B) The
backs of an 18-year-old
female subject (103-1) and
42-year-old male (104-1)
show background redness
and scaling with hundreds
ofwhite,normal-appearing
confetti spots. (C) Histology of normal human
skin showing basal layer
(labeled B), stratum spinosum (S), granular layer
(G), and stratum corneum
(SC). (D) Affected skin
shows loss of differentiation of all layers above
the basal layer and hypercellularity with increased
epidermal thickness. There
is no granular layer, and
marked perinuclear vacuolization in the suprabasal epidermis and retention of cell nuclei in the stratum corneum are seen. (E) Revertant
skin shows normalization of epidermal thickness and architecture, with normal granular layer, normal spinous
layer, and stratum corneum. Scale bars in (C) to (E), 50 mm. (F) High-power view of spinous layer in normal
epidermis with intercellular spines visible, overlying granular layer with purple keratohyalin granules and
basket weave stratum corneum. (G) High-power view of affected skin shows perinuclear vacuolization (black
arrows), lack of keratohyalin granules, and retained nuclei (white arrows) in the stratum corneum. (H) Highpower view of revertant skin shows normal spinous layer with intercellular spines, granular layer with purple
keratohyalin granules in keratinocytes, and basket-weave stratum corneum. Scale bars in (F) to (H), 25 mm.
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confined to the interval from 21.7 Mb (near the
centromere) to 34.5 Mb.
These observations suggest that IWC is
genetically homogeneous and localize the disease
locus to a 99.9% confidence interval, calculated
from the position of the most distal recombinant
and the number of independent recombinants, to
the 34.5 to 37.7 Mb interval on 17q. This interval
is notable for a gene cluster encoding 28 type1 keratins and 24 keratin-associated proteins (5).
Assuming that affected offspring of unaffected parents harbor de novo mutations in the
IWC gene, we conducted Illumina sequencing of
overlapping polymerase chain reaction (PCR)
amplicons spanning the entire critical interval in a
parent-offspring trio. At mean 95 per base coverage, ~95% of all the bases in the 99.9% confidence interval were read at least 10 times in
each subject, which enabled high-quality genotype calls. The affected subject had a single de
novo mutation (table S1), which was confirmed
by Sanger sequencing (Fig. 3A). The mutation
abolishes the canonical splice acceptor site of intron 6 of keratin 10 (KRT10) (TAG to TGG mutation). Moreover, the mutation was absent in
revertant spots (fig. S3). Sequencing of KRT10
transcripts from mutant keratinocyte cDNA revealed a wild-type and a mutant isoform showing
splicing at an AG site at bases 7 to 8 in the normal
exon 7, leading to an eight-base deletion (Fig. 3,
B and C). This results in a frameshift at normal
codon 458, leading to 119 aberrant amino acids
followed by termination at codon 577. The frameshift peptide has an extremely skewed amino acid
composition, with 67 arginine residues (Fig. 3D).
Sequencing of KRT10 from genomic DNA
and disease keratinocyte cDNA in the six other
IWC kindreds identified de novo mutations in all
four simplex kindreds and transmitted mutations
in the two multiplex kindreds (table S2; Fig. 3, C

and D; and fig. S4). It is noteworthy that all mutations resulted in cDNAs encoding frameshifts
that enter the same alternative C-terminal reading
frame (Fig. 3, C and D, and fig. S5). Mutations
included two additional intron 6 splice acceptor
mutations, an intron 6 splice donor site mutation
that results in skipping of exon 6, two frameshift
mutations in exon 7, and an exon 6 mutation that
creates a premature splice donor site. All of these
mutations are absent among control chromosomes, and each is lost in revertant spots (fig. S3).
On the basis of these findings, we conclude that
mutations in KRT10 cause IWC.
K10 is highly expressed in the suprabasal layers of the epidermis and forms heterodimers with
keratin 1 (6, 7), which then assemble to form 10-nm
intermediate filaments (8). In diseased skin, keratin 10 levels are reduced (fig. S6, A and B), and
electron microscopy reveals a marked reduction
in the total number of cytokeratin filaments and
poor investment of desmosomes with filaments
(fig. S7). In addition, however, K10 is also mislocalized in diseased skin, with prominent nuclear localization in discrete foci that prove to be
nucleoli when costained with fibrillarin (Fig. 4, A
to F); this nuclear localization is not seen in
normal or revertant skin. Keratin 1 shows similar
mislocalization in diseased skin (fig. S6, C to E).
Similarly, although wild-type and C-terminal
truncated K10 localize to the cytoplasmic filament network when expressed in PLC cells, K10
harboring disease-causing frameshifts localizes
exclusively to the nucleolus (Fig. 4, G to L).
In summary, we demonstrate that IWC is associated with dominant mutations in keratin 10,
all of which produce an arginine-rich C-terminal
peptide that causes mislocalization of the protein
to the nucleolus. This mislocalization provides a
Fig. 2. Revertant spots show loss of heterozygosity on 17q. (A)

Genotypes on chromosome 17 from revertant keratinocytes of IWC
subject 106-1 are shown. From 17pter to 34.5 Mb, genotypes show
the expected heterozygosity with genotypes identical to blood and
disease keratinocyte DNA (fig. S2), whereas from 34.5 Mb to 17qter,
genotypes are homozygous with no change in diploid copy number
(fig. S2). (B) Results of genotyping keratinocytes of 32 revertant spots
from seven unrelated IWC subjects (106-1 revertants denoted with an asterisk). Gray lines, genomic
segments with heterozygous genotypes matching blood DNA; blue lines, segments showing copy-neutral
LOH. These results are consistent with the hypothesis that IWCs are caused by a dominant allele distal to
34.5 Mb that is lost by mitotic recombination, as depicted in (C).
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VOL 330
mechanism for disruption of the keratin filament

network, which in turn contributes to loss of barrier function. The observed abnormalities in differentiation are unlikely to be due simply to loss
of the keratin network, and we speculate that the
mutant K10 may disrupt cellular physiology in
additional ways, perhaps through effects on ribosomal biogenesis or cell cycle regulation, a process
to which K10 has been linked (9). We hypothesize
that the nucleolar localization of mutant K10 may
be due to RNA binding, owing to the extremely
arginine-rich frameshift peptide and the high concentration of ribosomal RNA in the ribosome assembly factory. Most RNA-binding proteins have
arginine-rich motifs that interact with the phosphate backbone of RNA, and the specific argininerich sequences capable of binding to RNA are
diverse (10, 11). Similarly, arginine-rich motifs also
contribute to nuclear localization (12). Although
we have not seen localization of the frameshift
peptide to other RNA- or DNA-containing structures, we cannot exclude this possibility.
IWC is remarkable for its high frequency of
spontaneous reversion, with more than a thousand
revertants in many subjects. The mechanism
mitotic recombinationrepresents the complement
of a mechanism for producing somatic homozygosity for tumor suppressor mutations (1315).
The revertants in IWC are clonal, detectable in the
first year of life, and widely distributed in both
sun-exposed and unexposed skin. These recombination events simultaneously create homozygous
mutant cells, but we see no phenotypic evidence
of these, which suggests that they are lethal to
cells or contribute little to the epidermal surface.
Somatic reversion has previously been reported
for several other disorders (16). These include
recessive diseases such as Bloom syndrome and
Fanconi anemia and X-linked Wiscott-Aldrich
syndrome in which 10 to 20% of patients show
some revertant blood cells (1719). These revertant blood cell clones arise by various mechanisms, including intragenic recombination, gene
conversion, second-site complementation, and direct reversion. In Bloom syndrome, these revertant clones contributed to refined mapping of the
disease locus, analogous to the mapping approach
used herein (20).
Similarly, mutations underlying a substantial
number of other severe dominant skin diseases
have been identified, including keratitis-ichthyosisdeafness syndrome, progressive symmetric erythrokeratoderma, ichthyosis bullosa of Siemens,
and dominant dystrophic epidermolysis bullosa;
to our knowledge, only a single revertant clone,
produced by second-site complementation, has
been reported for these diseases (21). Similarly, a
fraction of patients with recessive skin disorders
have been reported to have revertant patches of
skin comprising one to six reported patches in a
total of seven patients. In cases where the mechanism was established, all arose by second-site
mutation or gene conversion (2227). Moreover,
no revertant clones have been reported, or seen in
our clinics, in patients with dominant negative or
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Fig. 3. Mutations in KRT10 (keratin 10) are associated with IWC. (A) Sanger sequencing confirms de novo
mutation in KRT10 from Illumina sequencing that is absent in the parents (107-2 and 107-3) but present
in the affected offspring (107-1) that abolishes the splice acceptor site of intron 6. (B) Abnormal splicing
of KRT10. cDNA from diseased keratinocytes of 107-1 shows two splice forms, one wild-type (WT) and one
using an AG splice acceptor that deletes eight bases from WT cDNA (underlined). (C) The genomic
structure of KRT10 is shown. The locations of mutations found in IWC kindreds are indicated. (D) IWC
frameshifts all produce an arginine-rich C-terminal peptide. The normal sequence of the C-terminal 226
amino acids of keratin 10 is shown; below, in red, the sequence of the frameshift peptides found in IWC
are shown, with the position of the frameshift in each kindred indicated.
Fig. 4. Mutant keratin 10 is redirected to nucleoli in vivo and in vitro. (A to C) Images of normal, mutant,
and revertant skin stained with 4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI) and antibodies to keratin 10
reveal discrete foci of nuclear keratin 10 in mutant skin which are absent in normal and revertant skin.
Scale bars, 50 mm. (D to F) Costaining with the nucleolar marker fibrillarin shows that keratin 10 is in the
nucleolus. Scale bars, 10 mm. (G to I) Constructs bearing wild-type keratin 10 (G), keratin 10 truncated at
the beginning of the tail domain (amino acid 459) (H), and keratin 10 with the kindred 106 frameshift
mutation beginning at codon 460 (I) were expressed in human hepatoma PLC cells and stained with DAPI
and monoclonal antibody to keratin 10. Wild-type and tailless K10 integrate into the cytoplasmic
filament network, whereas the IWC mutant K10 localized to nucleoli as shown by costaining with fibrillarin
(J to L). Scale bars (J) to (L), 10 mm.
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recessive mutations in keratin 10 that cause a distinct disease, epidermolytic ichthyosis (also known
as epidermolytic hyperkeratosis) (fig. S8) (28).
These exceptions underscore the infrequency of
spontaneous reversion and the generally low frequency of mitotic recombination as a mechanism
of reversion. In particular, the absence of reversion of other dominant missense mutations in
KRT10 implicates the IWC frameshift mutations
in the appearance of revertant clones.
The high frequency of somatic reversion in
patients with IWC suggests that revertant stem
cell clones are under strong positive selection
and/or that the rate of production of revertant
clones is markedly elevated. The persistence of
revertant clones indicates that the reversion event
must occur in epidermal stem cells. Epidermal
stem cell units have been estimated to populate a
fixed area of approximately 0.25 to 0.5 mm2 in
human skin (29, 30). The revertant clones we
observe in adults with IWC increase in size with
time and reach up to 4 cm, consistent with positive selection. Nonetheless, rare revertants in other
skin diseases have achieved very large size (2227),
from which it may be argued that positive selection is not likely the sole rate-limiting step in
production of detectable revertants; however, it
suggests an increased rate of mitotic recombination in IWC. Similarly, the fact that none of the
previously described revertants in other skin diseases, but all of the IWC revertants, have occurred via mitotic recombination lends support to
an effect on the rate of mitotic recombination.
Both mechanisms would be most readily explained by effects of the mutant peptide in epidermal stem cells: Toxic effects could give revertants
a survival or replicative advantage; effects on
DNA replication, repair, or cell cycle could also
promote mitotic recombination. Although K10 is
classically regarded as an early differentiation
marker, there is evidence that a small proportion
of basal cells, which contain rare epidermal stem
cells, express KRT10. Moreover, purified putative stem cells of the interfollicular epidermis and
follicular bulge show substantial KRT10 expression in proliferating cells, which supports this
possibility (3032).
Genetic therapies for dominant diseases have
focused on correction of mutations (33) or inhibition of mutant protein synthesis by antisense
or interfering RNAs (34). Our results raise the
possibility that induction and/or selection of mitotic recombination could be exploited for therapeutic benefit to accomplish cellular reversion
of other disease-causing mutations. In this scenario, however, the potential adverse effects of
producing homozygosity at undesired loci across
the genome would have to be carefully considered in conjunction with the potential benefit
of reversion.
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35. We thank the patients studied and their families for
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L. Boyden and S. Baserga for helpful discussions;
N. DeSilva, S. Mane, and the Yale Center for Genome
Greater Neural Pattern Similarity

Across Repetitions Is Associated
with Better Memory
Gui Xue,1,2 Qi Dong,1* Chuansheng Chen,3 Zhonglin Lu,2 Jeanette A. Mumford,4 Russell A. Poldrack5,4,6*
Repeated study improves memory, but the underlying neural mechanisms of this improvement
are not well understood. Using functional magnetic resonance imaging and representational
similarity analysis of brain activity, we found that, compared with forgotten items, subsequently
remembered faces and words showed greater similarity in neural activation across multiple study
in many brain regions, including (but not limited to) the regions whose mean activities were
correlated with subsequent memory. This result addresses a longstanding debate in the study of
memory by showing that successful episodic memory encoding occurs when the same neural
representations are more precisely reactivated across study episodes, rather than when patterns of
activation are more variable across time.
epeated study of the same materials can
significantly strengthen memory representations and make them more resistant to
forgetting (1), but not all repetitions are equal.
One fundamental issue is how multiple study
episodes add up to improve later memory. A
widely accepted theory, often referred to as the
encoding variability hypothesis (25), proposes
that each study episode is encoded differently as
a result of contextual drift with time, and that
greater encoding variability leads to better mem-
R
1
State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning,

Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China. 2Department
of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA
90089, USA. 3Departments of Psychology and Social Behavior,
University of California, Irvine, CA 92697, USA. 4Department of
Psychology, University of Texas, Austin, TX 78759, USA. 5Imaging
Research Center, University of Texas, Austin, TX 78759, USA.
6
Department of Neurobiology, University of Texas, Austin, TX
78759, USA.
poldrack@mail.utexas.edu or dongqi@bnu.edu.cn
ory. Alternatively, it has been claimed that each

subsequent study episode serves as a retrieval cue
to reactivate and strengthen the memory representation of the information stored during earlier
study episodes (6). Evidence for this reactivation
view comes from the finding in an AB-AC paradigm in which the presence of A during AC
study reinstated AB and therefore also improved
memory for B (7), an effect related to activity in
the posterior medial temporal lobe (8). However,
previous work has not yet established a link between the nature of neural representations during
encoding and later memory.
In this study, we used functional magnetic
resonance imaging (fMRI) and representational
similarity analysis (9) to examine how the similarity in patterns of neural activity across multiple study presentations is related to subsequent
memory. The encoding variability hypothesis
predicts that better subsequent memory should
be associated with greater dissimilarity between
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VOL 330
Analysis for assistance in development of critical

methodologies; and M. Ceneri for the identification of
a previously unreported IWC kindred. The National
Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin
Diseases (NIAMS), NIH, and the Yale Skin Diseases
Research Center provided cell culture support for this
work. K.A.C. is supported by a K08 award from NIAMS
and a fellowship from the Foundation for Ichthyosis and
Related Skin Types. Supported in part by a National
Center for Research Resources High-End Instrumentation
Grant, the Yale Clinical and Translational Science Award,
and the Yale Center for Human Genetics and Genomics.
R.P.L. is an investigator of the Howard Hughes Medical
Institute.

Figs. S1 to S8
Tables S1 and S2
References
13 May 2010; accepted 19 July 2010
Published online 26 August 2010;
10.1126/science.1192280
activity patterns across study presentations. To

the contrary, we found, across three studies, that
better subsequent recognition and recall is associated with greater similarity between neural activity
patterns across repetitions, consistent with the hypothesis that practice improves memory by retrieving and strengthening a consistent representation.
In the first experiment, 24 subjects were scanned
while memorizing 120 novel faces (Fig. 1A)
(10). Each face was presented four times, with an
interrepetition interval (ITI) ranging from 1 (i.e.,
consecutive) to 20 faces. One hour after the scan,
subjects were given a recognition memory test,
during which a total of 240 faces (half learned,
half new) were randomly mixed together. For
each stimulus, the subjects had to decide whether
or not it had been presented before by responding
on a 6-point confidence scale, from 1 (definitely
new) to 6 (definitely old). Out of the 120 old
faces, subjects on average recognized with high
confidence (e.g., a 5 or 6 rating) 51.7 T 18.6 items
and forgot (a 1 or 2 rating) 37.3 T 16.9 items
(table S1). Using a subsequent memory paradigm
(11, 12), we compared encoding-related brain
activity for subsequently recognized faces with
that for subsequently forgotten faces across four
repetitions. Consistent with previous literature
(1315), this comparison identified stronger activation for subsequently remembered faces than
for subsequently forgotten faces in the left fusiform gyrus (Montreal Neurological Institute, MNI:
46, 60, 8, Z = 3.88) and right fusiform gyrus
(MNI, 44, 60, 10, Z = 3.58), extending into the
inferior temporal gyrus and lateral occipital cortex
(fig. S1).
We then tested the core hypothesis that pattern similarity in this region is associated with
subsequent memory. To do this, we reestimated
the model with unsmoothed data.
We then extracted the signal for each individual voxel within anatomically defined re-
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gions of interest (ROIs) and used representational
similarity analysis (9) to examine the degree of
similarity in the fMRI activation patterns between repetitions (averaged over stimuli), using
the Pearson correlation coefficient as the similarity metric. Because pattern similarity can be
affected by the number of trials in each condition
(fig. S2), our analyses were based on a model that
matched the number of trials included in the
regressors for remembered and forgotten items,
as well as their repetition lags.
We focused our analyses on 20 independent
anatomically defined regions in the dorsal and
ventral visual stream, frontoparietal cortex, and
middle and medial temporal cortex (table S3), all
of which have been previously shown to be important for visual object perception and memory
encoding. Nine of these regions showed significantly higher degrees of pattern similarity for
subsequently remembered faces than subsequently forgotten faces (P < 0.05, two regions remained
significant by Bonferroni correction), whereas no
regions showed the opposite effect (Figs. 2 and
3, fig. S3, and table S4). Only four regionsthe
left inferior frontal gyrus, right inferior frontal
gyrus, right fusiform gyrus, and right parahippocampal gyrus (LIFG, RIFG, RFUS, and RPHG,
respectively)showed stronger overall activation for subsequently remembered faces than subsequently forgotten faces (table S4). To ensure
that the signficantly higher pattern similarity was
not caused by differences in mean activity, we
reran this analysis in the bilateral ventral visual
streamthe lateral occipital lobe, fusiform gyrus,
and inferior temporal gyrus (LOC, FUS, and
ITG, respectively)after removing voxels showing significant subsequent memory effects in
mean activity under a liberal threshold (P < 0.05,
uncorrected). Even after removing these meanresponsive voxels, there was a significantly higher degree of pattern similarity for remembered
versus forgotten faces (F1,23 = 6.16, P = 0.02)
(Fig. 3 and table S4).
The results from our first experiment suggest
that the degree of pattern similarity between successive study episodes is associated with subsequent memory performance in a recognition test.
Because free recall is more sensitive to contextual
associations than recognition is, the encoding variability hypothesis thus predicts that subsequently
recalled items might be associated with more divergent contexts than items that are not subsequently recalled (1618). To provide a further and
more direct test of the encoding variability
hypothesis, we conducted a second experiment
to examine whether greater pattern similarity is
also associated with better free-recall performance.
Subjects (n = 22) were asked to perform a semantic (concrete versus abstract) judgment task on
familiar words during the scan (10). Each word
was repeated three times, with a repetition lag
ranging from 1 to 18 trials. After the study session, participants were asked to return 6 hours
later to perform two memory tests. In the first test,
subjects were asked to recall the words they had
98
studied in the scanner. They were then asked to

perform a recognition test similar to that described
in Experiment 1. Out of the 180 items, 44.7 T 21.7
items were categorized as Recalled (items correctly recalled on the free-recall test), 81.2 T 25.5
items as Recognized [items recognized with high
confidence (score of 5 or 6) but not recalled], and
54.1T 27.4 items as Forgotten (items that were
neither recalled nor recognized) (table S1).
The differences in behavioral performance
and mean activation during the semantic task
among recalled, recognized, and forgotten items
are depicted in table S2 and fig. S4. From the
findings from Experiment 1, we constructed a

new model using equal numbers of trials from the
recalled, recognized, and forgotten conditions
and calculated the pattern similarity in the same
20 regions. We found that out of the 20 regions,
15 regions showed a higher level of pattern similarity across repetitions (again averaging over
items) for subsequently recalled items than for
subsequently recognized or forgotten items (one
region remained significant by Bonferroni correction); no region showed the opposite effect
(fig. S5 and table S5). Only four regions showed
stronger mean activation for subsequent recalled
Fig. 1. (A) Experimental design of Experiment 1 and (B) schema of the cross-repetition pattern analysis.
A total of 120 novel faces were studied over three scanning runs. (A) Each face was repeated four times.
They were categorized post hoc, as remembered faces and forgotten faces, according to performance on
the recognition memory test administered after a 1-hour delay. Each presentation of the remembered
faces (R1 to R4) and forgotten faces (F1 to F4) was separately modeled. (B) Pattern analysis was based on
independent structural ROIs (top) (10). Activation pattern in a given ROI was extracted for each
presentation (middle) and then subjected to Pearson correlation analysis. The encoding variability
hypothesis predicts that the degree of pattern similarity for subsequently remembered faces is lower than
that for subsequently forgotten faces (bottom).
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words than for subsequently forgotten words
(table S5). Again, after removing voxels showing
subsequent memory effects for mean activation
(P < 0.05, uncorrected), the remaining voxels in

the left dorsal visual stream [dorsal lateral occipital lobe (dLOC) and inferior parietal lobe
Fig. 2. Neural pattern similarity in a sample region. (A) The location of the right dorsal lateral occipital
cortex (RdLOC), which was anatomically defined according to the Harvard-Oxford probabilistic map, and
overlaid onto the group-averaged anatomical map. (B) Neural pattern similarity from a single subjects
single-run data. Pattern similarity was calculated by computing the correlation between the parametric
estimates (beta) for each voxel within the ROI across the two repetitions. The line reflects unit slope. (C)
Neural pattern similarity averaged across all subjects (n = 24), separately for each pair of a repetition
combination. (D) The mean neural pattern similarity as a function of subsequent memory. A repeatedmeasures analysis of variance (ANOVA) was used to examine the differences between conditions. Error
bars represent within-subject error. REM, remembered; FORG, forgotten.
Fig. 3. Neural pattern similarity is associated with face memory. Greater pattern similarity for
subsequently remembered faces than for subsequently forgotten faces was found in (A) the right inferior
parietal lobule (RIPL), (B) the right ventral lateral occipital cortex (RvLOC), which were anatomically
defined, and (C) the bilateral ventral visual cortex, which includes the bilateral fusiform gyrus, bilateral
inferior temporal gyrus and bilateral ventral lateral occipital cortex, but excludes voxels showing significant subsequent memory effects in activation levels defined by a liberal threshold (P < 0.05, uncorrected). All ROIs were overlaid onto the group-averaged anatomic map. The bar graphs show the
group-averaged (n = 24) mean correlation of all pairs of repetitions as a function of subsequent memory.
Error bars represent within-subject error. R, remembered; F, forgotten; See table S4 and fig. S3 for
detailed statistics and results for other regions.
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VOL 330
(IPL)] also showed greater pattern similarity across

repetitions for subsequently recalled than subsequently recognized or forgotten words (F1,21 =
4.64, P = 0.015) (fig. S5 and table S5).
In both Experiments 1 and 2, the use of rapid
event-related designs did not allow for reliable
estimates of item-specific blood oxygen level
dependent (BOLD) activation patterns, and pattern
similarity was calculated from the aggregated
BOLD activation pattern across stimuli in each
condition. There are thus two possible explanations that are consistent with these results. First, it
is possible that the results reflect overlap in itemlevel encoding processes. Alternatively, it is possible that they reflect process-level overlap, such
that better memory occurs when the same general
processes (e.g., perceptual, attentional, or semantic processes) are engaged across repetitions. In
order to more directly test the hypothesis of itemspecific pattern overlap, we performed a third experiment using a slow event-related fMRI design
(12 s for each trial), which enabled us to extract
BOLD signal patterns associated with each single
trial. In this experiment, 22 young adults were
asked to perform a semantic (living versus nonliving) judgment task on 60 familiar words during
the scan (10). To prevent further encoding of each
item during the repetition lag, subjects performed
a highly engaging self-paced visual orientation
judgment task for 8 s after each semantic judgment
task (lasting for 3 s), and the next trial started after
a 1-s delay (fig. S6). Each item was repeated three
times, with a repetition lag ranging from four to
nine trials. Thirty minutes after the study session,
participants were asked to freely recall the words
they had studied in the scanner. Out of the 60 items,
subjects, on average, recalled 13.5 T 4.7 items
(table S1).
Subjects response time on the semantic judgment task decreased across repetitions (F2,42 =
42.96, P < 0.001); accuracy was high (mean =
97.5% T 2%) and did not change across repetitions (F2,42 = 1.68, P = 0.19). Accuracy (F1,21 =
1.79, P = 0.19) and response times (F1,21 = 0.15,
P = 0.70) did not differ between subsequently
recalled items and forgotten items (table S2).
There were no significant interactions between
repetition and subsequent memory for either accuracy (F2,42 = 0.14, P = 0.087) or response time
(F2,42 = 1.69, P = 0.20). Functional imaging data
revealed that, similarly to Experiment 2, there
were significantly stronger activations for subsequently recalled items than for subsequently
forgotten items in the left middle and inferior
frontal gyrus (LMFG/LIFG) (MNI: 50, 14, 34;
Z = 4.17), and the left dorsal lateral occipital
lobe (LdLOC) and adjacent inferior parietal lobule
(LIPL) (MNI: 40, 66, 46; Z = 3.48) (fig. S7).
We then examined whether the degree of pattern similarity in the 20 anatomically defined regions was associated with subsequent memory
performance. We constructed a beta-series model
(19) with one regressor for each trial and estimated the model using ridge regression (20).
Consistent with the first two experiments, 7 of the
1 OCTOBER 2010
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REPORTS
20 regions showed a significantly higher level of
pattern similarity across repetitions for subsequently recalled items than for subsequently forgotten
items (P < 0.05; one region remained significant
by Bonferroni correction), whereas no region showed
the opposite effect (Fig. 4, fig. S8, and table S6).
Taking the LdLOC as an example, we found that
the level of pattern similarity across repetitions
showed a significant subsequent memory effect
(F1,21 = 18.69, P = 0.0003) (Fig. 4D). Again,
after removing voxels showing subsequent memory effects in terms of activation levels (P < 0.05,
uncorrected), the remaining voxels in the left
dorsal visual stream (dLOC and IPL) also showed
stronger pattern similarity across repetitions for
subsequently recalled than subsequently recognized or forgotten words (F1,21 = 7.97, P = 0.01)
(Fig. 4F and table S6).
Finally, if the degree of pattern similarity truly
reflects item-specific reinstatement of activation
patterns, we should expect a higher level of pattern
similarity within items (i.e., cross-repetitions) than
between items. To test this prediction, we calculated the averaged across-item pattern similarity
of all possible pairings (except the within-item,
cross-repetition pairings), separately for recalled
items and forgotten items. The results showed
that within-item correlation was higher than that
for cross-item correlation, especially for recalled
items (fig. S8 and table S7). Again taking the
LdLOC as an example, we found that the degree
of pattern similarity across repetitions in this region for recalled items was significantly higher
than cross-item pattern similarity [t(21) = 3.13,
P = 0.005], whereas the difference was not significant for forgotten items (P = 0.41) (Fig. 4D),
which suggests that repeatedly studying the same
material is not sufficient to introduce activation
reinstatement at the item-specific level, and failure of pattern reinstatement is associated with
forgetting.
We took a number of measures to ensure that
our results were not due to the effects of rep-
etition lag or repetition priming. In addition to

matching the number of trials, we also carefully
matched the repetition lags between remembered
and forgotten items (Experiment 1: remembered
versus forgotten: 6.11 versus 6.05; t = 1.02, P =
0.31; Experiment 2: recalled versus recognized
versus forgotten: 6.03 versus 6.02 versus 5.63,
F2,42 = 1.41, P = 0.26). There was also no difference in the repetition lag between recalled and
forgotten trials in Experiment 3 (6.4 versus 6.3, t =
1.22, P = 0.23). In addition, we did not find a
significant interaction between repetition priming
and subsequent memory in most of the brain regions in any of the experiments (tables S4 to S6).
Third, in Experiment 3, the reaction times and
accuracy in the semantic judgment task and the
orientation judgment task that followed subsequently remembered and forgotten items were
not different (table S2). Finally, for Experiments
1 and 2, the degree of pattern similarity is not an
artifact of design matrix orthogonality (figs. S9
and S10).
Taken together, our results suggest that episodic memory encoding is enhanced by reactivating the initial neural representation in each
subsequent study episode. Using different study
materials and different memory tests, our data
suggest that pattern reinstatement can account for
subsequent memory effects for both verbal and
nonverbal materials and in both recall and recognition tests. Although the within- versus acrossitems analysis in Experiment 3 demonstrates a
significant effect of pattern overlap at the level of
individual items, the results of Experiments 1 and
2 are also consistent with an effect of processlevel overlap; we propose that both of these are
likely to be important in determining the effectiveness of repeated study. We suggest that repeated study episodes lead to more effective
encoding when the same neural representation is
reinstated, which is incompatible with the encoding variability hypothesis. Consistent with our
results, it has recently been shown that more re-
Fig. 4. Neural pattern similarity is associated with free

recall of words. Greater pattern
similarity for subsequently recalled words than for forgotten
words was found in (A) the
LIFG, (B) the left middle temporal gyrus (LMTG), (C) the right
middle temporal gyrus (RMTG),
(D) the LdLOC, (E) LIPL, and (F)
the left dorsal visual stream
that includes the anatomical region of LIPL and LdLOC, but excludes voxels showing significant
subsequent memory effects in
activation levels when we assume a liberal threshold (P <
0.05, uncorrected). All ROIs were
overlaid onto the group-averaged anatomic map. The bar graphs show the
group-averaged (n = 22) mean correlation as a function of subsequent
memory. The within-item correlation was calculated for each individual item
(averaged across all pairs of repetitions) and then averaged separately for
100
1 OCTOBER 2010
VOL 330
producible neural patterns are associated with

more conscious cognitive processing (21), which
suggests that consistency of pattern engagement
may be a more general marker of effective cognitive
processing (perhaps because of its effects on
memory encoding).
Previous studies have shown that memory
retrieval is associated with reactivation of some
of the same sensory regions that were activated
during perception of those items (2226). This
category-specific or sequence-specific activation
reinstatement precedes memory (27) and is associated with performance in free recall (28). The
present study extends these findings and shows
that during subsequent learning where no explicit
retrieval was required, item-specific pattern reinstatement occurs, resulting in a stronger episodic
encoding event that supports subsequent memory. Our results are also consistent with evidence
showing that memory consolidation, whether
during sleep or awake periods following learning,
involves replay of neural activation patterns during
learning (29, 30). Given the important role of
memory retrieval on memory retention (31), these
results suggest that reactivation of the same neural pattern during initial learning, whether during
repeated practice, memory consolidation, and/or
memory retrieval, can enhance memory.
Although most previous studies on the subsequent memory effect focused on one-shot learning, real learning in daily life often involves
repeated practice. Our study suggests that, for
repeated study events, pattern reinstatement is as
sensitive as, if not more sensitive than, overall
activation (11, 12, 32) as a predictor of subsequent memory. Our approach can readily be used
to examine the neural mechanisms underlying
other manipulations that affect memory encoding
during repeated practice, such as the spacing
effect and the variance effect (7), which would
help to clarify the effects of encoding variability.
However, fMRI data are a relatively coarse aggregate measure of the responses of large popula-
recalled and forgotten items. The cross-items correlation was calculated

between items within each memory status. Error bars represent within-subject
error. See tables S6 and S7 and fig. S8 for detailed statistics and results for
other regions.
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REPORTS
tions of neurons and, thus, may not necessarily
capture all of the aspects of encoding variability
that might be at play. Future studies need to
further examine this issue by applying similar
approaches using complementary neuroimaging
techniques, such as electroencephalography and
single-unit recording.
1. H. Ebbinghaus, Memory: A Contribution to Experimental
Psychology (Von Duckner and Humblot, Leipzig, 1885;
H. A. Ruger and C. E. Bussenius, Transl., Teachers College,
New York, 1913; reprinted by Dover Publications, New York,
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2. G. Bower, in Coding Processes in Human Memory,
A. Melton, E. Martin, Eds. (Winston, Washington, DC,
1972), pp. 85124.
3. D. Hintzman, in Theories in Cognitive Psychology:
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MD, 1974), pp. 7799.
4. E. Martin, Psychol. Rev. 75, 421 (1968).
5. A. Melton, J. Verbal Learn. Verbal Behav. 9, 596 (1970).
6. S. Thios, P. D'Agostino, J. Verbal Learn. Verbal Behav. 15,
529 (1976).
7. S. Appleton-Knapp, R. Bjork, T. Wickens, J. Consum. Res.
32, 266 (2005).
8. B. A. Kuhl, A. T. Shah, S. DuBrow, A. D. Wagner,
Nat. Neurosci. 13, 501 (2010).
9. N. Kriegeskorte, M. Mur, P. A. Bandettini, Front. Syst.

Neurosci. 2, 4 (2008).
11. J. B. Brewer, Z. Zhao, J. E. Desmond, G. H. Glover,
J. D. Gabrieli, Science 281, 1185 (1998).
12. A. D. Wagner et al., Science 281, 1188 (1998).
13. M. A. Kuskowski, J. V. Pardo, Neuroimage 9, 599 (1999).
14. L. Mei et al., Neuroimage 52, 371 (2010).
15. S. E. Prince, N. A. Dennis, R. Cabeza, Neuropsychologia
47, 2282 (2009).
16. N. J. Cepeda et al., Exp. Psychol. 56, 236 (2009).
17. M. Howard, M. Kahana, J. Math. Psychol. 46, 269 (2002).
18. M. J. Kahana, Mem. Cognit. 24, 103 (1996).
19. J. Rissman, A. Gazzaley, M. DEsposito, Neuroimage 23,
752 (2004).
20. A. Hoerl, R. Kennard, Technometrics 12, 69 (1970).
21. A. Schurger, F. Pereira, A. Treisman, J. D. Cohen,
Science 327, 97 (2010).
22. I. Kahn, L. Davachi, A. D. Wagner, J. Neurosci. 24, 4172 (2004).
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24. M. E. Wheeler, S. E. Petersen, R. L. Buckner, Proc. Natl.
Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 97, 11125 (2000).
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26. A. P. R. Smith, R. N. A. Henson, R. J. Dolan, M. D. Rugg,
Neuroimage 22, 868 (2004).
27. S. M. Polyn, V. S. Natu, J. D. Cohen, K. A. Norman,
Science 310, 1963 (2005).
28. H. Gelbard-Sagiv, R. Mukamel, M. Harel, R. Malach,
I. Fried, Science 322, 96 (2008).
The CRAC Channel Activator STIM1

Binds and Inhibits L-Type
Voltage-Gated Calcium Channels
Chan Young Park,1,2 Aleksandr Shcheglovitov,1 Ricardo Dolmetsch1*
Voltage- and store-operated calcium (Ca2+) channels are the major routes of Ca2+ entry in mammalian
cells, but little is known about how cells coordinate the activity of these channels to generate coherent
calcium signals. We found that STIM1 (stromal interaction molecule 1), the main activator of storeoperated Ca2+ channels, directly suppresses depolarization-induced opening of the voltage-gated Ca2+
channel CaV1.2. STIM1 binds to the C terminus of CaV1.2 through its Ca2+ releaseactivated Ca2+
activation domain, acutely inhibits gating, and causes long-term internalization of the channel from the
membrane. This establishes a previously unknown function for STIM1 and provides a molecular
mechanism to explain the reciprocal regulation of these two channels in cells.
xcitable and nonexcitable cells are distinguished by their ability to increase their concentration of intracellular calcium ([Ca2+]i)
in response to membrane depolarization (1). Excitable cells such as neurons and myocytes have
voltage-gated Ca2+ channels (VGCCs) that are
activated by depolarization and are essential for
synaptic vesicle release, contraction, and electrical
excitability (24). In contrast, nonexcitable cells
such as lymphocytes and mast cells lack voltagegated Ca2+ influx but have Ca2+ releaseactivated
Ca2+ (CRAC) channels (57). These are activated
by receptors that deplete the internal Ca2+ stores
and are important for regulating gene expression
Department of Neurobiology, Stanford University School

of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305, USA. 2School of NanoBiotechnology and Chemical Engineering, UNIST, Banyeon-ri
100, Ulsan 689-798, Republic of Korea.
ricardo.dolmetsch@stanford.edu
and controlling cell proliferation and differentiation

(5). Excitable cells express store-operated Ca2+
channel proteins, but these contribute little to Ca2+
influx (8, 9), whereas nonexcitable cells express
VGCC proteins but lack voltage-gated Ca2+
currents (10, 11). The underlying mechanisms
that account for the reciprocal regulation of these
Ca2+ influx pathways are not understood.
VGCCs are composed of an a1 subunit that
contains the pore and voltage sensor of the channel, and b and a2d subunits that modulate trafficking and gating (12, 13). The a1 subunit has
four repeats of six transmembrane domains and
cytoplasmic N and C termini (14). L-type Ca2+
channels (LTCs) have a large single-channel conductance, are sensitive to dihydropyridine blockers,
and are encoded by the CaV1 family of a1 subunits
(15). CaV1.2 channels are the most abundant LTCs
in the heart and brain and are essential for cardiac
contraction and for neuronal function (16).
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VOL 330
29. D. J. Foster, M. A. Wilson, Nature 440, 680

(2006).
30. D. Ji, M. A. Wilson, Nat. Neurosci. 10, 100 (2007).
31. R. Bjork, in Information Processing and Cognition:
The Loyola Symposium, M. M. Grunberg, P. E. Morris,
R. N. Sykes, Eds. (Wiley, London, 1975), pp. 396401.
32. L. J. Otten, R. N. Henson, M. D. Rugg, Brain 124,
399 (2001).
33. We wish to thank C. Stark for his suggestions in
implementing Experiment 3; R. A. Bjork, D. M. Schnyer,
and R. Raizada for their helpful comments on an earlier
version of this report; and L. Mei, F. Xue, X. Lei, X. Xiao
and M. Zhang for their help in data collection. This study
was supported by the Program for New Century Excellent
Talents in University, NSF (BCS 0823624 and BCS
0823495), NIH (HD057884-01A2), and the 111 Project
of China (B07008).

Figs. S1 to S10
Tables S1 to S7
References
10.1126/science.1193125
CRAC channels are composed of STIM (1719)

and Orai proteins (2022). STIM1 is a singlepass endoplasmic reticulum protein with an intraluminal EF hand and cytoplasmic coiled-coil and
lysine-rich domains (1719). Upon depletion of
the Ca2+ stores, STIM1 forms oligomers that translocate to endoplasmic reticulumplasma membrane junctions and bind to Orai channels at the
plasma membrane (17, 23). STIM1 binds to Orai
via a cytoplasmic region called the CRAC activation domain (CAD) that is both necessary and
sufficient for channel opening (24, 25).
Rat cortical neurons express LTCs that generate a [Ca2+]i rise after membrane depolarization
(Fig. 1A). These cells show little store-operated
Ca2+ influx, as treatment of the cells with 1 mM
thapsigargin (TG) to deplete the internal stores
does not cause a [Ca2+]i rise (Fig. 1A). To test
whether depletion of stores affects voltage-gated
Ca2+ channels, we treated cells with 1 mM TG
and then stimulated the cells with a depolarizing
pulse of KCl (Fig. 1, B and C). Treatment with
TG led to a 21% decrease in the initial slope of
the [Ca2+]i rise, which suggests that depletion of
the internal stores inhibited the conductance by
VGCCs. Because the slope of the [Ca2+]i rise
reflects sources of Ca2+ other than plasma membrane Ca2+ channels, we used whole-cell patch
clamping to measure LTC activity directly. We
transfected human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293
cells with CaV1.2, a2d, and b1b subunits and used
whole-cell patch clamping to measure the CaV1.2
currents. Treatment of these cells with TG led to a
15% decrease in the amplitude of the CaV1.2
currents over a period of 200 s, consistent with the
idea that depletion of stores inhibits CaV1.2 channels (Fig. 1D). Depletion of the stores did not alter
the current-voltage (I-V) relationship or the inactivation of the channels. To test whether inhibition
1 OCTOBER 2010
101
REPORTS
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0
200
800
400
600
Time (sec)
500 pA
-500
Current
at 30 mV, pA
1200
0.5
10 ms
-600
-700
-800
-900
CPA
1.5
KCl
0.5
0.08
Control
CaV1.2
1.0
0.5
0.0
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.00
Control STIM1
400
600
Time (sec)
800
-100
1.5
M108
M101
WT
-STIM1
43
-GAPDH
1.0
TG
KCl
TG
KCl
0.5
0.0
CaV1.2 - + - +
Jurkat
- +
- +
2.0
M101
M101
2 0
TG + 0
1.5
Control
STIM1
1.0
0.5
0.0
0
200
100
400
600
Time (sec)
800
+
-
+
+
2.0
KCl + 2
M101
0
TG + 0
1.5
Control
CaV1.2
1.0
0.5
0.0
F
2.0
KCl + 2
200
-150
-40 -20 0 20 40
Voltage (mV)
1000
300
0
CaV1.2
STIM1
CaV1.2
+ STIM1
CaV1.2
95
72
E
Fura-2 AM
(340/380 Ratio)
Ca2+ rise (Ratio)
-50
Fura-2 AM
(340/380 Ratio)
200
50 ms
**
400
G) [Ca2+]i measurements of cortical neurons transfected with a control (n =

16) or a STIM1 plasmid (n = 18). Rate of change in [Ca2+]i after depolarization
for control and wild-type cells is shown in (G) (*P < 0.05). (H) Current traces
(above) and peak I-V relationships measured in HEK293 cells expressing
CaV1.2 in the presence or absence of STIM1 with 5 mM Ba2+ as a charge
carrier. (I) Normalized current amplitudes recorded in response to +10 mV
depolarizing pulses.
34
0
WT
kDa
1.5
Ba2+
-10 mV
50 100 150 200

Time (sec)
-90
100
200 250
Time (sec)
CJ-1
Fura-2 AM
(340/380 Ratio)
TG
Control TG
B
2.0
-1400
-1500
0.00
Fig. 1. Regulation of calcium influx through CaV1.2 by STIM1. (A) Fura-2 Ca2+
imaging of primary cortical neurons stimulated with KCl or with thapsigargin
(TG; n = 17). Extracellular [Ca2+] is indicated. (B and C) Depolarizationinduced increase in [Ca2+]i in cortical neurons before and after treatment with
TG (B) and measurements of the rate of increase in [Ca2+]i (n = 18, *P < 0.05)
(C). (D and E) Time course of Ca2+ currents measured in HEK293 cells
expressing CaV1.2, before or after treatment with 1 mM TG or 5 mM CPA. (F and
T lymphocytes
KCl + 2
2 0
TG + 0
-1300
100
200
Time (sec)
0.0
0.02
10 ms
-1200
500
Control
STIM1
0.04
-1100
1.0
-100 0 100 200 300 400

Time (sec)
0.06
-50 0
G
2
0.0
F
Fura-2 AM (340/380 Ratio)
1000
Control
TG
1.0
-1000
0.08
500 pA
TG + 0
Current density
at 10 mV,pA/pF
200 pA
Fura-2 AM
(340/380 Ratio)
Current density (pA/pF)
[Ca2+]i slope (Ratio/sec)
Fura-2 AM
(340/380 Ratio)
2.0
KCl + 2
Fura-2 AM (340/380 Ratio)
2 KCl + 2
1.5
Current
at 30 mV, pA
B
Cortical Neurons
[Ca2+]i slope (Ratio/sec)
KCl + 2
200
M101
2 0
400
600
Time (sec)
TG + 0
800
1000
1.5
Control
STIM1
+ CaV1.2
1.0
0.5
0.0
1000
200
400
600
Time (sec)
800
1000
102
1 OCTOBER 2010
KCl + 2
Fura-2 AM
(340/380 Ratio)
shRNA-STIM1
shRNA-scrambled
Ca2+ rise (Ratio)
Fig. 2. Suppression of CaV1.2 function in T lymphocytes by STIM1. (A) Fura-2 measurements of

TG
TG
[Ca2+]i in Jurkat T cells expressing CaV1.2 or a con1.5
1.5
Control
trol plasmid and treated with KCl or TG (n = 44).
1.0
KCl
KCl
STIM1-shRNA
(B) Western blot of cell extracts of wild-type (WT),
1.0
+ Ca 1.2
0.5
CJ1, M101, and M108 Jurkat T cells. (C) Ca2+
kDa
-STIM1
0.5
imaging of M101 mutant cells with and without CaV1.2 (n = 30).
0.0
95
STIM1
- + - +
(D) Measurement of peak [Ca2+]i in WT or M101 Jurkat T cells
STIM1 - + - +
0.0
-GAPDH
0
- - + - +
43
200
400 treated with TG or KCl in the presence or absence of Ca 1.2. (E)
CaV1.2 - V
GAPDH
34
Time (sec)
M101
Overexpression of STIM1 in M101 Jurkat T cells rescues increase
in [Ca2+]i induced by TG (n = 13). (F) Expression of STIM1 along with CaV1.2 reduces the KCl-induced [Ca2+]i elevation in the M101 mutants (control, n = 15;
STIM1/CaV1.2, n = 20). (G) Quantification of peak depolarization-induced [Ca2+]i in M101 cells expressing STIM1 and CaV1.2 as indicated. (H) Western blot of
extracts from cells expressing shRNA-STIM1 or shRNA-scrambled. (I) [Ca2+]i measurements in WT Jurkat T cells expressing CaV1.2 in the presence or absence of
the shRNA STIM1.
Jurkat
2.0
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REPORTS
In contrast to neurons, T lymphocytes show
no voltage-dependent [Ca2+]i elevations (10, 11)
but have a large store-operated Ca2+ influx (Fig.
2A) pathway and high levels of STIM1. To test
whether endogenous STIM1 can suppress CaV1.2
channels, we introduced yellow fluorescent protein (YFP)labeled CaV1.2, along with b1b and
a2d1 subunits, into Jurkat T cells and measured
the depolarization-induced Ca2+ influx (Fig. 2A).
Although the YFP-labeled channel was clearly
expressed, we did not detect any depolarizationinduced increase in [Ca2+]i, consistent with the
notion that STIM1 suppresses CaV1.2 (Fig. 2A).
To determine whether STIM1 is necessary to suppress CaV1.2 activity in T cells, we used three
lines of Jurkat T cells that lack store-operated Ca2+
influx (26). Sequencing the STIM1 and Orai
genes in these cells revealed that three of them
CJ1, M101, and M108contain either nonsense
or missense mutations in the stim1 gene (fig. S3
and table S1) and have significantly reduced
amounts of STIM1 (Fig. 2B). We introduced
CaV1.2, b1b, and a2d1 into all three cell lines and
measured the depolarization-induced increase in
[Ca2+]i. In contrast to wild-type Jurkat T cells, the
three mutant cell lines showed voltage-activated
of CaV1.2 was reversible, we treated cells with

the reversible sarco-endoplasmic reticulum calcium
adenosine triphosphatase (SERCA) inhibitor cyclopiazonic acid (CPA) (Fig. 1E). Treatment of cells
expressing CaV1.2 with CPA led to a 10% inhibition
of CaV1.2 currents that was reversed after removal
of CPA, which suggests that inhibition of CaV1.2
is not specific to TG and can be reversed by refilling of stores (Fig. 1, D and E).
To determine whether STIM1 has a role in
suppressing CaV1.2 currents after store depletion,
we introduced STIM1 into cortical neurons and
measured KCl-stimulated [Ca2+]i elevations.
Expression of STIM1 for 9 to 12 hours caused
a decrease in the increase in [Ca2+]i (Fig. 1F) that
was also observed in Neuro2A neuroblastoma
cells (fig. S1). To measure the effects of STIM1
on CaV1.2 currents directly, we measured Ba2+
(Fig. 1H) and Ca2+ (fig. S2) currents in HEK293
cells expressing CaV1.2 and STIM1. Expression
of STIM1 eliminated CaV1.2 currents in about
40% of cells and reduced Ba2+ and Ca2+ currents
in the rest, but had no effect on the I-V relationship of the channels (Fig. 1H). Thus, expression
of STIM1 inhibits activation of both endogenous
and heterologously expressed CaV1.2 channels.
FM-CaV1.2
Myc-STIM1
+
-
+
+
IP: -Flag
+ + - + +
IB:
-Myc
kDa
250
+
+
+
-
+
+
75
Lysate
CaV1.2
CaV1.2 + STIM1-CAD
CaV1.2 + CAD
Empty
0.8
0.6
43
0.2
34
50
100
Time (sec)
G
HA-STIM1 + - + - + - + - + FM-CaV1.2 CT a + + - - - - - - - FM-CaV1.2 CT b - - + + - - - - - FM-CaV1.2 CT c - - - - + + - - - FM-CaV1.2 CT d - - - - - - + + - FM-CaV1.2 CT e - - - - - - - - + +
100
75
25
+
+
+
-
+
+
IP
F
FM-CaV1.2 CT +
-Myc
YFP-CAD CaV1.2
kDa
72
-GFP
43
CAD
+
+
IP : -Flag
+ +
+ +
150
Lysate
IP : -HA
+ - + - + - + - + ++ - - - - - - - - - ++ - - - - - - - - - ++ - - - - - - - - - ++ - - - - - - - - - ++
IP
Lysate
H
FM-CaV1.2 CT c + + Myc-STIM1 - + +
+ + - + +
25
-HA
STIM1
-Myc
CT
-Myc
CaV1.2 CT c
-Myc
STIM1
75
50
Lysate
Neuro2A
2
1.0
KCl + 2
2
CaV1.2-CT
CaV1.2-CT + STIM1
CaV1.2-CT + CAD
Empty
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
IP
IP
IP
IP : -Flag
-Myc
CT
-GFP
CAD
34
15
Lysate
+
-
kDa
250
0.4
Lysate
IP : -Flag
FM-CaV1.2
YFP-CAD
-CaV1.2
Protein-G bead
-CaV1.2
CaV1.2
-STIM1
STIM1
100
75
IP
E
2
+
+
kDa
250
150
CaV1.2
IP
Neuro2A
KCl + 2
1.0
STIM1
250
Lysate
IB:
-HA
-Myc
-Myc
STIM1
100
Fura-2 AM
(340/380 Ratio)
+
-
kDa
75
CaV1.2
IP: -HA
HA-STIM1
FM-CaV1.2
Fura-2 AM
(340/380 Ratio)
increases in [Ca2+]i, suggesting that loss of STIM1

allowed CaV1.2 expression in these cells (Fig. 2, C
and D, and fig. S4). To confirm that this was due
to loss of STIM1, we expressed STIM1 in the
M101 cell line along with CaV1.2 (Fig. 2E). This
restored store-operated Ca2+ entry in M101 cells
and also prevented activation of CaV1.2 channels
(Fig. 2, F and G). As a further test of the idea that
STIM1 inhibits CaV1.2 channels in T cells, we
designed a short hairpin RNA (shRNA) against
STIM1. The STIM1 shRNA efficiently eliminated
the expression of STIM1 protein relative to a
scrambled shRNA control (Fig. 2H) and allowed
the functional expression of CaV1.2 channels, indicating that STIM1 suppresses VGCC function
in Jurkat cells (Fig. 2, H and I).
The observation that STIM1 suppresses CaV1.2
currents led us to test whether the two proteins
interact in cells. We labeled CaV1.2 and STIM1
with FLAG and Myc epitope tags, respectively,
and then expressed the proteins in HEK293T
cells and measured their interaction by coimmunoprecipitation. Immunoprecipitation of FLAGtagged CaV1.2 resulted in coimmunoprecipitation
of Myc-tagged STIM1 only in cells expressing
both proteins (Fig. 3A). The reverse experiment
50
100
150
Time (sec)
200
WT (Jurkat)
Fura-2 AM
(340/380 Ratio)
2
KCl + 2
Fig. 3. Direct interaction of STIM1 with CaV1.2. (A and B) Western blots of cell lysates (left) and immunoprecipitates
2.0
(right) from HEK293T cells expressing full-length CaV1.2, STIM1, or both. (C) Western blot of cell lysates and
1.5
immunoprecipitates from SH-SY5Y cells incubated with antibodies to CaV1.2 and probed with antibodies to STIM1.
2+
1.0
(D) Fura-2 Ca measurements of Neuro2A cells expressing CaV1.2 alone, CaV1.2 with STIM1 lacking the CAD
0.5
domain (STIM1-DCAD), or CaV1.2 with the CAD peptide. (E and F) Western blots of lysates and immunoprecipitates
of HEK293T cells expressing full-length CaV1.2 (E) or C terminus of CaV1.2 (F) along with YFP-CAD. (G) Mapping of
0.0
0
the domains of the C terminus of CaV1.2 that bind to STIM1. (H) Immunoprecipitation of the CaV1.2 CT fragment c
100
200
300
2+
Time (sec)
and STIM1. (I) Ca imaging of Neuro2A cells expressing CaV1.2 lacking the CT (CaV1.2DCT) with and without fulllength STIM1 or the CAD domain. (J) Ca2+ imaging of Jurkat T cells expressing CaV1.2 alone or along with CaV1.2-CT fragment c peptide (n = 10).
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250
Control
CaV1.2
+ CT
(1809-1908)
103
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cells and investigated their binding by coimmunoprecipitation. Immunoprecipitation of the CAD
peptide resulted in strong coimmunoprecipitation
of the C terminus of CaV1.2 (Fig. 3F). We subdivided the C-terminal domain into five peptides
and tested which domain coimmunoprecipitated
with the STIM1 CAD. A region between amino
acids 1809 and 1908 of the C terminus of CaV1.2
interacted with the CAD of STIM1 (Fig. 3G). This
same domain also interacted with full-length STIM1
protein, indicating that this region can interact with
the CAD in its endogenous context (Fig. 3H).
If interaction between CaV1.2 and STIM1 is
required to inhibit channel conductance, then a
channel lacking the C-terminal domain should
not be suppressed by STIM1. We expressed CaV1.2
lacking the C terminus (CaV1.2DCT) along with
STIM1 in mouse Neuro2A cells. Introduction of
the CaV1.2DCT led to a depolarization-induced
[Ca2+]i rise in these cells that was unaffected
by coexpression of STIM1 or the STIM1 CAD
(Fig. 3I). Thus, binding of STIM1 to the CaV1.2
C terminus is required for suppression of channel
function. To test this further, we expressed the
CaV1.2 C terminus in Jurkat T cells to determine
whether this domain would bind to endogenous
STIM1 and prevent it from suppressing CaV1.2
channels. In contrast to cells expressing CaV1.2
alone, which showed no increase in [Ca2+]i after
depolarization, cells expressing the channels and
the peptide showed a large increase in [Ca2+]i
(Fig. 3J), indicating that the C terminus of CaV1.2
of immunoprecipitating STIM1 and blotting for

CaV1.2 confirmed that the two proteins form a
complex when they are expressed in cells (Fig. 3B).
To determine whether the two proteins also interact when expressed at endogenous levels, we
performed coimmunoprecipitation of CaV1.2 and
STIM1 from SH-SY5Y human neuroblastoma
cells that express both proteins. STIM1 was associated with immunoprecipitated CaV1.2, indicating that the interaction also occurs under
endogenous conditions (Fig. 3C).
The CAD of STIM1 mediates the binding
and activation of Orai1 channels. We therefore
investigated whether this domain is necessary for
inhibiting CaV1.2 (24). We introduced STIM1
lacking the CAD (STIM1DCAD) or the CAD
peptide alone into cells expressing CaV1.2.
STIM1DCAD did not suppress depolarizationinduced [Ca2+]i increase (Fig. 3D), whereas CAD
alone caused 50% suppression of the [Ca2+]i increase, indicating that this domain is necessary
and sufficient for inhibition of CaV1.2 (Fig. 3D).
To determine whether the CAD binds to CaV1.2,
we introduced YFP-tagged CAD into HEK293T
cells expressing CaV1.2. Immunoprecipitation of
the CAD peptide resulted in coimmunoprecipitation of the channel, indicating that the CAD can
bind to CaV1.2 independently of the rest of STIM1
(Fig. 3E).
To find which domains of CaV1.2 bind to the
STIM1 CAD, we overexpressed the CAD along
with the intracellular loops of CaV1.2 in HEK293T
CaV1.2
STIM1
is critical for the ability of STIM1 to suppress the

activity of CaV1.2 channels.
We next investigated whether STIM1 and
CaV1.2 colocalize in cells after depletion of stores.
We introduced hemagglutinin (HA)tagged
CaV1.2 and FLAG-tagged STIM1 into HEK293
cells and used quantitative immunocytochemistry
to examine their colocalization. We observed significant colocalization of the two proteins in resting cells and a slight increase after treatment with
1 mM TG (Fig. 4A). Because CaV1.2 and STIM1
interacted significantly before store depletion and
seemed to colocalize in intracellular vesicles, we
examined whether STIM1 altered the surface expression of CaV1.2 channels. We transfected hippocampal neurons with CaV1.2 containing an
intracellular YFP and an extracellular HA tag (27)
and measured the surface fraction of CaV1.2 by
staining unpermeabilized cells with fluorescent
antibodies to HA (Fig. 4, B to D). In the absence
of STIM1, a large fraction of the CaV1.2 channels
were expressed on the cell surface, but introduction of STIM1 led to a 73% decline in cell surface
CaV1.2 channels. To determine whether STIM1
increases the internalization of CaV1.2, we expressed dominant negative dynamin-1 (DN-dyn1),
a potent inhibitor of internalization, in cells expressing CaV1.2 and STIM1 (Fig. 4, B to D). DNdyn1 prevented the loss of CaV1.2 cell surface
expression in cells expressing STIM1, providing
evidence that STIM1 causes internalization of the
channels.
Merge
YFP
HA
HA/YFP
YFP-HA-CaV1.2
-TG
YFP-HA-CaV1.2
+ STIM1
YFP-HA-CaV1.2
+ STIM1
+ DN-Dyn1
+TG
10
5
+
-
+
+
-
+
+
+
Percentage of cells (%)
CaV1.2 surface fraction

(HA /YFP ratio)
*
*
15
0
YFP-HA-CaV1.2
STIM1
DN-Dyn1
CaV1.2 + STIM1 + DN-Dyn1
25
25
25
20
20
20
15
15
15
10
10
10
0
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Fig. 4. Regulation of surface expression of CaV1.2 by STIM1. (A) Hippocampal

neurons expressing HA-CaV1.2 and FLAG-STIM1 were fixed and stained with
antibodies to HA or FLAG. Cells are shown before and after treatment with
1 mM TG. (B) YFP and HA staining of hippocampal neurons expressing CaV1.2
104
CaV1.2 + STIM1
CaV1.2
*
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5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
containing an N-terminal YFP and an extracellular HA tag along with STIM1, or

STIM1 and dominant negative dynamin 1 (DN-Dyn1). (C) Measurement of the
fraction of CaV1.2 channels on the cell surface from the experiment shown in
(B) (n > 50; mean T SEM). (D) Histogram of CaV1.2 cell surface expression.
SCIENCE
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REPORTS
Our studies support a model in which STIM1
is recruited to CaV1.2 channels after depletion of
stores. It acutely reduces CaV1.2 currents by
about 15% and chronically triggers CaV1.2 internalization, leading to complete loss of functional CaV1.2 channels. STIM1 therefore acts as
switch that promotes Ca2+ entry through Orai
channels and inhibits Ca2+ entry through CaV1.2.
This is likely to be important for selecting among
different Ca2+-activated signaling cascades, as Orai
and CaV1.2 activate different signaling pathways.
In addition, regulation of CaV1.2 by STIM1 could
be important for the inhibition of CaV1.2 that
occurs after activation of PLC-coupled receptors
such as the muscarinic acetylcholine receptor and
the D2 dopamine receptor (28, 29). Together these
findings provide a previously unknown set of
functions for STIM1 in mammalian cells.
1. W. A. Catterall, E. Perez-Reyes, T. P. Snutch, J. Striessnig,
Pharmacol. Rev. 57, 411 (2005).
2. H. Bading, D. D. Ginty, M. E. Greenberg, Science 260,
181 (1993).
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(2008).
4. R. E. Dolmetsch, U. Pajvani, K. Fife, J. M. Spotts,
M. E. Greenberg, Science 294, 333 (2001).
5. P. G. Hogan, R. S. Lewis, A. Rao, Annu. Rev. Immunol.
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6. R. S. Lewis, Annu. Rev. Immunol. 19, 497 (2001).
7. A. B. Parekh, J. W. Putney Jr., Physiol. Rev. 85,
757 (2005).
8. A. D. Lyfenko, R. T. Dirksen, J. Physiol. 586, 4815
(2008).
9. J. Stiber et al., Nat. Cell Biol. 10, 688 (2008).
10. M. F. Kotturi, D. A. Carlow, J. C. Lee, H. J. Ziltener,
W. A. Jefferies, J. Biol. Chem. 278, 46949 (2003).
11. M. F. Kotturi, W. A. Jefferies, Mol. Immunol. 42,
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12. L. L. Isom, K. S. De Jongh, W. A. Catterall, Neuron 12,
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13. D. Walker, M. De Waard, Trends Neurosci. 21, 148
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14. R. W. Tsien, D. Lipscombe, D. Madison, K. Bley, A. Fox,
Trends Neurosci. 18, 52 (1995).
15. P. Hess, Can. J. Physiol. Pharmacol. 66, 1218 (1988).
16. W. A. Catterall, Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 16, 521 (2000).
17. J. Liou et al., Curr. Biol. 15, 1235 (2005).
18. J. Roos et al., J. Cell Biol. 169, 435 (2005).
19. S. L. Zhang et al., Nature 437, 902 (2005).
20. S. Feske et al., Nature 441, 179 (2006).
The Calcium Store Sensor, STIM1,

Reciprocally Controls Orai
and CaV1.2 Channels
Youjun Wang,1 Xiaoxiang Deng,1* Salvatore Mancarella,1* Eunan Hendron,1* Satoru Eguchi,2
Jonathan Soboloff,1 Xiang D. Tang,3 Donald L. Gill1
Calcium signals, pivotal in controlling cell function, can be generated by calcium entry channels
activated by plasma membrane depolarization or depletion of internal calcium stores. We reveal a
regulatory link between these two channel subtypes mediated by the ubiquitous calcium-sensing
STIM proteins. STIM1 activation by store depletion or mutational modification strongly suppresses
voltage-operated calcium (CaV1.2) channels while activating store-operated Orai channels. Both
actions are mediated by the short STIM-Orai activating region (SOAR) of STIM1. STIM1 interacts
with CaV1.2 channels and localizes within discrete endoplasmic reticulum/plasma membrane
junctions containing both CaV1.2 and Orai1 channels. Hence, STIM1 interacts with and reciprocally
controls two major calcium channels hitherto thought to operate independently. Such coordinated
control of the widely expressed CaV1.2 and Orai channels has major implications for Ca2+ signal
generation in excitable and nonexcitable cells.
a2+ entry channels, crucial in providing cellular Ca2+ signals, are controlled by sensing
mechanisms, including membrane voltage, surface receptors, and Ca2+-sensing STIM
proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) (1).
The coordinated operation of these transduction
processes is key to controlling cell function. STIM
proteins are dynamic ER Ca2+ sensors that ag-
C
1
Department of Biochemistry and Cardiovascular Research

Center, Temple University School of Medicine, 3400 North
Broad Street, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA. 2Department of
Physiology, Temple University School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA 19140, USA. 3Department of Pharmacology, Nankai
University School of Medicine, Tianjin 300071, China.
*These authors contributed equally to this work.
dgill@temple.edu
gregate when ER is depleted of Ca2+, then rapidly translocate into ER-plasma membrane (PM)
junctions, where they interact with and activate
the highly Ca2+-selective Orai family of PM channels (2, 3). We determined that STIM proteins
also mediate inhibitory control of voltage-activated
CaV1.2 channels. This action was independent of
Orai channel function or changes in cytosolic Ca2+
and was mediated by a direct action of STIM1 on
the CaV1.2 a1C subunit. Thus, STIM1 reciprocally controls Orai and CaV1.2 channels, indicating a hitherto unknown and potentially crucial
regulatory link between receptor-induced Ca2+
store depletion and control of voltage-activated
Ca2+ signals.
We studied STIM1-mediated Ca2+ entry signals in A7r5 clonal vascular smooth muscle cells
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21. M. Vig et al., Science 312, 1220 (2006).

22. S. L. Zhang et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 103,
9357 (2006).
23. J. Soboloff, M. A. Spassova, M. A. Dziadek, D. L. Gill,
Biochim. Biophys. Acta 1763, 1161 (2006).
24. C. Y. Park et al., Cell 136, 876 (2009).
25. J. P. Yuan et al., Nat. Cell Biol. 11, 337 (2009).
26. C. M. Fanger, M. Hoth, G. R. Crabtree, R. S. Lewis,
J. Cell Biol. 131, 655 (1995).
27. E. M. Green, C. F. Barrett, G. Bultynck, S. M. Shamah,
R. E. Dolmetsch, Neuron 55, 615 (2007).
28. S. Hernandez-Lopez et al., J. Neurosci. 20, 8987 (2000).
29. D. J. Surmeier, J. Ding, M. Day, Z. Wang, W. Shen, Trends
Neurosci. 30, 228 (2007).
30. Supported by NIH grants DP1OD003889 and
R21MH087898, the Simons Fund for Autism Research,
the California Institute for Regenerative Medicine
grant TG 01159. We thank A. Budzillo for help with
experiments, and R. Lewis and A. Nigh for feedback on
the manuscript.

Figs. S1 to S4
Table S1
10.1126/science.1191027
(VSMC). Ca2+ store depletion by vasopressin

(VP) or ER Ca2+ pump blockade by thapsigargin
(TG) induced a large Ca2+ influx across the PM
when Ca2+ was added externally (Fig. 1, A and B).
However, the inwardly rectifying Ca2+-release
activated Ca2+ (CRAC) current mediating this
Ca2+ entry was barely measurable (Fig. 1B, inset)
because only a small number of Ca2+ ions flow
through these highly selective channels. Expression in A7r5 cells of the STIM1-D76A mutant
defective in sensing ER Ca2+ (1) selectively activated Ca2+ entry (almost no entry of Sr2+) (Fig. 1C),
which required no store emptying. Expression of
the E106A Orai1 mutant lacking a functional
pore and acting as a dominant negative on Orai
channels (4, 5) completely eliminated VP- or TGinduced Ca2+ entry (Fig. 1A and B), revealing
that entry is exclusively Orai-mediated.
Canonical transient receptor potential (TRPC)
channels, widely reported to contribute to storeinduced Ca2+ entry (1, 6), are highly expressed in
VSMCs (7). In A7r5 cells, a large nonselective
current activated by VP and mediated by TRPCs
(7) was not influenced by store depletion or by
expression of the dominant Orai1-E106A mutant
or the constitutively active STIM1-D76A mutant,
reinforcing recent evidence (8) against a role of
STIM proteins or Ca2+ stores in TRPC channel
function. In contrast, endogenous CaV1.2 channels did respond to emptying of intracellular Ca2+
stores. In A7r5 cells, Sr2+ entry through CaV1.2
channels was activated by a depolarizing pulse of
high extracellular [K+] and blocked by the CaV1.2specific blocker nimodipine (Fig. 1D). If 2 mM
ionomycin or 2 mM TG was added to deplete Ca2+
stores, a subsequent depolarizing pulse resulted
in greatly decreased CaV1.2-mediated entry of
Sr2+ (Fig. 1, E and G). However, although VP
treatment also induced Ca2+ store depletion, CaV1.2mediated Sr2+ entry was instead enhanced (Fig.
1 OCTOBER 2010
105
REPORTS
1, F and G), likely due to activation of CaV1.2
channels by Ca2+- and diacylglcycerol-induced
protein kinase C stimulation (9, 10). To more directly examine the actions of store emptying on
CaV1.2 channels, we measured CaV1.2 currents

by patch-clamping cells with cytosolic Ca2+ buffered at physiological resting levels with the Ca2+
chelator EGTA to prevent any Ca2+-dependent
changes in CaV1.2 function. Compared with control CaV1.2 peak current (0.28 T 0.08 pA/pF),
store depletion by ionomycin inhibited CaV1.2
current by 96% (0.01 T 0.02 pA/pF; n = 6, P =
Fig. 1. Store-dependent control of Orai and CaV1.2

channels. Fura-2 F340/F380 ratiometric responses to
cytosolic Ca2+ in A7r5 VSMCs in response to 100 nM
VP (A) or 2 mM TG (B), in control or Orai1-E106A-CFP
transfected cells in nominally Ca2+ free or 3 mM
external Ca2+ (bars). (Inset) Current-voltage curve for
CRAC channels in control A7r5 cells. (C) Fura-2
responses in control and STIM1-D76Atransfected
A7r5 cells (bars, 3 mM external Sr2+ or Ca2+). (D)
Fura-2 responses to application of external 134 mM K+
with 3 mM Sr2+ (bars, K+/Sr2+); 2 mM nimodipine
(arrow). (E) Fura-2 responses to two sequential K+/Sr2+
pulses (bars) with addition of dimethyl sulfoxide
(DMSO) or 2 mM ionomycin (arrow), and subsequent
2 mM nimodipine addition. (F) As in (E), except with
the addition of 100 nM VP. (G) Statistics for results in
(E), (F), and TG (trace not shown) (n = 6, paired t test).
(H) I/V curve for whole-cell Ba2+ current through
CaV1.2 channels in A7r5 cells with cytosolic Ca2+
clamped to 0.1 mM (10 mM EGTA; 3.4 mM CaCl2),
either before (left) or 5 min after store depletion with 2
mM ionomycin, 100 nM VP, or control (right). (I to K)
Fura-2 responses to K+/Sr2+ (bars) in HEK293 cells
expressing three CaV1.2 subunits (a1C+ b2a+ a2d1) or
control-transfected cells. (I) K+/Sr2+ responses in
CaV1.2-transfected and control-transfected cells; 2
mM nimodipine (arrow); inset, I/V curve for CaV1.2transfected cells (n = 4). (J) Fura-2 responses to sequential K+/Sr2+ pulses (bars) with additions of DMSO or 2 mM ionomycin (arrow), and 2 mM nimodipine
(arrows). (K) K+/Sr2 responses after DBHQ (10 mM, 10 min, present throughout) or TPEN (250 mM, 5 min, removed at K+/Sr2+ addition).
Fig. 2. STIM proteins mediate store depletion
induced control of CaV1.2 channels. (A) HEK293
cells expressing a1C + b2a+ a2d1 CaV1.2 channel
subunits; fura-2 responses to K+/Sr2+ pulses (bars)
before (left) and after (middle) store emptying with
2 mM ionomycin and subsequent 2 mM nimodipine
addition (arrow). Statistics (right), paired t test, n =
6. (B) Store-replete A7r5 cells treated either with
STIM1 RNAi, Orai1 RNAi, STIM1+Orai1 RNAi, or
control RNAi; left, fura-2 responses to K+/Sr2+ pulse
(bar); right, statistics (paired t test, n = 8). (C) The
same RNAi-treated cells used in (B) were then storedepleted with 2 mM ionomycin (arrow); left, fura-2
responses to K+/Sr2+ pulse (bar); right, statistics
(paired t test, n = 8). (D) Store-replete A7r5 cells
either control-transfected or transfected with YFPSTIM1-D76A (cells with detectable or undetectable
YPP on a single coverslip); left, fura-2 responses to
K+/Sr2+ pulse (bar) and 2 mM nimodipine (arrow);
right, statistics (paired t test, n = 8). (E) HEK293 cells
expressing a1C + b2a+ a2d1 CaV1.2 channel subunits
cotransfected with either Orai1-E106A-CFP, YFPSTIM1-D76A, Orai1-E106A-CFP + YFP-STIM1-D76A,
or control plasmid; fura-2 responses to K+/Sr2+ pulse
(bar), 2 mM nimodipine (arrow) and 3 mM Ca2+
(arrow). (F) HEK293 cells expressing a1C alone;
fura-2 response to K+/Sr2 pulse (bar) and 2 mM
nimodipine (arrow) in cells either TPEN-treated
(250 mM, 5 min, removed at K+/Sr2+ addition) or
untreated. (G) HEK293 cells expressing a1C cotransfected with either Orai1-E106A-CFP, YFP-STIM1D76A, Orai1-E106A-CFP + YFP-STIM1-D76A, or control plasmid; fura-2 response to K+/Sr2+ pulse (bar), and 2 mM nimodipine (arrow).
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0.001) (Fig. 1H). Store depletion with VP also
reduced current by 58% (0.11 T 0.06 pA/pF; n =
6, P = 0.004). Thus, Ca2+ buffering revealed a
consistent store depletionmediated inhibition of
CaV1.2 channels. We further examined the influence of Ca2+ store depletion on CaV1.2 channels
expressed in human embryonic kidney (HEK293)
cells. Nimodipine-sensitive, depolarization-induced
Sr2+ entry (Fig. 1I) with typical CaV1.2 currentvoltage relationship (inset) was observed in HEK293
cells expressing the three CaV1.2 component subunits a1C, b2a, and a2d1. Ca2+ store depletion with
ionomycin or ER Ca2+ pump blocker di-tertbutylhydroquinone (DBHQ) substantially reduced CaV1.2-mediated Sr2+ entry compared with
control cells (Fig. 1, J and K). Application of the
cell-permeant intraluminal ER-Ca2+ chelator, N,
N,N,N-tetrakis(2-pyridylmethyl)-ethylenediamine
(TPEN), caused a similar decrease (Fig. 1K).
TPEN reduces ER-Ca2+ with no increase in cytosolic Ca2+ (11), confirming that store depletion
inhibits CaV1.2 channels independent of cytosolic
Ca2+ changes.
The ER Ca2+ sensors, STIM1 and STIM2, are

triggered by ER Ca2+ depletion to translocate and
activate PM Orai channels (1). We investigated
the role of STIM proteins in store depletion
induced inhibition of CaV1.2 channels. Using
CaV1.2 (a1C + b2a + a2d1)transfected HEK293
cells, overexpressed yellow fluorescent protein
fusion constructs (YFP-STIM1 or YFP-STIM2)
(fig. S1, A to D) had little effect on CaV1.2mediated Sr2+ entry in store-replete cells (Fig. 2A).
However, YFP-STIM1 expression greatly increased
the inhibitory effect of ionomycin-induced store
depletion on CaV1.2-mediated Sr2+ entry (Fig. 2A).
Similar expression of YFP-STIM2 had a smaller
effect. STIM2 is similarly poorer in coupling to
activate Orai channels (1, 12, 13). Although native STIM1 is expressed in both ER and PM, YFPSTIM1 is exclusively expressed in ER (1, 14);
thus, the action of STIM1 on CaV1.2 function is
mediated by ER-STIM1.
We examined how STIM1 and Orai1 RNA
interference (RNAi) influenced endogenous CaV1.2
channels in A7r5 cells. STIM1-siRNA (small in-
Fig. 3. Interactions between STIM1 and CaV1.2 a1C , and store-dependent colocalization of STIM1, CaV1.2, and Orai1 proteins. (A) HEK293 cells coexpressing
mCherry-STIM1 and GFP-a1C ; whole-cell lysates (left) and antibody to STIM1
immunoprecipitates were probed with antibody to GFP and antibody to STIM1.
(B) HEK293 cells coexpressing GFP-a1C and STIM1; whole-cell lysates (left) and
antibody to GFP immunoprecipitates were probed with antibody to GFP and
antibody to STIM1. (C to O) High-resolution imaging focused on the ER-PM
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SCIENCE
terfering RNA) increased CaV1.2-mediated Sr2+

entry in store-replete cells (Fig. 2B), suggesting
that some endogenous STIM1 exists in junctions
and constitutively inhibits CaV1.2. Orai1-siRNA
had little effect. STIM1-siRNA had little effect
on store depletioninduced inhibition of CaV1.2
channels (Fig. 2C). However, although RNAi reduced STIM1 expression by ~80% (fig. S2A), store
emptying may efficiently cause the remaining 20%
to enter ER-PM junctions, perhaps explaining the
differential effectiveness of STIM1-RNAi on CaV1.2
activity in store-replete versus store-depleted cells.
A combination of STIM1- and Orai1-siRNA resulted in a substantial reduction in the inhibition
of CaV1.2 channels by store depletion (Fig. 2C).
After store depletion, Orai1 traps STIM1 within
ER-PM junctions (15); thus, with limited STIM1
in RNAi-treated cells, endogenous Orai1 may be
necessary to bring STIM1 to the PM where it can
alter CaV1.2 channels.
STIM1 EF-hand mutants fail to bind Ca2+
(1618), aggregate and translocate into ER-PM
junctions, and constitutively activate Orai1 chan-
interface in HEK293 cells. (C to H) Distribution of expressed mCherry-STIM1 and

GFP-a1C (coexpressed with b2a + a2d1 subunits), examined in cells either just
before (C and E) or 5 min after (F to H) Ca2+ store depletion with 2 mM ionomycin.
(I to K) Magnification of the STIM, a1C, and merged images, respectively. (L and
M) Distribution of coexpressed mCherry-Orai1 and GFP-a1C (with b2a + a2d1
subunits) in cells 5 min after ionomycin-induced emptying. (O) Magnified area
of the merged image from (N).
VOL 330
1 OCTOBER 2010
107
REPORTS
nels without requiring changes in ER Ca2+ (18).
Expression of YFP-STIM1-D76A EF-hand mutant in A7r5 cells led to a constitutive reduction
in the function of endogenous CaV1.2 channels
(Fig. 2D). Cells with visible YFP expression had
>70% reduced CaV1.2-mediated Sr2+ entry, and
almost all mutant STIM1 was within clearly discernible junctions (fig. S2B). There was little
difference in resting cytosolic [Ca2+] in D76Aexpressing cells (fig. S2C), consistent with studies
on cells stably expressing D76A (19). Cells with
no detectable fluorescence had 40% reduced
CaV1.2 function (Fig. 2D) and no change in resting Ca2+ (fig. S2C). Hence, the action of STIM1
on CaV1.2 channel function is independent of
both luminal and cytosolic Ca2+ changes.
The same inhibitory effect of STIM1-D76A
was observed on Sr2+ entry through CaV1.2 channels expressed in HEK cells (Fig. 2E). Coexpression of the dominant negative Orai1-E106A
mutant did not alter the STIM1-D76Ainduced
inhibition of CaV1.2 channels, although it completely blocked the constitutive Ca2+ entry observed
after addition of Ca2+ in STIM1-D76Aexpressing
cells after washout of the K+/Sr2+ solution (Fig. 2E,
red versus green traces). Hence, we conclude that
the inhibitory effect of STIM1 on CaV1.2 channels
does not require Orai channel function and does not
reflect any passage of ions through store-operated
channels.
CaV1.2 channels comprise three subunits: the
a1C pore-forming moiety and the b and a2d1
auxiliary subunits (10). STIM1-mediated CaV1.2
inhibition did not require the auxiliary proteins.
As for HEK293 cells expressing all three CaV1.2
subunits, cells expressing only the a1C subunit
had depolarization-induced Sr2+ entry inhibited by
TPEN (Fig. 2F), enhanced with STIM1 or STIM2

overexpression (fig. S3, A to C) and mimicked by
STIM1-D76A expression independently of Orai
function (Fig. 2G). STIM1-D76A did not alter a1C
expression or vice versa, and a1C did not alter
STIM1-D76A localization (fig. S3, D and E).
To address whether CaV1.2 a1C interacts with
STIM1, we undertook coimmunoprecipitation
studies using green fluorescent protein (GFP)
tagged a1C and either native or mCherry-tagged
STIM1. Coexpressed in HEK cells, antibody to
STIM1 precipitates contained GFP-a1C (Fig. 3A).
Moreover, precipitates of GFP-a1C with antibody
to GFP revealed bound STIM1 (Fig. 3B). Although interactions between the two proteins
exist, store depletion did not detectably alter this
association. We undertook high-resolution imaging studies to examine distribution of STIM1,
CaV1.2 channels, and Orai channels at the PM
(19). We expressed N-tagged GFP-a1C (20), b2a
and a2d1 subunits, and N-tagged mCherry-STIM1
(19). High-resolution imaging of the ER-PM
junctions adjacent to the coverslip revealed precise colocalization between mCherry-STIM1 and
GFP-a1C induced by emptying Ca2+ stores with
ionomycin (Fig. 3, C to K). Ionomycin-mediated
store depletion for 5 min induced mCherry-STIM1
to move into clearly defined ER-PM junctional
areas (Fig. 3, C and F). GFP-CaV1.2 moved into
the same areas (Fig. 3, D, G, and H). High magnification of the boxed areas (Fig. 3, I to K)
reveals the precise nature of the colocalization of
the two proteins after store depletion. There were
no areas of STIM1 not colocalized with a1C, although there were areas of a1C extending beyond
the STIM1-defined junctional areas. Small areas
with colocalized STIM-CaV1.2 were evident in
store-replete cells (Fig. 3, C to E). This indicates a

possible constitutive role of STIM1 in attenuating CaV1.2 activity, consistent with the effect of
STIM1 RNAi on CaV1.2 function (Fig. 2B). We
also coexpressed mCherry-Orai1 [exclusively
PM-localized (18)] with GFP-a1C in stable STIM1expressing HEK cells, revealing areas of Orai1CaV1.2 colocalization after store depletion (Fig.
3, L to O). Such Orai1-localization is exclusively
STIM-associated (1, 18); hence, ER-PM junctions appear to contain a complex of Orai1,
CaV1.2, and STIM proteins.
We investigated whether STIM1 domains
coupling to Orai were also coupling to a1C and
whether Orai might participate in STIM-a1C
coupling. The smallest units of STIM1 to bind
and activate Orai1 are the 344-442 STIM-Orai
activating region (SOAR) (21) and 342-448
Ca2+-activating domain (CAD) (15) (Fig. 4A).
We transfected YFP-SOAR into HEK293 cells
expressing a1C (Fig. 4, B to F). CaV1.2 channels
were activated with K+/Sr2+, then blocked with
nimodipine, followed by Ca2+ addition to observe Orai function. In non-SOARexpressing
cells, there was full a1C channel activity and no
Orai function (Fig. 4B). In cells cotransfected
with SOAR (Fig. 4C), a clear correlation existed
between Orai activation, a1C inhibition, and
SOAR expression (Fig. 4, C and D, and fig. S4A).
Cells with full a1C-mediated Sr2+ entry had no
Orai-induced Ca2+ entry (green), whereas cells
with a large reduction in a1C function showed
Orai-induced Ca2+ entry (blue). The Orai-coupled
cells had ~50% greater SOAR levels (fig. S4B);
thus, SOAR coupling to both a1C and Orai exactly correlated. Coexpressing Orai1-E106A with
a1C and SOAR (Fig. 4D) caused SOAR to be
Fig. 4. Defining the molecular domains of STIM1

mediating CaV1.2 channel inhibition. (A) STIM1 constructs used. (B to D) Fura-2 responses to K+/Sr2+
pulses (bars), 2 mM nimodipine, and 3 mM Ca2+
(arrows) in a1C-expressing HEK293 cells without
cotransfection (B) or with cotransfection of YFP-SOAR
(C) or YFP-SOAR + Orai1-E106A-CFP (D). Statistics
shown in fig. S4A. In (C), Orai-coupled (n = 97; cells
with Orai-mediated Ca2+ entry) and Orai-uncoupled
(n = 135; cells with no Orai-mediated Ca2+ entry) are
defined in the text. Their relative YFP-SOAR expression
is shown in fig. S4B. (E) Localization of YFP-SOAR +
Orai1-E106A-CFP cotransfected cells. (F) Western
analysis of STIM construct expression. (G) Fura-2
responses in a1C-expressing HEK293 cells cotransfected with YFP-SOAR-LQ347/348AA alone or with
Orai-E106A-CFP. (H) Imaging of the mutant SOAR +
Oraiexpressing cells in (G). (I) Fura-2 responses in
a1C-expressing HEK293 cells cotransfected with YFPSTIM1-CT alone or with Orai-E106A-CFP. (J) Imaging
of the STIM-CT + Oraiexpressing cells in (I). (K) Fura2 responses in a1C-expressing HEK293 cells before
(left) and after (right) store depletion with 2 mM
ionomycin; cells were cotransfected with either
normal STIM1, the STIM1-DK truncation (667-685),
the STIM1-D441-448 deletion, or empty plasmid (statistics shown in fig. S4C). (L) Fura-2 responses to 1 mM Ca2+ addition for Orai1-CFPexpressing HEK293 cells (left) or control internal ribosomal entry site
plasmid (pIRES)HEK cells (right) transfected with YFP-STIM1-wild-type or YFP-STIM1-D441-448.
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REPORTS
more consistently PM-associated (Fig. 4E), and
a1C channel activity was inhibited in all cells
(Fig. 4D and fig. S4A). Thus, Orai may assist
SOAR associating with the PM and inhibit a1C;
however, the Orai channel need not be functional
to pull SOAR toward a1C and inhibit a1C function. Expression of the LQ347/348AA SOAR
mutant (Fig. 4F) devoid of coupling to Orai1 (21)
did not inhibit a1C function, with or without
Orai1-E106A (Fig. 4G), and did not associate
with Orai1 at the PM (Fig. 4H). We expressed the
STIM1 C terminus (YFP-STIM1-CT; 235-685)
(Fig. 4, F, I, and J), which is largely cytosolic
(15, 18). Coexpressed with Orai channels, some
STIM1-CT associates with Orai1 (Fig. 4J). STIM1CT expressed with a1C caused no change in
CaV1.2 activity consistent with its cytosolic location (18). However, coexpressed with Orai1E106A, the STIM1-CT gave substantial reduction
in a1C activity (Fig. 4I), indicating that the association between STIM1-CT and Orai1 was sufficient for STIM1-CT to inhibit a1C.
The far C-terminal K-rich region of STIM1,
although not essential for Orai1 activation, assists
STIM1-induced association with PM junctions
(15). Compared with wild-type STIM1, STIM1DK
(667-685) (Fig. 4, A and F) was less effective in
inhibiting a1C function after store depletion (Fig.
4K and fig. S4C), indicating that the K-rich region enhances PM docking of STIM1 and association with a1C. The STIM1D441-448 deletion
(Fig. 4A) does not activate Orai1 channels and
does not block endogenous STIM1-mediated
Ca2+ influx (Fig. 4L) and is likely defective in
Orai1-binding. However, STIM1D441-448 does
still inhibit a1C-mediated Sr2+ entry almost identical to wild-type STIM1 (Fig. 4K and fig. S4C).
Thus, the site on STIM1 coupling to inhibit
CaV1.2 channels is not identical to that mediating
Orai channel activation. Moreover, the action of
STIM1 on CaV1.2 channels does not require Orai
channel activation, despite Orai channels assisting STIM1s approach to CaV1.2 channels.
The work herein provides evidence that the
CaV1.2 channel is an authentic target of STIM
proteins, in addition to their well-described Orai
targets. The reciprocal control mediated by STIM
on the Orai and CaV1.2 channel targets may have
functional implications in many cells expressing
both channels. Although we reveal that the action
of STIM1 on CaV1.2 channels does not require
the function of Orai channels, we do reveal that
the actions of STIM1 on Orai1 and CaV1.2 channels are closely connected, both spatially and
functionally. Orai channels are very effective at
trapping STIM1 in puncta (15) and appear to enhance STIM1 recruitment to the vicinity of CaV1.2
channels in the PM. CaV1.2 proteins are widely
expressed not only in excitable cells but also
nonexcitable cellsfor example, immune cells
including T cells, B cells, dendritic cells, and
mast cells (22, 23). STIM proteins may have
important roles in suppressing CaV1.2 function in
immune cells, and STIM-mediated reciprocal
control of CaV1.2 and Orai channels could be a
decisive mechanism for controlling Ca2+ signals.
STIM proteins are highly expressed in many excitable tissues, including smooth muscle cells
(24, 25), neurons (26), and skeletal muscle (27),
where they have been implicated in mediating
not only Ca2+ signals but also fundamental control over growth, differentiation, and apoptosis
(2527). The finding of reciprocal control of the
two major and widely expressed Ca2+ channels
by a single Ca2+-sensing regulatory protein should
enhance understanding of Ca2+ signal transduction.
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3. M. D. Cahalan, Nat. Cell Biol. 11, 669 (2009).
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D. L. Gill, Clin. Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 35, 1127 (2008).
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J. Stiber et al., Nat. Cell Biol. 10, 688 (2008).
Rabbit smooth muscle a1C, b2a, and a2-d1 DNA were gifts
from M. Davis, University of Missouri School of Medicine.
This work was supported by NIH grants HL55426 and
AI058173 (D.L.G.), a Novartis Institutes for Biomedical
Research fellowship (Y.W.), the American Heart
Association ( J.S.), NSFC 30871011, Tianjin S&T Support
Project 08ZCKFSH04500, and 973 program
2010CB945001 (X.P.T.).

Figs. S1 to S4
Table S1
References
10.1126/science.1191086
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have a Ph.D. degree and a demonstrated commitment
to teaching at undergraduate and graduate levels, and
would be expected to develop an internationally recognized research program.
Candidates interested in the position must apply
at JOBSATCU posting #811526 by going to this
website: http://www.jobsatcu.com/applicants/
Central?quickFind062784. Applicants will be asked
to attach separate PDF files of curriculum vitae, statements of research and teaching interests, and a list of
references. In addition, please arrange to have three
letters of reference sent either electronically or by
hard copy to: Ms. Kim Little, 596 UCB, University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309-0347 (e-mail:
chembiojobs@colorado.edu). Review of applications
will begin on November 8, 2010, and will continue
until the position is filled.
The University of Colorado is committed to diversity and equality in education and employment. See website: http://www.
Colorado.edu/ArtsSciences/Jobs/ for full job description.
www.sciencecareers.org
SCIENCE
VOL 330
MICROBIOLOGIST
Colgate University
Colgate University seeks a tenure-stream ASSISTANT PROFESSOR to start fall term 2011. Completion of Ph.D. prior to or shortly after the date of hire
required; teaching and postdoctoral research experience desirable. The successful candidate will team-teach
in a foundation course in biology (either BMolecules,
Cells, and Genes[ or BEvolution, Ecology, and Diversity[), teach elective courses including microbiology,
and participate in all-university programs, including
the Liberal Arts Core Curriculum. The appointee will
join a biology faculty deeply committed to a strong,
research-oriented program involving undergraduate
students and will add to this effort by offering a research tutorial in her or his area of interest; opportunities also exist to lead Colgate_s unique semester-long
program at the NIH. The department offers excellent
teaching and research facilities, and faculty have strong
support from both internal and external funding sources.
Please submit an application with cover letter, curriculum vitae, transcripts, and separate statements of
teaching philosophy and research interests to website:
http://www.academicjobsonline.org. Also, arrange
to have three letters of recommendation submitted.
Review of applications will begin October 22 and continue until the position is filled. We intend to begin
interviewing candidates by the middle of November.
Applicants with dual-career considerations can find postings of other employment opportunities at Colgate
and at other institutions of higher education in upstate
New York at website: http://www.upstatenyherc.org.
Colgate University is an Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action
Employer. Developing and sustaining a diverse faculty, staff, and
student body furthers the University_s academic mission.
A POSTDOCTORAL FELLOW position is open

immediately in the University of Pittsburgh Medical
Center to study breast cancer. Educational background
in molecular biology and research experience using animal tumor models are preferred. Please send curriculum vitae and three reference letters to: Qiuhong He,
Ph.D., B804-PUH, MRRC, Department of Radiology, University of Pittsburgh, 200 Lothrop Street,
Pittsburgh, PA 15213. Telephone: 412-647-3088;
fax: 412-647-9800; e-mail: qih5@pitt.edu. The University of Pittsburgh is an Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action
Employer.
1 OCTOBER 2010
111
online @sciencecareers.org
BIOLOGICAL AND SOFT MATERIALS

EXPERIMENT AND COMPUTATION
RANK OPEN
DEPARTMENT OF MATERIALS SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
UNIVERSITY OF ILLINOIS AT URBANA-CHAMPAIGN
Two open-rank faculty positions, experimental and computational, are announced by the Department
of Materials Science and Engineering at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. We seek
exceptional candidates for tenure-track or tenured faculty positions with experimental expertise in
fundamental science or engineering of biomaterials, biophysics, or related biological topics, as well as
the computational study of soft matter broadly dened to include polymers, biological materials, and
complex uids. Faculty members in the Department are expected to teach undergraduate and graduate
courses, and initiate and sustain a vigorous graduate research program. Applicants must provide a curriculum vita that includes their teaching experience and interests, a list of publications, and a synopsis
of a proposed program of research. Candidates for tenure-track positions must have three (3) letters of
reference sent directly to the department. Candidates for tenured positions must have achieved national
and international recognition for their scholarship; they must include the names and contact information
of at least three (3) references.
The Department has 23 faculty and more than 300 undergraduate and 160 graduate students, with highly
ranked graduate and undergraduate programs. Extensive state-of-the-art experimental and computational
facilities are housed on campus in the Frederick Seitz Materials Research Laboratory, the Beckman
Institute, and the National Center for Supercomputer Applications.
Applicants must hold an earned doctorate in an appropriate eld. Salary and rank will be commensurate
with qualications. The proposed starting date for these positions is as soon as possible after the closing
date. To ensure full consideration, applications must be received prior to December 3, 2010. Interviews
may take place during the application period, but a decision will not be made until after the closing
date. To apply for this position, please create a candidate prole at http://jobs.illinois.edu and upload
your letter of application and resume by December 3, 2010. If you do not have online access, please
contact the department ofce for further options: Department of Materials Science and Engineering,
1304 W. Green St., Urbana, IL 61801; Telephone: (217) 333-1440; Fax: (217) 333-2736; Email:
mse@illinois.edu.
The University of Illinois is an Equal Opportunity/Afrmative Action Employer. The administration,
faculty and staff embrace diversity and are committed to attracting qualied candidates who also
embrace and value diversity and inclusivity.
Assistant Professor in Microbiology/

Infectious Diseases
The Division of Infectious Diseases, Department
of Biomedical Sciences, Cummings School of
Veterinary Medicine at Tufts University, with
well developed programs in biodefense/emerging
infectious diseases, is seeking applications from
candidates for a faculty position at the assistant
professor level. A research focus in tuberculosis
with experience in aerobiology will be signicant
advantages. The Appointee will occupy the New
England Regional Biosafety Laboratory (RBL), a
BSL-2/BSL-3 facility funded by the NIAID.
The Division is a dynamic group of approximately
60 faculty, scientists, laboratory and animal technicians, graduate students and administrative
staff. Established NIH-funded research programs
include: E. coli O157 and associated conditions
including HUS; cryptosporidiosis; microsporidiosis; botulinum intoxication therapy; vaccine
development; water/food safety and biosecurity;
schistosomiasis; tularemia and tick-borne diseases;
shigellosis; and C. difcile. (www.tufts.edu/vet/
biomed/infectious_diseases.htm)
Please submit curriculum vitae, a letter describing
qualications which highlight relevant experience,
and full contact information for four references
to: Saul Tzipori, Chair, Search Committee, at
saul.tzipori@tufts.edu. Application reviews will
continue until the position is lled. For questions,
e-mail or call 508-839-7955.
Microbial Evolutionary Ecologist

The Departments of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology and Microbiology, Immunology and Molecular Genetics at UCLA, together
with the California NanoSystems Institute, invite applications for
an open rank, TENURE-TRACK position for a microbial evolutionary ecologist. We seek conceptually
oriented candidates who use emerging technologies to study the ecology and evolution of microbial
communities. Representative elds of study include, but are not limited to: the determinants of
microbial diversity in natural environments, the ecology and evolution of polymicrobial communities
living in association with eukaryotes, ecological and evolutionary responses of microbial systems to
disturbance, and the ecological and evolutionary foundations for the role of microbial communities in
global nutrient cycling. Candidates must have a Ph.D. and an established track record of productivity
and innovative research in microbial ecology and/or evolution. Successful candidates are expected
to participate in undergraduate and graduate teaching and maintain an externally funded research
program. The two departments have excellent research programs (http://www.eeb.ucla.edu, http:
//www.mimg.ucla.edu). The California NanoSystems Institute (CNSI; http://www.cnsi.ucla.edu/)
seeks to encourage university collaboration with industry and to enable the rapid commercialization
of discoveries in nanosystems-related research including Energy, Environment, Health-Medicine, and
Information Technology. UCLA also has outstanding resources, including the UC Natural Reserve
System, the NSF Institute of Pure and Applied Mathematics (IPAM), the Institute of the Environment
(IOE) and the Molecular Biology Institute (MBI). The position is linked to the UCLA Biosciences
Initiative, which brings together leading investigators across the life sciences to catalyze interdisciplinary research, and opportunities exist to build a research focus in the candidates area of interest
including the development of a campus-wide core research center.
Review of applications will begin on October 15, 2010 and continue until the position is lled.
Applicants should submit materials online (www.eeb.ucla.edu/microevo). Please include a cover
letter, curriculum vitae, statements of research and teaching interests, 2-3 most signicant publications, and names and addresses of three references. Please use job number: 0830-1011-02 in all
correspondence.
UCLA is an Afrmative Action/Equal Opportunity Employer with a strong institutional commitment to the achieving diversity among its faculty, students and staff. Individuals with a history of
and commitment to mentoring students from underrepresented minorities are encouraged to apply.
http://www.lssa.ucla.edu/jobs/jobinfo.php?id=98
Tufts University is an Afrmative Action, Equal

Opportunity Employer.
Renal/Cardiac Research
Faculty Positions
Two ASSISTANT/ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR level positions are open in the Hypertension and Vascular Research Division of Henry
Ford Hospital to complement strengths in
renal/cardiac cell and molecular biology and
integrative physiology. Appointments will
be in the Department of Internal Medicine at
Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, MI an afliate
of the Wayne State University School of Medicine with secondary appointments in basic
science departments in the School of Medicine possible. The divisions 8 basic scientists
bring in more than $6 million in grant support annually (http://www.henryford.com/
hypertensionresearch). Successful applicants will develop and maintain robust,
NIH-funded research programs. Minimum
requirements are a Ph.D. or M.D., 3 years of
postdoctoral experience, and a strong publication record. Salaries will be commensurate
with experience. Positions come with generous startup packages and benets.
To apply submit: a current CV; contact
information for 4 references; and a 1-page
description of research interests via email in PDF format to: Emmett Bowen at
ebowen1@hfhs.org. Positions will remain
open until lled.
Henry Ford Hospital is an
Equal Opportunity Employer.
KWAZULU-NATAL RESEARCH INSTITUTE FOR TUBERCULOSIS AND HIV
Scientic and Clinical Positions in South Africa
The KwaZulu-Natal Research Institute for

Tuberculosis and HIV (K-RITH) is seeking
world-class scientists to join it in creating
a groundbreaking research centre at the
epicentre of the tuberculosis and HIV
epidemics. Its goal is to conduct outstanding
basic science research on TB and HIV and
translate those scientic ndings into new
tools to control the deadly diseases.
A K-RITH facility is being built at the Nelson R. Mandela
School of Medicine in Durban. South Africa.
We are currently recruiting for the following positions:
APPLICATION DEADLINE:
December 15, 2010

K-RITH INVESTIGATORS
Investigators will maintain an independent scientific programme,

supervise students and technicians, and contribute to scientific
advancement through scholarly publications, research presentations,
and conference abstracts. Positions are available at the assistant,
associate, and full investigator levels.
FOR MORE INFORMATION:
Go to www.k-rith.org/Science or
e-mail Bronwyn Hadfield, K-RITHs
human resources manager in Durban,
at bronwyn.hadeld@k-rith.org.
CLINICAL DIRECTOR
In addition to the responsibilities of a K-RITH investigator,

the clinical director will develop population-, clinic-, and
hospital-based studies of TB and HIV cohorts and work
closely with the clinical core facility manager.
CORE FACILITY MANAGERS
Core facility managers will develop and maintain advanced

instrumentation in key areas, including microbiology,
immunology, pharmacology, high-throughput biology, and
clinical protocol development.
All positions will be based at our state-of-the-art, 4,000-squaremetre facility, which is being built on the campus of the
Nelson Mandela School of Medicine in Durban, South Africa.
Applicants should be eager to build a research programme that
capitalizes on the unique laboratory and clinical resources at
K-RITH and in and around Durban.
K-RITH is a collaboration between the

Howard Hughes Medical Institute and the
University of KwaZulu-Natal in Durban,
South Africa. Our goal is that discoveries
made in the heart of the TB and HIV
epidemics will drive innovation to control
the deadly diseases. We know that an
emphasis on basic science will lead to
rational interventions and clinical solutions
to many of the problems facing the area.
THREE CELL/MOLECULAR
BIOLOGIST POSITIONS
FORDHAM UNIVERSITY
Dean, College of Humanities and Sciences

Virginia Commonwealth University (VCU) invites applications and nominations for the position of Dean
of the College of Humanities and Sciences.
VCU is located on two downtown Richmond campuses the Monroe Park Campus and the MCV Campus.
As an urban institution of higher learning, VCU and its partners have contributed immeasurably to the
development of the fabric of the City of Richmond, transforming it into a center of artistic and cultural
growth, business development, and social services.
Virginia Commonwealth University is one of the states largest universities and ranks among the top universities in the country in sponsored research. It enrolls over 32,000 students in 211 certicate and degree
programs. MCV Hospitals and the health sciences schools of Virginia Commonwealth University compose
the VCU Medical Center, one of the nations leading academic medical centers. VCUs third campus is
located in Doha, Qatar.
The College of Humanities and Sciences is dedicated to excellence in teaching, research, and public service.
The College offers comprehensive undergraduate, graduate and professional programs of study, which link
a foundation of understanding and knowledge with skills on which students can build careers, become
responsible citizens and continue lifelong learning.
The University seeks an innovative, dynamic, and entrepreneurial individual to lead the College of Humanities
and Sciences. The Dean of the College will promote disciplinary excellence and visibility while stimulating
cross-disciplinary interactions and encouraging new opportunities for research, teaching, and service.
The successful candidate will be a visionary leader with demonstrated experience in Humanities and Sciences scholarship and education; proven skills in academic administration, resource management, and
program formation; and a distinguished record of success in obtaining external funding. It is anticipated that
candidates will have a record of excellence in scholarship and teaching that would merit a tenured faculty
appointment at the rank of Professor in one of the disciplines in the College.
For best consideration, materials should be provided by October 20, 2010. Application materials should
include a letter addressing how the candidates experiences match the position requirements, a resume
and contact information for at least ve references. Submission of materials as MS Word attachments is
strongly encouraged. Condential inquiries, nominations, and application materials should be directed to:
Jan Greenwood, Greenwood/Asher & Associates, Inc; jangreenwood@greenwoodsearch.com; Phone:
850.650.2277/Fax: 850.650.2272
Virginia Commonwealth University is an Afrmative Action/Equal Opportunity Employer, building
strength through diversity. Minorities, women, veterans, and individuals with disabilities are
encouraged to apply.
Individuals are invited to apply for two tenuretrack positions at the ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR level and one position at the ASSOCIATE/
FULL PROFESSOR level in the Department
of Biological Sciences, Fordham University.
An ongoing grant-supported research effort is
required for each position. The department has
an active research program with a Center for
Cancer, Genetic Diseases, and Gene Regulation (CCGDGR) that provides excellent research
facilities, startup funds, and competitive salaries
and benets. Candidates with research interests
compatible with our CCGDGR in areas such as
stem cells, cancer, development, genetic diseases,
bioinformatics, neuroscience, or cellular physiology are encouraged to apply. The appointees will
be expected to have and maintain active research
programs. A commitment to undergraduate and
graduate teaching and research is required.
Applicants should e-mail one PDF application le containing a cover letter, curriculum
vitae, contact information for three references, research statement, and two reprints to
thornhill@fordham.edu. The cover letter should
be addressed to Dr. William Thornhill, Chair,
Department of Biological Sciences, Fordham
University, 441 E. Fordham Road, Larkin
Hall 160, Bronx, NY 10458. Candidates will be
reviewed when their applications are received and
we will continue to accept applications until the
positions are lled.
Fordham University is an independent, Catholic
university in the Jesuit tradition that welcomes
applications from men and women of all
backgrounds. Fordham is an EOE.
www.westernu.edu
www.westernu.edu
Max-Planck-Gesellschaft
Max Planck Society
Faculty Positions in Pharmacology

College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacic Northwest Lebanon, Oregon
Max-Planck-Forschungsgruppen
Max Planck Research Groups
The Max Planck Society for the Advancement of Science is an independent,
non-prot research organization, whose goal is to promote top quality research
at its institutes. The 80 research institutes of the Max Planck Society conduct
basic research in Biology and Medicine; Chemistry, Physics and Technology;
Humanities, Social Sciences and Law. In particular, the Max Planck Society
addresses new, innovative and interdisciplinary research areas.
The Max Planck Society invites applications from outstanding young scientists
in all elds of research pursued in the Society, and explicitly encourages applications from candidates with an interdisciplinary background.
The successful candidates will be offered a Max Planck Research Group for
a period of ve years at a Max Planck Institute of their choice. This includes
a W2 position equivalent to assistant or associate professor level and a veyear grant (research positions, budget, investments). The cumulative amount of
funding is competitive with top class start-up packages of international career
development programs.
Applications should include a CV, a list of publications, copies of three publications, a one-page summary of scientic achievements, two letters of recommendation, and a two-page research plan.
For further information and detailed application instructions see
http://www.mprg.mpg.de
The Max Planck Society has established a tenure track policy for new leaders
of Max Planck Research Groups; more details are available on the website
above.
The Max Planck Society is committed to equal opportunities and to employing
individuals with disabilities.
The deadline for application is November 17, 2010
Western University of Health Sciences, a thriving center for human health care and veterinary medicine
education, is opening a new site for the College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacic Northwest
(COMP-NW) in Lebanon, Oregon with the inaugural class beginning in Fall, 2011. The Universitys 10 year
plan and core values have propelled the Institution to be a benchmark University for the development of
interprofessional and graduate medical education. The University values a diverse institutional community
and is committed to excellence in its faculty, staff and students. Western University seeks applicants
of distinguished academic accomplishments who possess a passion for excellence and can illustrate a
proven track record of achievements.
The Department of Basic Medical Sciences provides the preclinical education for the College of Osteopathic
Medicine, and invites applications from highly motivated individuals for tenure-track faculty positions in
pharmacology. These are full-time, 12-month, tenure-track positions at the Assistant Professor/Associate
Professor/Professor rank dependent upon qualications. Successful candidates will be located at the
new site on the COMP-NW campus. Applicants must have a Ph.D. in pharmacology or equivalent eld
and at least 2 years of postdoctoral experience. Similar positions in physiology, biochemistry/genetics,
and microbiology/immunology are also available at both the Lebanon, OR and Pomona, CA campuses.
Preference will be given to master educators who have demonstrated excellence in teaching with
signicant scholarly activity and/or those with a history of extramural funding and a strong potential to
obtain further grant support for their research program. Submit a current curriculum vitae and a cover
letter describing your teaching experience and philosophy, your research activity and goals, and how you
meet the qualications for the position. Please include contact information for at least three references.
These positions will remain open until lled.
Nissar A. Darmani, PhD
Assistant Dean for Basic Sciences and Research
Department of Basic Medical Sciences
College of Osteopathic Medicine of the Pacic
Western University of Health Sciences
309 E. Second Street, Pomona, CA 91766-1854
Email Address: ndarmani@westernu.edu
Western University of Health Sciences is an equal opportunity employer.
HOWARD HUGHES MEDIC AL INSTITUTE
GORDON AND BETTY MOORE FOUNDATION
Competition for Plant Scientists

The Howard Hughes Medical Institute and the Gordon and
Betty Moore Foundation are collaborating on a new program
to support highly promising researchers from a range of
disciplines relevant to plant sciences research. HHMI and
GBMF will provide exible research support for up to 15
individuals selected as HHMI-GBMF investigators.
Eligibility:
n
A doctoral degree
Tenured, tenure-track or equivalent position at an eligible

U.S. institution with a rank of assistant professor or higher
First appointment as assistant professor or equivalent no

later than December 31, 2006
Principal investigator on one or more active, national,

peer-reviewed research grants that provide at least three
years of support
Application deadline:
November 9, 2010, at 3 PM ET
Application information:
www.hhmi.org/research/competitions
The Howard Hughes Medical Institute-Gordon and Betty

Moore Foundation Plant Science Program is a new initiative
that reflects the view that plants are vital to human health and
the survival of our planetits ecology, biodiversity, and
climate. Despite the central role plants play in maintaining
human health and in healthcare, basic research in the plant
sciences has been historically underfunded.
HHMI and GBMF will select up to 15 HHMI-GBMF
investigators who have led independent laboratories at one
of the approximately 200 U.S. medical schools, universities,
and research institutes that are eligible for this competition.
HHMI-GBMF investigators will receive five-year

appointments to HHMI and substantial research support
while remaining affiliated with their home institutions.
Candidates may apply directly to HHMI; prior institutional
endorsement is not required.
HHMI, a nonprofit medical research organization, plays
a powerful role in advancing biomedical research and
education in the United States. HHMIs flagship program
in biomedical research rests on the conviction that scientists
of exceptional talent, commitment, and imagination will
make fundamental biological discoveries for the betterment
of human health if they receive the resources, time, and
freedom to pursue challenging questions.
The Gordon and Betty Moore Foundation seeks to advance
environmental conservation and scientific research around
the world and improve the quality of life in the San
Francisco Bay Area. The Foundations Science program
aims to make a significant impact on the development of
transformative scientific research, and increase knowledge
in emerging fields through investment in the work of
researchers and organizations at the frontiers of science.
The Howard Hughes Medical Institute is an equal
opportunity employer.
SCIENTIST/SENIOR SCIENTIST POSITION

CANCER BIOLOGY RESEARCH CENTER
SANFORD RESEARCH/USD
The Cancer Biology Research Center (CBRC) invites applications from researchers for a full-time
faculty position at the rank of Scientist or Senior Scientist within Sanford Research/USD, the research
division of Sanford Health in Sioux Falls, South Dakota. A historic $400 million gift by philanthropist
Denny Sanford has allowed for expansion of Sanford Research/USD with the opening of the new
Sanford Research Center (300,000 sq ft) and the establishment of a collaboration with the SanfordBurnham Institute for Medical Research La Jolla. These provide researchers with state of the art core
facilities and are enabling the creation of an integrated, world class, academic research network.
We seek an outstanding basic, translational, or clinical research scientist with an active research
program in Cancer Biology. An area of particular interest is the improvement of solid tumor therapies
by enhancing CD8 responses or diminishing the affect of Treg responses. Advancing basic ndings
in this area into treatment of head and neck cancer would be preferred but not required. Applicants
must hold a PhD, DVM, MD or MD/PhD degree and have a demonstrated track record of extramural
grant support and a strong publication record. Successful candidates will join the energetic and collegial research community at Sanford Research/USD, serving as a mentor to junior faculty members
while advancing his/her independent research program.
Signicant institutional support including modern laboratory space and state-of-the-art facilities will
be provided in the new Sanford Research Center. In addition, a comprehensive compensation package
will be tailored to the individuals qualications. Candidates should submit a detailed curriculum
vitae, description of research experience and future plans, and at least three letters of recommendation. Application materials should be sent to:
W. Keith Miskimins, PhD
Director, Cancer Biology Research Center
Sanford Research/USD
2301 East 60th Street North, Sioux Falls, SD 57117-5039
Telephone: 605-312-6104; FAX: 605-312-6071
Email: keith.miskimins@sanfordhealth.org
Washington University
in St. Louis School of
Engineering & Applied
Science
announces
significant
strategic
investments for multiple
faculty positions in the
interdisciplinary areas of Materials and
Biological Systems Engineering. Candidates
will be considered primarily at the junior level,
but senior faculty with exceptionally strong
records should also apply. Joint appointments
across the ve engineering departments and
other disciplines such as sciences, medicine
and, in the case of materials, architecture
will be encouraged. Materials research areas
include: nanostructured materials, nanoparticle
technology, adaptive and multi-functional
materials, energy harvesting and energy
storage, electrochemical processes, materials
synthesis, soft materials, biomaterials, hybrid
materials, nanotoxicology, and multiscale
processes. Biological Systems Engineering
applicants should be experimentalists and/or
computational/theoretical scientists with
strong research experience and demonstrated
excellence that emphasizes the use of
engineering approaches in systems biology.
The Engineering School is currently building
phase three of a new, multi-million dollar stateof-the-art complex to support these and other
research areas of societal importance.
More detailed information can be found at:
engineering.wustl.edu/facultyopenings
Sanford Health is an Equal Opportunity/Afrmative Action Employer.
TENURE TRACK FACULTY POSITION

BIOCHEMISTRY
Women and members of groups

underrepresented in engineering are
especially encouraged to apply.
California Institute of Technology

Positions in Neuroscience
The Department of Biology at Tufts University invites applications for

a tenure-track Assistant Professor in Biochemistry. We seek a creative
scholar with primary expertise in protein or enzyme biochemistry as
it applies to DNA metabolism, chromatin and chromosome structure,
protein interaction networks or signaling cascades. We expect this
individual to use state-of-the-art technology in protein analysis and
proteomics, and to complement current research strengths in the department which include genome evolution and instability, DNA replication
and repair, and cell signaling (see http://ase.tufts.edu/biology/). The
successful candidate will develop an active externally funded research
program involving graduate and undergraduate students. A clear commitment to teaching excellence at the undergraduate and graduate levels
is essential. Doctoral degree and a record of research productivity are
required; postdoctoral experience preferred.
The California Institute of Technology invites applications for two

tenure-track professorial positions in the Division of Biology. A
position in Systems Neuroscience is open to investigators studying
the neural mechanisms and circuit properties that underlie behavior.
A position in Cellular and Molecular Neuroscience is aimed at
applicants whose research program concerns molecular and/or cellular
aspects of physiology, behavior, or neural development. Successful
applicants are expected to develop innovative research programs and
should also have a commitment to undergraduate teaching. Preference
will be given to candidates at the Assistant Professor level; however,
consideration will also be given to more senior applicants. Appointment is contingent upon completion of Ph.D.
Applicants should submit a cover letter, curriculum vitae, separate statements of (1) research interests and plans and (2) teaching experience and
philosophy in a single PDF le to karin.murphy@tufts.edu, and have
three letters of reference sent to the same address. Submission of 1-3
selected reprints is encouraged, but not required. Review of applications
begins November 15, 2010, and continues until the position is lled.
Please submit online application at http://biology.caltech.edu/

Positions and include a brief cover letter, curriculum vitae, relevant
publications, and a description of proposed research. Applicants
should indicate for which of the two positions they wish to be
considered. Instructions will be given for submission of letters of
reference when you apply online. Applications will be accepted until
the position is lled.
Tufts University is an Afrmative Action/Equal Opportunity

Employer. We are committed to increasing the diversity of our
faculty. Members of underrepresented groups are strongly
The California Institute of Technology is an Equal Opportunity/

Afrmative Action Employer. Women, minorities, veterans, and
disabled persons are encouraged to apply.
FACULTY POSITIONS
SCRIPPS INSTITUTION OF OCEANOGRAPHY
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, SAN DIEGO
ARC Super Science Research
Fellows (Three positions)
Faculty of Medicine, Nursing and Health
Sciences
Department of Biochemistry and

Molecular Biology
Leading international university
Clayton campus
The Opportunity
Three ARC Super Science Fellowships are
available to investigate the structure, assembly
and function of bacterial protein transport
machines.
The Projects: The three projects will require
skills in membrane protein production and
characterisation,proteinstructuredetermination,
biophysical assessment of membrane proteins
and measurement of functional impact in
terms of host-pathogen interactions. World
class infrastructure support is available for
the projects which will be based at Monash
Universitys Clayton campus. Monash University
is internationally recognised for research into the
structure and function of membrane proteins in
bacterial pathogenesis
The Fellowships: Candidates with a PhD and
having an outstanding track record in any of the
research areas detailed above are encouraged
to apply. The projects provide opportunities to
dene research directions and provide leadership
within a team environment. Each Fellow will be
awarded a research support budget of up to k
per annum and will work collaboratively with a
postgraduate student protg.
All applications should address the selection
criteria. Please refer to How toApply for Monash
jobs below.
The University
Monash University has a bold vision - to deliver
signicantimprovementstothehumancondition.
Distinguished by its international perspective,
Monash takes pride in its commitment to
innovative research and high quality teaching
and learning.
The Benets
Remuneration package: , -
, pa
Level B (includes employer superannuation
of
%)
This role is a full-time position, however exible
working arrangements may be negotiated.
Monash offers a range of professional
development programs, support for research,
study and overseas work, generous maternity
leave and exible work arrangements.
Duration
Three-year appointment
Location
Clayton campus
Enquiries
See Fellowship guidelines at www.arc.gov.au/
pdf/SSF_fundingrules.pdf
For further details contact Professor Trevor
Lithgow email Trevor.Lithgow@monash.edu
For complete job description and application
process visit www.monash.edu/jobs/
All applications must be received by

Wednesday, December
The Oceans and Atmosphere Section of Scripps Institution of

Oceanography (SIO) at the University of California in San Diego
(http://scripps.ucsd.edu) is committed to academic excellence
and diversity within the faculty, staff, and student body. We invite
faculty applications (tenure-track to tenured) to ll positions in the elds listed below. In
addition to having demonstrated the highest standards of scholarship and professional
activity, the preferred candidates will have experience in the arena of equity and diversity such as leadership in teaching, mentoring, research or service towards building an
equitable and diverse scholarly environment. SIO is a world renowned center of marine
research with approximately 200 principal investigators leading research programs on
all aspects of earth, ocean and atmospheric sciences.
Successful candidates will be expected to teach classes and supervise research at both the
graduate and undergraduate level. The positions require a PhD degree and a competitive
record of publication, as well as evidence of the ability to conduct and fund an active
research program consistent with the opportunity to have done so at this career level.
Review of applications will begin on October 15, 2010, and will continue until positions
are lled. All applications and related materials should be submitted electronically
via Academic Personnel Online RECRUIT at: https://apol-recruit.ucsd.edu/. Applicants should send a letter including descriptions of their teaching experience, research
interests, past experience and leadership in equity and diversity, a list of publications,
immigration status, and the names of three potential referees, along with their complete
institution address, e-mail address, phone and fax numbers.
Applicants should clearly indicate for which position(s) they are applying using the areas
of interest as stated below. Questions about submission of applications may be addressed
to Cristy Whitehead at 858-534-3205, (cwhitehead@ucsd.edu). Salary will depend on
the experience of the successful applicant and will be based on the UCSD pay scales.
Revelle Chair (RP#10-201): We invite applications at the Associate or Full Professor
level for the newly created Revelle Chair in Environmental Science. This faculty position
builds on the legacy of Roger Revelle as a leader in the study of global environmental
change, and will be lled by an outstanding senior scientist in elds related to climate
dynamics and predictability. We seek an interdisciplinary scientist and educator with
demonstrated ability to mentor graduate students and junior colleagues and to provide
leadership in climate-related issues within the Scripps Institution and UCSD. Applicants
are encouraged from all areas of climate studies, particularly those whose research focuses
on large-scale coupled interactions of the atmosphere, ocean and land surface in order to
understand and predict global and regional climate variability on interannual to decadal
time scales and longer. Specic areas of interest include dynamical meteorology and
oceanography, the role of the ocean and atmosphere in past and present climate and the
physical and chemical basis of natural and anthropogenic climate change.
Climate dynamics and predictability (RP#10-202): We invite applications to ll
up to two faculty positions in climate dynamics and predictability. Specic areas of
interest include dynamical meteorology and oceanography, the role of the ocean and
atmosphere in past and present climate and the physical and chemical basis of natural
and anthropogenic climate change. Preference will be given to scholars at the rank of
Assistant Professor, but excellent candidates at other levels and in other specic areas
will also be seriously considered.
Ocean imaging (RP#10-203): We invite applications to ll a faculty position in Physical
Oceanography and Marine Engineering. Specic areas of interest include the development of acoustic and/or electromagnetic sensor technology for observing the ocean and
its subsequent use for conducting innovative experimental work at sea. Preference will
be given to scholars at the rank of Assistant Professor, but excellent candidates at other
levels and in other specic areas will also be seriously considered.
Additional Oceans and Atmosphere positions (RP#10-204): We invite applications to
ll up to two additional faculty positions in Atmospheric Sciences, Physical Oceanography and Marine Engineering. Specic areas of interest include collection and analysis
of data, ocean-state estimation, dynamical oceanography and meteorology, and coastal
and near-shore processes. Preference will be given to scholars at the rank of Assistant
Professor, but excellent candidates at other levels will also be seriously considered.
UCSD is an Afrmative Action/Equal Opportunity Employer with a strong
institutional commitment to excellence through diversity.
ASSISTANT or ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR

SOCIAL SCIENCE & CLIMATE CHANGE #13283
College of Agriculture and Life Sciences
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Located on the Atlantic coast in South Carolina, Charleston offers one of

the nations most historic downtown areas and offers a superb quality of
life including easy access to ocean beaches, extensive outdoor recreation,
and internationally renowned arts and cultural events. Interested individuals
should e-mail their CV and a summary of future research plans to:
Andrew S. Kraft, M.D.
Director, Hollings Cancer Center
Medical University of South Carolina
MSC 955
Charleston, SC 29425
campbetb@musc.edu
These prize postdoctoral fellowships provide a salary of $60,000/yr for two years,
renewable for a third, along with benefits
and research funds. Successful applicants
will work with experimental CNSI faculty;
applicants should indicate the experimental group(s) with which they would
prefer to work. See www.cnsi.ucsb.edu/
fellowships.
Applicants holding a PhD in science or engineering should prepare a cover letter, curriculum vitae, a one-page research proposal, and
arrange for 3 supporting letters and submit
via the website https://fellow.cnsi.ucsb.edu
by December 1, 2010.
CHAIR
Pharmacological and
Pharmaceutical Sciences
University of Houston
College of Pharmacy
Associate Director of
Basic Sciences
Faculty Leadership Position
The Hollings Cancer Center is a National Cancer Institute Designated Cancer

Center with state-of-the-art research and shared resource facilities, and an
extramural research portfolio of $42M. The Center boasts more than 130
faculty scientists for which most participate in four formally organized basic
science cancer research programs Lipid Signaling in Cancer, Cancer Genes
and Molecular Regulation, Developmental Cancer Therapeutics and Cancer
Immunology. MUSC/HCC is looking for an individual who will complement
and expand this existing expertise in cancer research and who will join the
HCCs senior leadership in navigating the growth of the Centers efforts.
ELINGS PRIZE FELLOWSHIPS

in
EXPERIMENTAL SCIENCE
The University of California is an Equal

Opportunity/Affirmative Action Employer.
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The Hollings Cancer Center (HCC) at the Medical University of South Carolina (MUSC) invites applications and nominations for the position of HCC
Associate Director of Basic Sciences. This is a senior leadership position
in the Center working with the HCC Director to develop new strategies to
foster collaborative and transdisciplinary interactions, mentor junior basic
science investigators and identify opportunities for innovative research. The
successful applicant must have an established independent research laboratory effort and demonstrable evidence of leadership ability. The academic
appointment will be within an appropriate MUSC department based on the
applicants area of research.
The California Nanosystems Institute

(CNSI) at the University of CaliforniaSanta Barbara is pleased to announce the
competition for the
The College of Pharmacy invites qualied individuals to apply for the position
of Chair of the Department of Pharmacological and Pharmaceutical Sciences.
The department is co-located on the University of Houston main campus
and the world-renowned Texas Medical Center. Current faculty research
interests include signal transduction, drug delivery, transcellular transport
and metabolism, cardiovascular and renal pharmacology, respiratory pharmacology, neuroscience, regulation of membrane transporters, GPCR structural proteomics, receptor cell biology, and natural products. For a detailed
description of individual faculty research interests, please visit www.uh.edu/
pharmacy. Department faculty members contribute to the Pharm.D., Ph.D.
and Pharm.D./Ph.D. degree programs. Candidates must show strong evidence
of academic leadership, a commitment to professional and graduate education
and peer recognition as an accomplished researcher. Successful candidate is
expected to have a nationally recognized and funded research program that
would complement existing research programs within the department. The
new Chairperson will have faculty lines to ll, and should have the ability to
recruit and develop outstanding faculty. The successful candidate also may
be eligible to receive one of several Endowed Professorships.
Applications will be reviewed until the position is lled. Candidates should
send a letter describing research interests, administrative and educational
philosophies and long-term goals, a curriculum vitae and the names, addresses
(postal and e-mail), phone and fax numbers of at least three professional
references in electronic (PDF) format to:
Mustafa Lokhandwala, Ph.D., Chair, Search Committee
C/O salazar@uh.edu
University of Houston College of Pharmacy
Houston, TX 77204-5000
The University of Houston is an Afrmative Action/Equal Opportunity
Employer Minorities, women, veterans, and persons with disabilities are
U T S O U T H W E S T E R N M E D I C A L C E N T E R AT D A L L A S
ENDOWED SCHOLARS PROGRAM IN MEDICAL SCIENCE

Unique and highly competitive, THE ENDOWED SCHOLARS PROGRAM IN MEDICAL SCIENCE is designed to launch the next
generations scientific leaders on their biomedical research careers by providing seed money, research space and startup
support for groundbreaking projects. The Endowed Scholars Program gives early-career investigators the chance to take
risks, supported by the mentoring of experienced and highly distinguished established researchers at The University of Texas
Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas .
As one of the foremost research institutions in the world, UT Southwestern, with four Nobel Prizes awarded to its
faculty since 1985 and 18 members of the National Academy of Sciences, is poised to lead the way in a new era of
scientic discovery in the 21st century. We conduct more than 3,500 research projects annually totaling more than
$400 million. Endowed Scholars have access to exceptional core facilities, which include DNA microarray services;
electron microscopy; live-cell imaging; mouse gene knockouts, transgenesis and metabolic phenotyping; highthroughput chemical screening; and structural biology. UT Southwestern also is home to one of the nations rst 7-Tesla magnetic
resonance imaging devices for human studies. UT Southwestern has a vibrant graduate school and nearly 4,400 medical, graduate
and health professions students, residents and postdoctoral fellows.
The Endowed Scholars Program, which is fully funded from private endowment, provides more than $1,000,000 over four years
to support the independent research activities, salary and benets of each scholar. Up to ve new scholars are selected each
year from top universities, institutions and laboratories around the world. Each scholar is appointed as a tenure-track assistant
professor in a UT Southwestern academic department or research center. Positions in both basic science and clinical departments are available.
Potential scholars submit nomination materials to a chair or director of one of UT Southwesterns basic or clinical academic departments or research centers. Those chairs or directors then forward nalists materials for consideration to the medical centers Endowed Scholars Committee.
For detailed information about nomination materials and currently available positions,
please visit our Web page: utsouthwestern.edu/utsw/home/scholars
Applications from women and underrepresented minority candidates are strongly encouraged.
UT Southwestern is an equal opportunity institution.
Career opportunities
in the tropics
California Institute of Technology

Cellular, Developmental, or
Regulatory Biology
The California Institute of Technology invites
applications for a tenure-track professorial
position in the Division of Biology. The
successful applicant is expected to develop
an innovative research program aimed at
deciphering the molecular mechanisms that
underlie biological phenomena at the level
of molecules, cells, or organisms, and to be
committed to high quality teaching. Preference will be given to candidates at the Assistant Professor level; however, consideration
will also be given to more senior applicants.
Appointment is contingent upon completion
of Ph.D.
James Cook University is one of Australias most distinctive universities with a focus on creating
a brighter future for life in the tropics worldwide. The University is located in the vibrant regional
community of tropical Queensland, which has one of the fastest growing economies in Australia
adjacent to the Great Barrier Reef and Wet Tropics World Heritage Areas. The Universitys
internationally recognised research is matched by strong commitment to its region, partners
and teaching.
Lecturer/Senior Lecturer Biology (3 positions)

Ref. No. 10191 Townsville
Employment Type: Full-time, continuing
Salary: Lecturer - Academic Level B - AUS $73,814 - AUS $87,096 per annum or
Senior Lecturer - Academic Level C - AUS $89,751 - AUS $103,033 per annum
Please submit online application at http:

//biology.caltech.edu/Positions and include
a brief cover letter, curriculum vitae, relevant
publications, and a description of proposed
research. Instructions will be given for submission of letters of reference when you apply
online. Applications will be accepted until the
position is lled.
Applications close: 29 October 2010

Staff Benefits include a generous superannuation scheme with up to 17% employer
contributions, ve weeks annual recreation leave, exible working arrangements and attractive
options for salary packaging.
For more information go to:
www.jcu.edu.au/jobs, enter the
Reference Number in the search eld
and follow the links.
The California Institute of Technology is

an Equal Opportunity/Afrmative Action
Employer. Women, minorities, veterans, and
disabled persons are encouraged to apply.
www.jcu.edu.au/jobs
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
The Department of Neuroscience at the University of Texas Southwestern
Medical Center at Dallas, under the leadership of Dr. Joseph Takahashi,
invites applications at the Assistant Professor level for a tenure-track
Faculty position in the broadly dened areas of neurogenetics, electrophysiology and imaging. We seek outstanding scientists addressing
molecular and genetic mechanisms underlying behavior, neural circuits
and related neurological disorders. Our emphasis is on individuals using
forward genetic approaches to understand the nervous system and behavior. Individuals using advanced functional approaches to study neural
circuits are also particularly encouraged to apply. Scientists within the
Department of Neuroscience participate in a vibrant, interdisciplinary,
interdepartmental, and highly collaborative research community within the
University, and enjoy access to state-of-the-art research cores in imaging,
mouse MRI imaging, metabolic phenotyping, behavioral phenotyping,
protein chemistry, structural biology, genomics, genetics and transgenic
technology.
Applicants should submit a curriculum vitae, two-page summary of
research accomplishments and future plans. Applicants should arrange
to have 3-5 letters of recommendation sent to the search committee.
Please e-mail application materials to: neurosciencesearch@utsout
hwestern.edu, Neuroscience Search Committee,The University of
Texas Southwestern Medical Center at Dallas, 5323 Harry Hines
Blvd., Dallas, TX 75390-9111. The deadline for receipt of applications
is November 15, 2010.
The University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center is an Afrmative
Action/Equal Opportunity Employer. Women and minority candidates
are encouraged to apply.
Faculty Position
Molecular Biology
Sloan-Kettering Institute
The Molecular Biology Program of the Sloan-Kettering Institute,
Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center (www.ski.edu), has
initiated a faculty search at the Assistant Member level (equivalent
to Assistant Professor). We are interested in outstanding individuals
who have demonstrated records of significant accomplishment and
the potential to make substantial contributions to the biological
sciences as independent investigators. Successful applicants will have
research interests that move the Program into exciting new areas
that complement and expand our existing strengths in the areas
of maintenance of genomic integrity, regulation of the cell cycle,
and regulation of gene expression. Faculty will be eligible to hold
appointments in the Gerstner Sloan-Kettering Graduate School of
Biomedical Sciences, the Weill Cornell Graduate School of Medical
Sciences, as well as the Tri-Institutional MD/PhD Training Program.
The deadline for applications is November 1, 2010. Interested
candidates should visit http://facultysearch.ski.edu to access the
on-line faculty application. Please visit the site as soon as possible,
as it contains important information on the required application
materials, including deadlines for submission of letters of reference.
Informal inquiries may be sent to Julie Kwan at kwanj@mskcc.org
or to Dr. Kenneth Marians, Chair, Molecular Biology Program at
kmarians@sloankettering.edu. MSKCC is an equal opportunity and
affirmative action employer committed to diversity and inclusion in
all aspects of recruiting and employment. All qualified individuals
are encouraged to apply.
www.mskcc.org
CDF Group Leader/Group Leader

Zebraish Genetics
The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute is a world leader in genomic research, with an expanding scientiic programme dedicated to understanding gene
function in health & disease.
The Wellcome Trust Sanger Institute invites applications from outstanding individuals with a primary research interest in zebraish genetics to join our
Faculty and lead key project work in the zebraish area. The successful candidate will beneit from, and contribute to, the Institutes large-scale mutagenesis
programmes including high throughput production and phenotyping of ENU-induced zebraish mutants. Further details of the programmes can be found
at www.sanger.ac.uk/research/areas/mouseandzebraish/
Our Faculty members enjoy access to unparalleled facilities to support the delivery of projects and the generation of data and biological resources on a large
scale. Our core technologies include high throughput sequencing, genotyping and core IT support which underpin our global position in these areas. During
the coming years we aim to make a major contribution to the understanding of gene function, similar in impact to our role in genome sequencing.
We are seeking to appoint a Faculty member at either the Career Development Fellow (CDF) Group Leader and/or at the more experienced Group Leader
level. Further details of our Faculty model can be found at www.sanger.ac.uk/workstudy/career/faculty/
Applicants will have a strong background in genetic research using zebraish as a model organism, having excelled as postdoctoral scientists, career
development fellows and/or junior group leaders and will be able to demonstrate that they have the capability and personal qualities to lead a research
team and direct independent work, possibly for the irst time.
CDF Group Leader positions are offered for a period of 6 years to scientists or clinical researchers who wish to consolidate their research skills and make the
transition from postdoctoral fellow to independent scientist. They provide the opportunity to develop the intellectual basis, biological resources and data
to sustain a scientiic programme in the long term. At the end of the 6 year term it is expected that the post holder will pursue their career elsewhere.
For a Group Leader position applicants will typically be in their irst or second group leader role, have multiple irst author publications in excellent journals
and be able to demonstrate strong evidence of a growing scientiic reputation including references predicting their likely success as an independent
investigator.
Other information
Salary from 40,000 per annum dependent on experience.
Contact Derek Stemple for formal enquiries: ds4@sanger.ac.uk
Formal applications can be made through our online recruitment facility https://jobs.sanger.ac.uk/
General queries can be directed to hrservices@sanger.ac.uk
Jobs at Sanger can be followed using http://twitter.com/sangerinstjobs
Beneits
The Institute has excellent purpose built facilities on the Genome Campus, Hinxton on the outskirts of Cambridge. We offer a comprehensive range of
beneits including a inal salary pension scheme and excellent onsite facilities. Further details can be found on our website http://www.sanger.ac.uk
Closing date for applications is 17 October 2010.
Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences

Seeking Distinguished Scientists in Various Agriculture Areas
Jiangsu Academy of Agricultural Sciences (JAAS) is a professional
agricultural research and extension institution that has been established
since 1932. JAAS ranks at the top of provincial agricultural academies
in China in terms of the comprehensive strength in agriculture. JAASs
headquarter and main research facilities are located in Nanjing, Jiangsu,
China.
Currently, there are 3 distinguished full professor positions available for application in the following areas: breeding, food processing,
bioenergy, facility agriculture, and large-scale farming for modern
animal husbandry. Applicants should have a faculty position already
beyond the assistant professor level in a university or the equivalent
position in a research institution. In addition, all candidates should
demonstrate excellent records of research accomplishment and have a
command of bilingual language for English and Chinese, both in spoken
and written.
Successful applicants will be offered a competitive package, including
sufficient laboratory space, startup funding, relocation fee and competitive salary commensurate with experience, in addition to a housing
allowance, and other employee benefit. Applicants can go to www.jaas.
ac.cn for application details.
In addition, more information for other regular faculty positions from
JAAS relevant to a variety of disciplines in agriculture is also available
at www.jaas.ac.cn.
Contact information
E-mail: rsc-gbk@jaas.ac.cn; Tel: 086-25-84390037
www.ars.usda.gov
Research Plant Biologist/Res. Molecular Biologist/

Res. Geneticist (Plants)
Plant Gene Expression Center
Albany CA
Salary Range of $81,460 - $148,806
Announcement Open: September 20, 2010
to November 15, 2010
Applicants are invited to apply for a permanent, full-time position as a
research scientist at the Plant Gene Expression Center (PGEC) of the
United States Department of Agriculture (USDA), Agricultural Research
Service (ARS). PGEC research is conducted through a close collaborative
partnership with the University of California, Berkeley. The successful
candidate is expected to develop an independent program to carry out
innovative research that enhances our knowledge of plant processes, such
as development and environmental response. The successful candidates
program should complement ongoing research at the PGEC, which
concerns genetic and molecular analysis of disease resistance, circadian
rhythms, light signaling, reproduction and development. The successful
applicant will be considered for an Adjunct Faculty appointment in the
Department of Plant and Microbial Biology, University of California,
Berkeley. The position will be lled at the GS-12/13/14 level (Assistant/
Associate Professor equivalent, salary commensurate with experience).
To apply, print a copy of vacancy announcement ARS-X10W-0257 from
the ARS Careers Website at www.ars.usda.gov/careers and follow the
application directions provided. For information about the position, please
e-mail Dr. Jennifer Fletcher, Jennifer.Fletcher@ars.usda.gov. U.S.
citizenship is required. Applications must be received by the closing date
of the announcement.
USDA/ARS is an Equal Opportunity Employer and Provider.
Invite applications for its
Director of COST Ofce

COST (European Cooperation in Science and Technology) is one of the longestrunning European instruments supporting cooperation among scientists and
researchers across Europe. It provides a natural multi-national arena for such
cooperation through its inter-governmental structure and by developing a
partnership of trust among the COST member countries and beyond.
The COST Committee of Senior Officials invited the European Science
Foundation (ESF) as its implementing agent for the duration of FP7 through
a contract with the European Commission. The ESF therefore provides the
administrative, scientific and technical secretariat for the COST Domain
Committees and COST Actions.
The European Science Foundation (ESF) provides a platform for its Member
Organisations to advance European research and explore new directions for
research at the European level.
Mission of the Position
The mission of the position is to support the Committee of Senior Officials (CSO)
and its President in facilitating cooperation and interaction in scientific and technical research in Europe. The Director of the COST Office supports the ESF in
the capacity of implementing agent of COST. This will be done by managing
the COST Office and its operations within the terms of the EC/ESF contract on
COST and the COST/ESF Memorandum of Understanding by developing and
implementing strategies to support the COST Actions as an efficient science
networking tool.
Responsibilities, prole and employment conditions are described in the
complete position announcement available at
www.cost.esf.org/service/jobs and www.esf.org/vacancy-DCO
The place of work is Brussels, Belgium.
Please send your application (cover letter + CV in English) by 2 November 2010
to job@cost.eu and jobs@esf.org quoting the following reference DCO.
The first round of interviews will be held on 16 November 2010. There will be
a second round with selected candidates on 26 November 2010.
Both interviews will take place in Brussels, Belgium.
Assistant Professor of
Vertebrate Ecological Physiology
School of Integrative Biology
University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign
The School of Integrative Biology and the Department of Animal Biology at the
University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign, seek an outstanding scientist with a
background and experience in vertebrate ecological physiology for a full-time,
9-month, tenure-track faculty position at the assistant professor level with a
target start date of August 16, 2011. Candidates must have a Ph.D. or equivalent
in a relevant eld by start date. The successful candidate will be expected to
develop an externally funded research program, teach at the undergraduate and
graduate level, and collaborate with other faculty to develop research initiatives
relevant to vertebrate biology.
The ideal candidates research on physiology will interface with ecology,
evolutionary biology, development, behavior, and/or molecular genetics.
Incorporation of a eld component in the research will be especially valued.
Salary is commensurate with qualications and experience.
Urbana-Champaign, located 120 miles south of Chicago, offers a variety of
cultural opportunities that showcase the areas diverse ethnic population, superb
public and private schools, quality public transportation, and a rapidly expanding community of high-tech businesses.
To ensure full consideration please create your candidate prole through
https://jobs.illinois.edu and upload your application letter, curriculum vitae,
and summary of research and plans. In addition, three letters of reference
must be sent to: Search Committee Chair, School of Integrative Biology,
University of Illinois, 286 Morrill Hall, 505 S. Goodwin Ave., Urbana, IL
61801 or e-mail sib@life.illinois.edu. All information must be received by
October 29, 2010. For further information contact: Vertebrate Ecological
Physiology Search Committee, sib@life.illinois.edu or 217-333-3488.
Applicants may be interviewed before October 29, 2010; however, no
hiring decision will be made until after that date.
Illinois is an Afrmative Action /Equal Opportunity Employer and welcomes
individuals with diverse backgrounds, experiences, and ideas who embrace
and value diversity and inclusivity. (www.inclusiveillinois.illinois.edu).
Faculty of Science and Engineering

School of Physical Sciences
Department of Chemistry
Postdoctoral Researcher
30,747 - 35,646 pa
You will join the research group of Professor A Hodgson to
study the structure of water at interfaces. You should have
(or be about to obtain) a PhD in Physics or Chemistry, with
experimental expertise in surface science techniques
including UHV and surface preparation. Experience in
surface analysis techniques such as LEED would be
advantageous. The post is available for 3 years.
Job Ref: R-573352/S
Closing Date: 29 October 2010
2 Postdoctoral Researchers
30,747 pa
To work on a 36 month multidisciplinary frontier research
project supervised by Dr Darren Bradshaw, focussed on
the growth and processing of porous metal-organic
frameworks (MOFs) and their composites into applicationspecific configurations to address key societal challenges
in healthcare and sustainability. You should have a PhD in
Chemistry or Materials Science and a demonstrable track
record of research excellence.
Post 1:
This post is central to the development of experimental
protocols for the controlled nanoscale growth and
solubilisation of MOFs for biomedical applications. You
will have a background in biomineralisation, nanoscience,
biocomposites or biological chemistry and proven skills in
the handling and functionalisation (eg fluorescent tags,
cell targeting groups) of protein vesicles and cages.
Relevant experience in the physical characterisation of
protein-based biocomposites and colloids and
assessment of their stability is essential.
Job Ref: R-573316/S
Post 2:
This wide-ranging synthetic role involves the preparation
and characterisation of a range of MOF-based composite
systems across multiple length scales using porous
polymer and oxide supports and processable biopolymer
matrices for applications in catalysis and separation. A
background in porous composite materials is required
with one of the following areas also highly desirable: soft
matter (including gels), colloids and interfaces,
membranes. Relevant experience of materials
characterisation (eg microscopy (SEM), diffraction
methods, light scattering) to augment the synthetic effort
is also essential. Job Ref: R-573317/S
Closing date for both posts: 22 October 2010
For full details, or to request an application pack, visit

www.liv.ac.uk/working/job_vacancies/ or e-mail
jobs@liv.ac.uk Tel 0151 794 2210 (24 hr answerphone)
please quote job ref in all enquiries.
COMMITTED TO DIVERSITY AND
EQUALITY OF OPPORTUNITY
DEAN, GRADUATE COLLEGE OF

BIOMEDICAL SCIENCES
Western University of Health Sciences (WesternU) is a rapidly growing, thriving center for graduate health care and veterinary education.
WesternUs core values have propelled the University to impeccable
levels of excellence.
In 2009, WesternU added four colleges Dental Medicine, Optometry,
Podiatric Medicine and Graduate Biomedical Sciences to its existing
colleges of Osteopathic Medicine, Allied Health, Graduate Nursing,
Pharmacy and Veterinary Medicine.
This year, WesternU completed the construction of a 178,000 square
foot Health Education Center that added 26,556 square footage of new
research space, and a 78,000 square foot Patient Care Center.
WesternU provides a truly innovative and medically relevant research
infrastructure that brings together researchers with synergistic expertise and projects in three thematic areas that are represented by three
developing centers of excellence: Center for Molecular and Metabolic
Diseases, Center for Infectious Diseases and Immunology, and Center
for Integrative Neurobiology.
WesternU recently embarked on a long-range program to enhance its
standing as a graduate academic health science center committed to
expanding its institutional research presence. The establishment of the
Graduate College of Biomedical Sciences (GCBS) reects this commitment and places WesternU in a prominent role for health-related
research and training.
The GCBS was created to train highly skilled and caring biomedical
researchers and future practitioners for entry into academia, industry
or the medical professions. To that end, the GCBS strives to graduate
humanistic professionals who will produce new biomedical knowledge
and practice their healthcare professions with a deeper and broader
understanding of the dynamic sciences underlying the treatment of their
patients. The GCBS offers three individual programs: Master of Science
in Biomedical Sciences, Master of Science in Pharmaceutical Sciences,
and as of summer 2010, Master of Science in Medical Sciences. The
University Strategic Plan calls for an expansion of these programs, other
appropriate master degree level offerings in the biomedical sciences, and
the development of innovative PhD programs in selected disciplines.
WesternU seeks an active researcher with administrative academic
acumen to provide visionary leadership and strategic direction to the
GCBS. The Dean will oversee the day to-day operations of all graduate programs leading to an advanced degree in the biomedical sciences
within the GCBS. The selected candidate will be an individual who
possesses superior leadership, management, operational, communication
and external networking skills.
Position qualications include a PhD or equivalent with a minimum
of ten (10) years experience at a medical or graduate school and/or a
research institute. Academic administrative experience and a successful
history of recent NSF/NIH funding are required. Candidates must meet
the criteria for faculty appointment at the level of professor, tenured.
Additional details on the position can be found at our website: https:
//jobs.westernu.edu/applicants/jsp/shared/Welcome_css.jsp. Please
direct application materials to:
Dr. Philip Nelson, Chair
Dean CGBS Search Committee
Western University of Health Sciences
309 East Second Street
Pomona, CA 91766-1854
Email: pnelson@westernu.edu
Please apply by October 31, 2010. The position will remain open until
lled.
Western University of Health Sciences is an
Equal Opportunity Employer.
Division of Developmental
Biology and Pediatric Urology
Faculty Position
Assistant Professor in GenitoUrinary Tract Development
STANFORD UNIVERSITY
The Divisions of Developmental Biology and

Pediatric Urology are jointly recruiting for
a faculty position in Genito-Urinary Tract
Developmental Biology/Developmental Genetics research. Candidates must hold PhD,
MD or MD/PhD degree. We seek a candidate who will develop a strong federally funded
basic science program to identify the mechanisms of development of the genitourinary system. Faculty at Cincinnati Childrens Hospital Medical Center have access to
high-quality graduate and MD/PhD programs and training programs for postdoctoral
fellows, clinical fellows, residents and clinical faculty.
Our Childrens Hospital is currently ranked number three in the country in terms
of NIH funding, just behind those at Harvard and the University of Pennsylvania.
Dr. Chris Wylie heads the Division of Developmental Biology, which includes about 20
primary faculty appointments, with a wide range of developmental biology research
interests. Dr. Pramod Reddy heads the Division of Pediatric Urology.
For more details on these divisions, and research carried out at CCHMC, visit:
http://www.cincinnatichildrens.org/research/div/dev-biology/default.htm,
http://www.cincinnatichildrens.org/ed/research/degree/mdb/default.htm,
http://www.med.uc.edu/pstp.
Interested candidates should submit curriculum vitae, summary of past research
accomplishments and future goals, and contact information for three references to:
Steven Potter, PhD
Search Committee Chair, ML 7007
Cincinnati Childrens Hospital Research Foundation
3333 Burnet Avenue
Cincinnati, Ohio 45229-3039
genito-urinary@cchmc.org
Cincinnati Childrens Hospital Medical
Center is an Affirmative Action/Equal
Opportunity Institution. Women and
Minorities are encouraged to apply.
Organizacin Mundial
del Comercio
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMICAL
AND SYSTEMS BIOLOGY
The Department of Chemical and Systems Biology at Stanford University

School of Medicine invites applications for two tenure-track positions
at the ASSISTANT PROFESSOR level. We are particularly interested
in candidates with a strong interdisciplinary record in the broad areas
of chemical biology, systems biology, and/or cellular and molecular
biology in normal and disease states. Stanford offers an outstanding
environment for creative interdisciplinary biomedical research. The main
criterion for appointment in the University Tenure Line is excellence
in research and teaching.
Candidates should have a Ph.D. and/or M.D. degree and postdoctoral
research experience. Candidates should send curriculum vitae, a
description of future research plans and the names and addresses of
three potential referees by November 1, 2010 to:
James Ferrell, Professor and Chair
c/o Jean Kavanagh, FAA
Department of Chemical and Systems Biology
269 Campus Drive, CCSR Bldg Room 4145A
Stanford University School of Medicine
Stanford CA 94305-5174
Stanford University is an Equal Opportunity Employer and is
committed to increasing the diversity of its faculty. It welcomes
nominations of and applicants from women and minority groups,
as well as others who would bring additional dimensions to the
universitys research, teaching, and clinical missions.
The University of Texas

at Austin
Stem Cell Biology Position

The Institute for Cellular and Molecular Biology
La Secretara de la Organizacin Mundial del Comercio (OMC) en
Ginebra, Suiza, se propone proveer un puesto de traductor cientcotcnico en la Seccin Espaola de Traduccin.
Funciones generales
Traducir del ingls y del francs al espaol documentos consistentes
principalmente en noticaciones de medidas sanitarias y tosanitarias,
obstculos tcnicos al comercio, documentos referentes a la tecnologa
de la informacin y opiniones y debates de expertos sobre cuestiones
tcnicas y cientcas que se planteen en el contexto del sistema de
solucin de diferencias de la OMC.
Calicaciones requeridas
Ttulo universitario o formacin equivalente en el mbito cientco
y tecnolgico. Se valorar especialmente la formacin en biologa,
agronoma, veterinaria u otras ramas de especializacin anlogas.
Experiencia y competencia demostradas en el campo de la traduccin
tcnica. Amplia cultura general. Por lo menos tres aos de experiencia
prctica en la traduccin. Pleno dominio del espaol a nivel de lengua
materna. Dominio del ingls y del francs.
Para mayor informacin srvase consultar el sitio Web de contratacin
electrnica de la OMC en la direccin: www.wto.org, contratacinelectrnica, Aviso de vacante EXT/F/10-27
The Institute for Cellular and Molecular Biology, Alan Lambowitz,

Director, invites applications for a tenure-track/tenured position in
Stem Cell Biology. Academic appointments at the level of Assistant,
Associate, or Full Professor will be in the Section of Molecular Cell and
Developmental Biology.
Candidates should have an outstanding record of research
productivity and a research plan based on molecular mechanisms in
any area of Stem Cell Biology. Building on a strong existing faculty, the
Institute has recruited more than 50 new faculty members over the past
ten years. In addition to its highly interactive and interdisciplinary
research environment, the Institute provides administrative and
financial support for the Graduate Programs in Cell and Molecular
Biology, Microbiology, and Biochemistry, as well as state-of-the art core
facilities including DNA and next-gen sequencing, mass spectrometry,
electron and confocal microscopy, DNA microarrays, robotics, and
mouse genetic engineering. An MD-PhD program with the UT Medical
Branch and UT-Austins new Dell Pediatrics Research Institute
enhance the environment for Biomedical Research.
Austin is located in the Texas hill country and is widely recognized as
one of Americas most beautiful and livable cities.
Applications received before November 1, 2010 will receive first
consideration, but applications will be accepted until the position is
filled. Please send a single PDF file containing your curriculum vitae,
summary of research interests and names of three references to:
MCDB_stem_cell@biosci.utexas.edu. References may also send their
letters directly to the same email address.
Homepages http://www.biosci.utexas.edu/MCDB/ http://www.icmb.utexas.edu/
Fecha lmite para la presentacin de candidaturas: 26 de noviembre

de 2010
The University of Texas at Austin is an Equal Opportunity Employer.

Qualified women and minorities are encouraged to apply; a background
check will be conducted on applicant selected.
Faculty position in Environmental Microbiology

at Northwestern University
The Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Northwestern University invites applications for a tenuretrack or tenured faculty position in environmental microbiology. We seek outstanding candidates who are working
on complex microbial systems in either engineered or natural environments. The successful candidate will have a
strong background in microbiology, microbial ecology, or environmental biotechnology, an interest in cutting-edge
cross-disciplinary research, and the ability to contribute substantially to our core teaching efforts spanning environmental science and engineering.
Research areas of interest include developing new methods for probing complex microbial communities, improving fundamental understanding of the
behavior and interactions of microbes in both natural environments (e.g., aquatic, sedimentary, and geological systems) and built environments (e.g.,
buildings, bioreactors, and engineered water systems), manipulating microbial metabolism to enhance desirable microbial processes in natural systems
and engineered bioreactors, e.g., to remove excess nutrients or to degrade or sequester contaminants, developing novel microbiota-based technologies
for sustainable energy production, and understanding, predicting, and preventing pathogen transport and the transmission of waterborne disease both in
the developed world and in developing countries.
The hallmark of Northwestern is exceptionally strong, collaborative, interdisciplinary research. Excellent opportunities exist to collaborate with core
faculty in Environmental Engineering and Science (described at http://ees.civil.northwestern.edu/), as well as more broadly with faculty in a variety
of related departments, notably in Biochemistry, Molecular Biology and Cell Biology; Chemical and Biological Engineering; Biomedical Engineering;
Engineering Sciences and Applied Mathematics; Earth and Planetary Sciences, and Microbiology/Immunology. Successful candidates can take great
advantage of and contribute to the new One Northwestern initiative in the Life and Biomedical Sciences, which links research and educational efforts
between the McCormick School of Engineering and Applied Science, the Weinberg College of Arts and Sciences, and the Feinberg School of Medicine
(http://onenorthwestern.northwestern.edu/vision). Northwestern offers exceptionally powerful analytical facilities to all faculty through a series
of core centers. Facilities for microbiology research are available on both Northwesterns main campus and at the downtown medical campus (http:
//www.research.northwestern.edu/facilities/listing.html).
Review of applications will begin in September, 2010, and the search will proceed until the position is lled. Preference will be given to applications
submitted by November 30, 2010. Applications should be submitted electronically as a PDF document containing a cover letter, curriculum vitae, a
two-to-three-page description of research accomplishments and plans for future work, a one-to-two page description of teaching interests, and a list of
at least three persons who can provide letters of recommendation. Application materials should be submitted to the Environmental Microbiology Search
Committee Chair via e-mail at jacqueline-jones@northwestern.edu, or via the web interface located at http://facsearch.mccormick.northwestern.edu/
cee/apply.php?id=26.
It is anticipated that this position will be lled at the junior level but outstanding senior candidates will also be considered.
Northwestern University is an Afrmative Action Equal Opportunity Employer. Women and individuals in underrepresented groups are
encouraged to apply. Hiring is contingent upon eligibility to work in the United States.
Materials Science & Technology
Assistant Professor (Tenure Track) of Advanced Inorganic Materials

The Department of Chemistry and Applied Biosciences at ETH Zurich (www.chab.ethz.ch) and the Empa Materials
Science & Technology (www.empa.ch) invite applications for an anticipated tenure-track position at the rank of
Assistant Professor for Advanced Inorganic Materials. Outstanding candidates at a more senior level will also be
considered. The Department offers a stimulating environment in widespread chemical synthesis, catalysis, advanced
physical and analytical methods as well as theoretical chemistry and provides rst-class experimental infrastructure.
The professorship is assigned to the Laboratory of Inorganic Chemistry and will have its laboratory at Empa which will
provide outstanding infrastructure and unique synergy with its material science and technology teams. The candidate should have a strong and innovative research program in the elds of inorganic synthesis of solids, nanochemistry and energy-related materials. Teaching duties involve the chemistry curriculum at the undergraduate level
and advanced courses in chemistry of solids and nano particles in the Masters program. The new professor will be
expected to teach undergraduate level courses (German or English) and graduate level courses (English).
Assistant professorships have been established to promote the careers of younger scientists. The initial appointment
is for four years with the possibility of renewal for an additional two-year period and promotion to a permanent
position.
Please submit your application together with a curriculum vitae, a list of publications, and a brief statement of
present and future research interests to the President of ETH Zurich, Prof. Dr. Ralph Eichler, Raemistrasse 101,
8092 Zurich, Switzerland (or via e-mail to faculty-recruiting@sl.ethz.ch), no later than November 30, 2010. When applying
electronically, do only send one PDF le. With a view towards increasing the number of female professors, ETH specically encourages qualied female candidates to apply.
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA, BERKELEY

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF
METABOLIC BIOLOGY
The Department of Nutritional Science and Toxicology,
at the University of California Berkeley, is recruiting
for an assistant professor (nine-month tenure-track)
starting as early as July 1, 2011.
We expect the appointee to develop a vigorous and independent research
program investigating metabolic regulation, control of metabolic systems,
and/or the relationship among nutrients, phytochemicals, toxicants, genetics,
and disease. Applicants should have a bioscience Ph.D., M.D., or equivalent
degree, with training and experience in experimental biology. The appointee
will have opportunity to work with Ph.D. students in four interdepartmental
programs: Molecular and Biochemical Nutrition (Metabolic Biology); Molecular Toxicology; Comparative Biochemistry; Endocrinology. The appointee also
will contribute to educating undergraduates seeking degrees in nutritional biology and molecular toxicology. Moreover, the school/department is interested
in candidates who will contribute to diversity and equal opportunity in higher
education through their teaching, research, and service. Numerous opportunities exist for interactions with colleagues at UCB and in the Bay Area.
Applicants should provide a curriculum vitae, a statement of current and
proposed research, copies of publications, and the names and addresses of at
least three references. Applicants should have their referees send references
to us directly, and should refer their referees to the UC Berkeley Statement
of Condentiality at: http://apo.chance.berkeley.edu/evalltr.html. Applications should be submitted via http://ecnr.berkeley.edu:80/sReg.php?i=172
or nstsearch@berkeley.edu (electronic submissions strongly preferred) or to
Search Committee Chair, Department of Nutritional Science & Toxicology, 119 Morgan Hall, University of California, Berkeley, CA 94720-3104.
Consideration of applications will begin on November 15, 2010. The closing
date for this search is: November 30, 2010.
The University of California is an Equal Opportunity, Afrmative Action
Employer. We are especially interested in a diverse applicant pool. Berkeley
is committed to addressing the family needs of faculty, including dual
career couples and single parents.
Governor Robert W. Scott

Distinguished Professorship
The Department of Chemistry at North Carolina State University invites
nominations and applications to fill the Governor Robert W. Scott
Distinguished Professorship in chemistry. Preliminary inquiries are also
encouraged. This position is one component of a major growth plan at
the University with emphasis on interdisciplinary research related to life
sciences and energy. The successful candidate must have a nationally and
internationally recognized research program and be able to provide dynamic
leadership in his or her area of research. All candidates are expected to
have strong interest and ability in teaching at both the undergraduate and
graduate levels. Formal requirements include a PhD in chemistry or in a
related scientic eld plus an established track record of accomplishments
appropriate for appointment as a tenured full-professor in chemistry.
Candidates should submit an electronic copy of their curriculum vitae
along with other material describing future directions of their research
at: http://jobs.ncsu.edu under position number 101743. Nominations
and all inquiries should be sent to the Chemistry Department Chair
Morteza_Khaledi@ncsu.edu. After a preliminary review, candidates will
be contacted and asked to request letters of recommendation. However, if a
candidate prefers, letters of recommendation may also be sent at the time of
application and mailed to the Governor Scott Search Committee Chair,
Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh,
NC 27695-8204. The review of applicants will begin on November 1,
2010, and will continue until candidates are selected.
We welcome the opportunity to work with candidates to identify
suitable employment opportunities for spouses or partners. AA/EOE.
In addition, NC State welcomes all persons without regard to sexual
orientation. Persons with disabilities requiring accommodations in the
application and interview process please call (919) 515-3148.
Protein Biophysics/Structural Biology Faculty Position

Department of Physiology and Biophysics
Case Western Reserve University School of Medicine
Cleveland, Ohio
The Department of Physiology and Biophysics is undergoing major expansion. We invite outstanding individuals to apply for a faculty position at the
level of Assistant Professor (tenure track), Associate Professor, or Professor. The major focus of the current search is the area of protein biophysics
and/or structural biology, with a special emphasis on studies of membrane
proteins. We especially encourage applicants who are using interdisciplinary approaches to work on basic or translational aspects of human diseasesparticularly in the cardiovascular, renal, or neuronal systems. Visit
our website at http://Physiology.case.edu or http://Biophysics.case.edu.
The Department and School have excellent infrastructure, particularly in
x-ray crystallography and NMR spectroscopy (see http://Pepcc.case.edu
and http://Ccmsb.case.edu)
Applicants for a position as Assistant Professor should have a Ph.D. and/or
M.D. degree, 3-5 years postdoctoral experience, and a strong record of
scholarly activity. Competitive candidates for associate professor should
have a substantial publication record and a national reputation. Competitive
candidates for professor should have achieved records of leadership in the
profession and have a strong record of scholarly publications.
Applicants should submit a cover letter and a full Curriculum Vitae. Applicants for Assistant Professor position should also include a brief description of their research plans as well as the contact information for three
professional references. Please submit application materials with separate
le attachments by email to: Walter F. Boron, M.D., Ph.D., Chairman,
PhysiologyBiophysicsSearch@case.edu.
In employment, as in education, Case Western Reserve University is
committed to Equal Opportunity and Diversity. Women, veterans,
members of underrepresented minority groups, and individuals with
disabilities are encouraged to apply.
Department of Environmental Health

Assistant/Associate Professor of Environmental Epigenetics
The Department of Environmental Health at the Harvard School of Public
Health (HSPH) seeks candidates for the position of assistant or associate
professor of environmental epigenetics. This is a tenure-ladder position, with
academic rank to be determined in accordance with the successful candidates
experience and productivity.
We seek an outstanding scientist whose research focus is the experimental and
genomic analysis of epigenetic mechanisms that modify disease susceptibility.
We especially welcome candidates interested in how epigenetic alterations
form the molecular basis for health effects of environmental exposures.
This tenure track position offers outstanding scholarly and scientic resources
in a collegial and collaborative atmosphere. A joint appointment with Harvard
Medical School and an afliated teaching hospital is also possible. The position offers the opportunity to mentor exceptional students and postdoctoral
trainees with strong interests in environmental and molecular epidemiology.
The successful candidate will be expected to develop an independent research
program, to participate in teaching graduate-level courses, and to supervise
graduate students and post-graduates. Applicants must have a Ph.D., M.D.
or equivalent graduate degree.
Please send a letter of application, including a statement of current and future
research interests, curriculum vitae, sample publications, and the names of four
referees to the following address. Applicants should ask their four referees
to write independently to this address. The electronic submission of application documents to the email below is welcome. Chair, Search Committee
for Assistant/Associate Professor of Environmental Epigenetics, c/o B.
Zuckerman, Harvard School of Public Health, Department of Environmental Health, 665 Huntington Avenue, Building 1, Room 1301, Boston,
MA 02115; Email: bzuckerm@hsph.harvard.edu
Harvard University is committed to increasing representation of women
and minority members among its faculty and particularly encourages
applications from such candidates.
Want to learn more about exciting and rewarding

careers outside of academic/industrial research?
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Cancer Science Institute of Singapore

FACULTY POSITION AT
YALE UNIVERSITY
Department of Molecular, Cellular and
Developmental Biology
The Department of Molecular, Cellular and
Developmental Biology at Yale University
invites applications for a faculty appointment
as an assistant, associate or full professor from
individuals working on any area of plant biology.
The Department encourages applications from
candidates using any experimental approach,
including molecular, genetic, biochemical, or
genomic/proteomic approaches, to investigate
outstanding questions in modern plant biology
at the organismal, cellular or molecular level.
We expect the successful candidate to develop an
active research group, be an interactive member
of the faculty and participate in interdisciplinary
research and training. The successful candidate
should demonstrate communication skills commensurate with excellence in teaching at both the
undergraduate and graduate levels.
Applications will close December 10, 2010.
Submit an application, a curriculum vitae and
a description of research interests on line to
https://academicjobsonline.org/ajo/Yale.
Request at least three individuals submit letters
of recommendation on your behalf to https://
academicjobsonline.org/ajo/Yale. For questions,
please e-mail mcdb.plantsearch@yale.edu.
Yale University is an Afrmative Action/Equal
Opportunity Employer. Women and members
of underrepresented minority groups are
especially encouraged to apply.
Faculty and Postdoctoral Fellow Recruitment

CSI Singapore, National University of Singapore, is a state-of-the-art research center with a multifaceted and coordinated approach to cancer research, extending from basic cancer studies all the
way to experimental therapeutics. The focus of the institute is on cancers endemic to Asian populations such as gastric, liver, lung, leukemia and breast cancers. The institute houses a full spectrum
of research and clinical translational facilities. This major center is led by a team of world-class
scientists with signicant government funding from Singapores National Research Foundation and
Ministry of Education.
We are seeking individuals with exceptional scientic credentials to join a vibrant, dynamic team
at CSI Singapore.
Principal Investigators
Qualied candidates at Professor, Associate Professor and Assistant Professor levels should be at the
cutting edge of their eld with an established record of excellence in cancer research. Candidates
should have the capability and experience of leading high-level, innovative research programs resulting in international quality publications. Successful candidates can look forward to stable funding for
up to 5 years commensurate with their abilities, ample laboratory space and resources, a competitive
salary package and a dynamic working environment. Candidates with research emphasis in gastric,
liver and lung cancers will be strongly considered.
Postdoctoral Fellows
Postdoctoral Fellow candidates should be highly-motivated, creative individuals with an outstanding PhD degree in a related discipline. Successful candidates can look forward to working with top
cancer researchers in an internationally represented environment.
Interested candidates should send their CV and the names of three referees to:
Professor Daniel G. Tenen
Director, Cancer Science Institute of Singapore (CSI Singapore), NUS
Email: csi_careers@nus.edu.sg
Please indicate the position you are applying for in the subject title.
Visit our website at www.csi.nus.edu.sg
AAAS is here helping scientists achieve career success.

Every month, over 400,000 students and scientists visit ScienceCareers.org in search of the information, advice, and opportunities they need to take the next step in their careers.
A complete career resource, free to the public, Science Careers offers a suite of tools and services developed specically for
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As a AAAS member, your dues help AAAS make this service freely available to the scientic community. If youre not a member,
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To learn more, visit aaas.org/plusyou/sciencecareers

Faculty Position in the

The University of Porto invites applications for three
INVITED CHAIRS IN BIODIVERSITY RESEARCH
The three Invited Chairs will be located at the Faculty of Sciences of Porto and
be part of CIBIO (Research Centre in Biodiversity and Genetic Resources), a
Center of Excellence in biodiversity, environment and evolutionary research.
CIBIO conducts research in different areas, including ecology, evolution,
conservation biology, behavioral ecology and landscape planning, among
others (http://cibio.up.pt). We seek outstanding, innovative applicants with
a record of excellence in research who will complement our existing interests
and strengths.
The three Invited Chairs are supported in part by private or public companies
and the Portuguese Fundao para a Cincia e a Tecnologia (www.fct.mctes.pt)
and will last for a period of three to ve years. They are (1) the BES - Invited
Chair in Biodiversity, (2) the EDP - Invited Chair in Biodiversity, and (3) the
REFER - Invited Chair in Biodiversity (for further details please go to http:
//cibio.up.pt). The second is a full-time job while the two others are half-time,
and all are provided with generous research support, including funds for personnel, equipment and running expenses.
The successful candidates must have at least ve years postdoctoral experience and are expected to develop a strong, independent research program that
integrates both environmental and evolutionary aspects, to attract external
funding, and contribute to graduate and undergraduate teaching. CIBIO and
the University of Porto offer a stimulating scientic and cultural environment,
including a variety of other research centers in the elds of ecology, evolution
and the environment thus providing multiple opportunities for collaborative
projects.
Application packages should include a full Curriculum vitae, a vision statement
of proposed research interests and the names and addresses of three potential
referees. Documents should be submitted by email, not later than 31st October
2010, to cibio.up@mail.icav.up.pt.
Gene Expression and

Regulation Program at The Wistar Institute
The Wistar Institute, an independent, non-profit research institute with a primary
focus on cancer research, seeks an outstanding candidate with a doctoral degree
or equivalent for a faculty position at any academic rank in the Gene Expression
and Regulation Program. We are seeking a candidate to complement the
Institutes strength on chromatin and transcription regulation. The successful candidate will use chemical, biochemical or genomic approaches within the biological
context of disease such as cancer and age-associated disorders. Specific areas
of focus include: chromatin regulatory mechanisms, chemical biology as it relates
to chromatin enzymology, structure/biophysics of higher-order chromatin, biological models of chromatin regulation, nuclear organization of transcription and
non-coding RNA regulatory mechanisms.
The Wistar Institute, an NCI-designated Cancer Center, offers highly competitive
start-up support, salary and fringe benefits, in addition to a superb and interactive
research environment, including state-of-the-art core facilities with multiple laboratories that are increasingly emphasizing systems biology approaches to basic
biological processes, cancer and other human diseases. The Institutes location
on the University of Pennsylvania campus and adjacent to Drexel University provides potential academic and clinical collaborators, as well as opportunities for
training graduate students.
Applications will be reviewed as received and will be accepted until the position
is filled. To ensure timely consideration, applicants should submit applications
before November 1, 2010. The application should include a curriculum vitae, a
brief summary of past and future research interests, history of research funding
support (if applicable), and three letters of reference. Applications should be sent
by e-mail to: Ronen Marmorstein, Search Committee Chair, c/o Maria Colelli
(colelli@wistar.org), The Wistar Institute, 3601 Spruce Street, Philadelphia, PA
19104. EOE/AA/M/F/D/V.
An NCI-designated Cancer Center
For more information about us, visit our Web site at
www.wistar.org
Director
Aiken, SC
The University of Georgia (UGA) is searching for a successful and creative
leader to guide its world-renowned Savannah River Ecology Laboratory
(SREL) to new heights of accomplishment. Due to its location on the Department of Energys protected Savannah River Site (DOE-SRS), SREL has
unique access to large, undisturbed areas and unparalleled opportunities for
interdisciplinary research in ecological and environmental areas of topical
importance. SREL, established by ecology pioneer Eugene Odum, has many
long-term data sets that are unique resources for cutting-edge environmental
and ecological work in areas such as climate change, the nuclear energy renaissance, and contamination and remediation of wetlands. The next leader will
develop new initiatives and help build critical partnerships with other institutions including the Savannah River National Laboratory, other research
groups on the SRS, and the Southeastern Universities Research Association
(SURA) to conduct research on and off the SRS.
The SREL Director will report directly to the UGA Vice President for
Research (OVPR) and be located at SREL, but will have a faculty appointment through an appropriate UGA school or department.
The successful candidate will have a PhD, at least 15 years of experience in
a relevant science, and be a nationally recognized research scientist with a
strong research track record and history of external funding. Salary will be
commensurate with experience. Applicants should submit their curriculum
vitae and the names and addresses of at least four references by October
31, 2010 to: Dr. Rebecca Sharitz, Savannah River Ecology Laboratory,
Drawer E, Aiken, SC 29802; Sharitz@srel.edu.
The University of Georgia is committed to increasing the diversity of its
faculty and strongly encourages applications from individuals in underrepresented groups. The University is an EEO/AA institution.
Inorganic Materials Chemistry Faculty Position in the

Energy for the Future Initiative
at the University of California, Davis
The UC Davis Department of Chemistry invites applications for an Assistant Professor of Chemistry associated with the UC Davis Energy for the
Future Initiative targeting major energy issues facing California and the
nation. The Energy for the Future Initiative brings a total of fourteen new
faculty positions to the campus, including a total of four positions in the
Chemistry Department. The online application link is available on the
Chemistry website (http://www.chem.ucdavis.edu/).
We seek a colleague who will synthesize new inorganic solid state compounds, characterize their structures, properties, and/or stability, with
the fundamental goal of understanding the inorganic solid state at the
level of atoms and chemical bonds, and the practical goal of nding new
materials for energy applications. He/she will develop an independent
research program and also take advantage of specialized techniques and
major instrumentation, including the Peter A. Rock Thermochemistry
Laboratory, TEM and spectroscopy at UC Davis, as well as synchrotron and neutron based experimentation. A competitive candidate will
demonstrate an interest in actively participating in the UC Davis Energy
Institute, as well as demonstrating a strong commitment to undergraduate
and graduate teaching. A Ph.D. or equivalent degree in chemistry or a
related discipline is required. The position is open until lled. To ensure
full consideration, online applications should be submitted no later than
November 1, 2010, for a targeted start date of July 1, 2011.
The University of California is an
Afrmative Action/Equal Opportunity Employer.
Research
Microbiologist,
www.ars.usda.gov
GS-0403-12/13
Salary Range of $68,809 to $106,369
The Food Safety and Enteric Pathogens Research
Unit in the National Animal Disease Center in
Ames, Iowa is seeking a qualified Research
Microbiologist to conduct research describing
microbial communities in the swine intestinal
tract. Incumbent develops alternatives to antibiotics for controlling intestinal colonization by
the foodborne pathogen Salmonella. NADC is
the premier research institute within the USDA
for studying diseases of large animals and has
recently undergone a $500 million upgrade of
laboratory facilities. Resources for the position
include ow cytometry, mass spectroscopy, laser
capture microdissection microscopy, Roche FLX,
Solexa-Illumina and AP3100 sequencers, an electron microscopy/histology facility, bioinformatics
resources, and both conventional and gnotobiotic
large animal support. A Ph.D. in microbiology
or a related eld is required. Assigned research
requires a professional knowledge of microbial
genetics, diversity, biochemistry, and pathogenesis;
metagenomic analyses of microbial ecosystems;
and a working knowledge of culturing anaerobic
bacteria. For further information, contact Dr.
Thad Stanton at Thad.Stanton@ars.usda.gov.
Questions regarding application procedures can be
directed to Kim Grandon at 515-337-7277. For
details and application directions, visit the website:
www.ars.usda.gov/careers and refer to announcement number ARS-X10W-0263. U.S. citizenship
is required. Applications must be received by
October 22, 2010.
USDA/ARS is an Equal Opportunity Employer
and Provider.
Boston University School of Medicine

welcomes applications for its departments
below at ranks of Instructor, Assistant &
Associate Professor, or Professor.
Anatomy &
Neurobiology
Biochemistry
Microbiology
Physiology
& Biophysics
Pharmacology
& Experimental
Therapeutics
Pathology
Email a cover letter specifying
your department of interest with
your CV to busmdean@bu.edu .
Boston University is an equal opportunity
and affirmative action employer
Department of Environmental
Health at Indiana University
The Department of Environmental Health, one
of four academic departments in the School
of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation
(HPER) at Indiana University - Bloomington is forming the necessary prerequisites
to transition HPER to an accredited School
of Public Health. Four tenure/tenure-track
positions are available through a competitive
national search with anticipated hire dates of
August 1, 2011. All searches will remain open
until positions are lled.
Download
your free copy.
ScienceCareers.org/booklets
eers Away
CAREER Car
from the Bench
TRENDS
sts
Advice and Options for Scienti
Assistant Professor positions include

Environmental Molecular Toxicologist and
Environmental Toxicologist. Assistant-Associate-Full positions in Environmental Health
Epidemiologist and Occupational Health.
Interested applicants are encouraged
to peruse the HPER website: http://
www.hper.indiana.edu/about/careers.shtml
to nd detailed information regarding these
positions. Send letter of application, statement of professional objectives, proposed
research agenda, curriculum vitae, and list
of three references for junior-level positions
and six references for senior-level positions
to: Chair, Search Committee, c/o Christina
Lirot, clirot@indiana.edu.
Indiana University is an Equal Employment
Afrmative Action Employer committed to
excellence through diversity.
you by
This booklet is brought to Ofce
the AAAS/Science Business
POSITIONS OPEN
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
Neuroscientist
Department of Pathology and Anatomy
Eastern Virginia Medical School
The Department of Pathology and Anatomy at
Eastern Virginia Medical School invites applicants at
the Assistant Professor level for teaching Neuroscience
to students in the medical, physician assistant, surgical
assistant, and Ph.D. programs. Experience teaching
gross anatomy and/or pathology would be helpful.
No laboratory space is associated with this position.
The Department has a distinguished record of teaching accomplishments. The candidate must have postdoctoral training in the neurosciences, a record of
teaching medical students, and demonstrated proficiency in the use of technology in education and teaching. The position requires scholarly activity related to
innovations in education or collaborative research
with basic and clinical neuroscientists in the fields of,
e.g., sleep or neural plasticity. There are opportunities for collaborative research with the Department
of Psychiatry in the fields of animal models and psychopharmacology. Scholarly activities should lead to
national/international presentations, peer-reviewed
publications, curriculum innovation, and extramural
funding. The position also requires service on institutional committees, student mentoring, and participation in the nationally recognized community service
efforts of the school.
Applicants should send curriculum vitae, a twopage summary of teaching and research accomplishments, and the names and contact information of
three to five potential references by January 15, 2011.
Please mail all application materials to:
Nancy_s Search Committee
Department of Pathology and Anatomy
Eastern Virginia Medical School
700 West Olney Road
Norfolk, VA 23507
EVMS is an Affirmative Action/Equal Opportunity Employer as well as a Drug and Tobacco Free Work Place.
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR of BIOLOGY
The Department of Biology at California State University San Bernardino invites applications for a tenuretrack position at the rank of Assistant Professor in the
area of Cellular Plant Physiology. The successful applicant will develop an independent research program, and
is expected to excel in teaching core courses related to
cell and plant biology at the undergraduate and M.S.
levels. Candidates must have a record of published research and show potential for developing and sustaining
an independent, externally funded research program involving both undergraduate and M.S. students. Candidates must have a Ph.D. in the biological sciences;
postdoctoral experience is desirable. Application deadline
is November 30, 2010, or until position is filled. Submit
curriculum vitae, statement of research accomplishments
and goals, statement of teaching philosophy, and three
letters of reference to: Dr. David Polcyn, Chair, Attn:
Cellular Plant Physiologist Search, Department of
Biology, Cal State San Bernardino, 5500 University
Parkway, San Bernardino, CA 92407. Website: http://
biology.csusb.edu/jobs.php.
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
Quantitative Analysis and Modeling of Natural
Resources
Purdue University invites outstanding candidates with
interest in such areas as ecological statistics, ecosystem
modeling, and environmental analyses to apply for an
academic-year, tenure-track faculty position. Visit website:
http://www.fnr.purdue.edu for details. Submit a cover letter, including the names and contact information for
three references, curriculum vitae, summary of research
interests, statement of teaching philosophy and interests,
and list of relevant coursework by November 15 to:
Search Chair, Purdue University, Department of
Forestry and Natural Resources, 715 W. State Street,
W. Lafayette, IN 47907-2061. Telephone: 765-4962215, e-mail: bpijanow@purdue.edu. Purdue University is
an Equal Opportunity/Equal Access/Affirmative Action Employer
fully committed to achieving a diverse workforce.
AWARDS
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29 ead
FACULTY POSITION in Bioengineering

(at any level, with preference for Assistant Professor)
The Department of Bioengineering Engineering (http://be.ucsd.edu) at the University of California,
San Diego, invites applications from candidates engaged in innovative research related to multiple
areas of bioengineering for one or more faculty positions. Successful applicants will be expected
to teach undergraduate (especially courses in the Biotech and the BioSystems Engineering Major
tracks) and graduate courses in Bioengineering and to establish a vigorous program of high-quality
federally funded bioengineering research, particularly research that focuses on:
genome-scale or systems approaches to biological complexity
experimental investigations of dynamics of living systems, including optical methods
integration across multiple scales from molecule to organism to neurons, and
applications relevant to regenerative medicine
Exceptional candidates in other areas will also be given consideration. The Bioengineering
Department within the Jacobs School of Engineering at UC San Diego is committed to building
an excellent and diverse faculty, staff, and student body. In addition to having demonstrated the
highest standards of scholarship and professional activity, or for junior scholars to have the potential
thereof, the preferred candidates will have experience or demonstrated contributions to a climate that
supports equity, inclusion and diversity. Applicants are asked to submit materials online at https:
//apol-recruit.ucsd.edu/apply. Please include a cover letter, a curriculum vitae including a complete
list of publications, a statement summarizing research interests and teaching experience, past or
planned contributions to diversity and the names of ve referees with their contact information. For
inquiries, please contact: Chair, Department of Bioengineering, 9500 Gilman Drive, Mail Code
0412, La Jolla, CA 92093-0412, or by e-mail to recruit@bioeng.ucsd.edu. Review of applications
will begin immediately and continue until the position or positions are lled.
Salaries are commensurate with qualications and experience.
the eni award 2011

ideas for a brighter future
eni.com
UCSD is an Equal Opportunity/Afrmative Action Employer with a strong institutional

commitment to the achievement of excellence and diversity http://diversity.ucsd.edu. For
applicants interested in spousal/partner employment, please visit the UCSD Partner
Opportunities Program website http://academicaffairs.ucsd.edu/ofces/partneropp/.
POSITIONS OPEN
POSITIONS OPEN
METABOLOMICS FACULTY POSITION

Institute for Cell Engineering &
Biological Chemistry
The Johns Hopkins University
School of Medicine
The Institute for Cell Engineering (ICE) and
the Department of Biological Chemistry (BC) at
The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine invite applications for a tenure-track Faculty
position at any level. ICE and BC are jointly
seeking candidates with an outstanding record in
the area of metabolomics, and a commitment to
excellence in research and teaching. Applicants
should submit (preferably as a single PDF file),
curriculum vitae, a list of publications, and a
summary of research and future plans by December 15, 2010. Electronic files should be sent to
e-mail: metabolomics@jhmi.edu. Applicants
should also request that three letters of recommendation be sent electronically (preferred) or to
the address below:
Gerald W. Hart, Ph.D.
Committee Chair
C/O Ms. Angelina Hines
Department of Biological Chemistry
School of Medicine
725 North Wolfe Street
Baltimore, M.D. 21205-2185
Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action Employer.
BIOCHEMISTRY/BIOORGANIC
CHEMISTRY and ANALYTICAL
CHEMISTRY FACULTY OPENINGS
The Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry at
the University of Maryland, Baltimore County (UMBC)
invites applications for two tenure-track faculty positions in
the areas of biochemistry or bioorganic chemistry and
analytical chemistry. Applicants with research programs in
any sub-field(s) of these two disciplines are welcome;
however, in the latter case expertise in mass spectrometry is
preferred. The appointments commence August 2011.
The positions, which require a Ph.D., are anticipated to be
filled at the ASSISTANT PROFESSOR level. Successful candidates are expected to establish strong research
programs and teach at both the undergraduate and
graduate (Ph.D., M.S.) levels. The Department is a highly
cross-disciplinary and interactive group of faculty, postdoctoral fellows, Ph.D., M.S., and undergraduate students engaged in cutting edge research at the molecular
level, working in excellent laboratory facilities in a recently
renovated building. The University is strategically situated
on a suburban campus in the intellectually and culturally
vibrant Baltimore-Washington corridor, which enhances
the dynamic educational and research opportunities afforded by its diversity, intermediate size and world-class
infrastructure. Applicants should submit curriculum vitae,
description of research plans, and statements of teaching
philosophy; and arrange for three letters of recommendation to be sent to Chair, (Biochemistry/Bioorganic
Chemistry or Analytical Chemistry) Faculty Search Committee at: Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry,
University of Maryland, Baltimore County, 1000
Hilltop Circle, Baltimore, MD 21250. Electronic submissions can be made to e-mail: chemsearch@umbc.
edu. UMBC is an Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action Employer; and applications from women, minorities, and individuals with
disabilities are especially encouraged. Applications will be considered until the positions are filled.
POSTDOCTORAL POSITION to study the cytoskeletal organization of bacterial RNA processing
systems using molecular biological, cell biological, and
biochemical techniques. Experience in protein or membrane biochemistry will be an asset but is not a requirement. NIH supported, 20102014. Relevant papers:
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. 104:1667, 2007; J. Biol. Chem.
283:13850, 2008; J. Bacteriol. 192:3222, 2010. Respond
to: Professor L. Rothfield, Department of Molecular,
Microbial and Structural Biology, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT 06032, USA.
E-mail: lroth@neuron.uchc.edu. The University of Connecticut is an Equal Opportunity Employer.
132
POSITIONS OPEN
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
Department Of Biology
The Department of Biology invites applications for a
tenure-track position in Microbiology at the Assistant
Professor level to begin fall 2011. For additional information about the University, visit websites: http://
www.bradley.edu and http://www.bradley.edu/
humanresources/opportunities/faculty.shtml.
A Ph.D. is required, postdoctoral experience is preferred. The successful applicant will teach upper level
major_s microbiology, courses in his/her area of specialization, preferably immunology, general introductory
biology courses, and contribute to the broader Biology
curriculum. The candidate is expected to establish a
productive, funded research program consistent with
the University_s emphasis on student-faculty scholarship collaboration and working with students of diverse
backgrounds. Applicants must demonstrate a strong
commitment to undergraduate teaching and research,
and the promise of scholarly and pedagogical excellence in a liberal arts setting.
Qualified candidates should submit a letter of application addressing qualifications for the position, latest
curriculum vitae, graduate and undergraduate transcripts,
statements of teaching interests and research plans, and
three professional letters of reference to:
Dr. Erich K. Stabenau, Chair
Biology Department
Bradley University
Peoria, IL, 61625
To ensure full consideration, hard copies of application materials should be received by November 15,
2010. Review of applications will begin immediately
and continue until position is filled.
Bradley University is an Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action
Employer. The administration, faculty and staff are committed to
attracting qualified candidates from underrepresented groups.
ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR
for Primate Resources
New England Primate Research Center
Harvard Medical School
The New England Primate Research Center of Harvard
Medical School seeks qualified candidates for the position
of Associate Director for Primate Resources. Successful
candidates will have a D.V.M. or equivalent degree and
advanced training in an appropriate discipline. The Associate Director for Primate Resources will direct all aspects of the Center_s animal and veterinary care services
and will manage a large, diverse, AAALAC-accredited
research program involving over 200 affiliated and collaborative scientists and a permanent staff of over 60
personnel including six veterinarians. Candidates should
have evidence of outstanding leadership and experience
in the utilization of nonhuman primates in models of
human disease.
The Division of Primate Resources supports a diverse
biomedical research portfolio with a focus on genetics,
infectious diseases and neuroscience. Opportunities for
collaborative and independent research are available and
encouraged. For detailed responsibilities and minimum qualifications, please see website: http://www.hms.
harvard.edu/nerprc/.
Send applications to: Dr. Roger Spealman, Chair,
Search Committee, Harvard Medical School, New
England Primate Research Center, P.O. Box 9102,
Southborough, MA 01772-9102. Applications should
include curriculum vitae, a concise summary of past accomplishments and future plans, and the names and contact information for at least three references. Applications
will be considered until the position is filled.
Harvard Medical School and the New England Primate Research
Center are Equal Opportunity Employers, committed to diversity in
the workplace.
1 OCTOBER 2010
VOL 330
SCIENCE
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR
Biological Chemistry
School of Medicine
The Department of Biological Chemistry at
The Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine invites applications for a tenure-track faculty
position at the Assistant Professor level. The Department is seeking candidates with an outstanding record in any area of biochemistry, cellular, or
molecular biology and a commitment to excellence
in research and teaching. Applicants should submit
(preferably as a single PDF file) curriculum vitae,
a list of publications and a summary of research
and future plans by November 15, 2010. Electronic files should be sent to e-mail: bcrecruit@
jhmi.edu. Applicants should also request that
three letters of recommendation be sent electronically or to the address below:
Craig Montell, Ph.D.
Committee Chair
C/O Ms. Claire Brzeczko
Department of Biological Chemistry
School of Medicine
725 North Wolfe Street
Baltimore, M.D. 21205-2185
Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action Employer.
FACULTY POSITION in
Fisheries and Mariculture
The University of Texas at Austin, Marine Science
Institute invites applications from internationally recognized scientists currently of associate or full Professor
rank for the position of ASSOCIATE DIRECTOR of
Fisheries and Mariculture. The successful candidate will
hold a tenured senior faculty appointment in the Department of Marine Science and while Associate Director would hold the Perry R. Bass Endowed Chair in
Fisheries and Mariculture.
The Associate Director will be expected to develop an
outstanding broad-based research program focused on
Gulf of Mexico fishes and be responsible for: (1) managing the Fisheries and Mariculture Laboratory personnel and facilities which occupy 33,000 square feet of
buildings on 10 acres of land; (2) managing the institutional funds appropriated to this program; (3) raising external funds to initiate new research that involves
graduate students; (4) effectively communicating major
regional and national issues in fisheries and mariculture
to the general public and how they are being addressed
by current research at the facility; and (5) performing
the normal duties of a faculty member including teaching
and University service.
Details of the position, the Institute, and application
procedure are available at websites: http://www.utmsi.
utexas.edu/hr and http://facultyjobs.utexas.edu.
The University of Texas at Austin values diversity and is committed
to Affirmative Action and Equal Opportunity. Women and minorities
are encouraged to apply. Background check conducted on applicant
selected.
POSTDOCTORAL POSITION
Department of Human Genetics
Emory University School of Medicine
Postdoctoral position open in the laboratory of
Dr. Stephen Warren for a talented, creative, and scientifically adventurous individual with documented research
accomplishments and bench skills. Our work covers all
aspects of Fragile X syndrome, a common inherited form
of cognitive deficiency and autism (see website: http://
genetics.emory.edu). We operate as a dynamic, fastpaced team focused upon discovery and seek motivated
applicants with a Ph.D. and/or M.D. degree with training in neurobiology, molecular biology, and/or genetics.
Experimental skills in neuronal cell culture, protein translation, histone modification, and/or iPS cell culture would
be useful. Send curriculum vitae and the contact information for three references to e-mail: christi.bell@emory.
edu. Emory University is an Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action
Employer.

Wellcome Trust Investigator Awards
Chinese compass
Were now inviting world-class researchers tackling ambitious

research questions to apply for Wellcome Trust Investigator Awards.
These extend our fellowship funding model to researchers in posts
salaried by their universities or research institutes, and are available
to those based in the UK, the Republic
of Ireland and low- or
middle-income countries.
www.wellcome.ac.uk/investigators
POSITIONS OPEN
FACULTY POSITION
Microbial Pathogenesis
Applications are invited for faculty positions
in microbial pathogenesis at the Public Health
Research Institute, an infectious diseases research
center at New Jersey Medical School-UMDNJ in
Newark, New Jersey. Applicants with an interest
in emerging infectious disease pathogens and biodefense with expertise in host-pathogen interactions are particularly encouraged to apply. The
successful candidate will have demonstrated research productivity with existing funding, and he/
she will be expected to maintain an independent,
innovative NIH-funded research program. A
competitive startup package and outstanding core
facilities are available, including animal imaging,
informatics, and extensive BSL-3/ABSL-3 containment facilities, including a new Regional Biocontainment Laboratory.
Applicants should submit curriculum vitae, a
statement of research experience, a summary of
future plans, and names of three references by
December 15, 2010, to: Dr. Issar Smith, e-mail:
smithis@umdnj.edu. Website: http://www.
phri.org.
Affirmative Action/Equal Employment Opportunity Employer, Minorities/Females/Persons with Disabilities/Veterans.
PROFESSOR of PRACTICE in
Geographic Information Systems,
Tulane University
The Department of Earth and Environmental Sciences seeks to fill a non-tenure-track, Professor of
Practice position to teach courses in Geographic Information Systems (GIS), and to supervise the GIS
computer lab. To be considered, the applicant must
have experience using geologic, topographic, and
geophysical raster and point cloud data sets. Expertise
with ESRI products is required, including customization of GIS applications. We seek an individual
possessing an enthusiastic dedication to teaching who
is willing to make a long-term commitment to the
department and the University. A Ph.D. is required at
the time of appointment. The initial appointment will
be for three years with the possibility of renewal after
a performance review at the end of the second year.
The deadline for applications is October 30, 2010,
but the position will remain open until filled. Applications should include curriculum vitae, a statement
of teaching interests and goals, and the names and
contact information of at least three references, and
should be sent to: Dr. Stephen Nelson, Department
of Earth & Environmental Sciences, Tulane University, 6823 Street Charles Avenue, New Orleans,
LA 70118-5698. E-mail: snelson@tulane.edu preferred. Further information about the Department and
University can be obtained at website: http://tulane.
edu/sse/eens. Tulane University is an Affirmative Action/Equal
Opportunity Employer. Women and minorities are encouraged
to apply.
POSTDOCTORAL FELLOWSHIPS in
Immunobiology of
Normal and Neoplastic Lymphocytes
This NIH sponsored program offers training in a
wide variety of cancer related areas of immunology including immune recognition, regulation, and tolerance;
lymphocyte development; cell signaling and adhesion;
and cancer immunotherapy. Our website: https://webdev.
med.upenn.edu/contribute/t32/ describes the research
interests of the 31 primary trainers in the program.
Positions are open immediately for Ph.D. graduates
and for those who expect to graduate in the next six
months. Applicants must be American citizens or permanent residents.
Interested candidates should send curriculum vitae
and names of three references to: Elizabeth Thompson,
Administrative Assistant, Department of Pathology
and Laboratory Medicine, 616 BRB II/III, 421 Curie
Boulevard, Philadelphia, PA 19104-6160. Fax: 215573-6725. E-mail: teliza@exchange.upenn.edu. Women
and minorities are urged to apply. The University of Pennsylvania
is an Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action Employer.
134
POSITIONS OPEN
POSITIONS OPEN
CHIEF
Section of Gastroenterology
Department of Medicine
Boston University School of Medicine
The Department of Medicine at Boston University School of Medicine and Boston Medical Center
is recruiting a Chief of the Section of Gastroenterology. The Gastroenterology Section is composed of
a very accomplished group of academic faculty and
fellows, and the successful candidate would build
upon a strong academic program that provides dynamic clinical care and training in the context of a
remarkably diverse patient population. The successful candidate_s experience and qualifications are expected to meet those for the rank of Professor. We
seek an individual with a distinguished record of investigative achievement, clinical and educational excellence, and exemplary leadership skills. The Department
of Medicine is one of the country_s leading researchintensive departments of medicine, and the candidate
would possess a well-established research program
that will complement the ongoing research in the
section. The ideal candidate would also contribute to
research programs that exist throughout the department, medical school, and broader Boston University
environment, taking advantage for instance of a superb
cancer center, nanoscience/nanomedicine initiative,
bio-engineering, molecular imaging center, rich genetic epidemiology resources (e.g. the Framingham
Heart Study), and health services research programs,
to name a few.
Interested applicants should submit a letter of interest and curriculum vitae to: Richard A. Cohen,
M.D., Chair GI Section Chief Search Committee
at Vascular Biology Section, Boston University Medical Center, 650 Albany Street X720, Boston, MA
02118. Candidates from all backgrounds are encouraged to apply.
Boston University School of Medicine is an Equal Opportunity/
Affirmative Action Employer.
FACULTY POSITIONS
University of Virginia
The Department of Pharmacology at the University
of Virginia seeks to fill two tenure-eligible positions.
Rank is dependent upon qualifications. The first position seeks candidates investigating how ion channels
relate to physiological systems or pathological processes. Areas of interest include, but are not limited to,
molecular genetics and/or cell biology of ion channel
regulation (expression, posttranslational modification)
in the context of integrated cardio-respiratory, endocrine or neuronal network function. The second position seeks candidates exploring genetic networks, signal
transduction pathways, and mechanisms involved in regulation of metabolism and the underlying pathologies
of atherosclerosis, diabetes, obesity, or hypertension.
Areas of interest include, but are not limited to, transcriptional regulation, signal transduction networks
important for metabolic control, and the role of inflammation in the pathology of metabolic disease. The
successful candidates will join growing groups of investigators utilizing molecular and physiological approaches to study ion channel biology or metabolism
with an emphasis on the identification and validation
of new drug targets. Candidates exploring integrative
approaches including in vitro, in vivo, and/or systems
biological models using cutting-edge technology are
preferred. Both positions require a Ph.D., M.D., or
equivalent. Faculty will enjoy superb resources including state-of-the-art core facilities, a generous startup
package, and a strong collaborative research environment. To apply, candidates should visit Jobs@UVa online at website: https://jobs.virginia.edu. For the
first position, how ion channels relate to physiological
systems or pathological processes, search on posting
number 0606166; for the second position, exploring
genetic networks, signal transduction pathways and
mechanisms involved in regulation of metabolism and
the underlying pathologies of atherosclerosis, diabetes,
obesity or hypertension, search on posting number
0606266. For either position, candidates must complete a Candidate Profile online, attach a cover letter,
curriculum vitae, two-page statement of research goals
and interests, and contact information for three references. The positions will remain open until filled. Questions about the positions or the application process may
be directed to e-mail: pharmsearch@virginia.edu.
The University of Virginia is an Equal Opportunity/Affirmative
Action Employer.
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR of BIOLOGY

The Department of Biology at California State University San Bernardino invites applications for a tenuretrack position at the rank of Assistant Professor in the
area of Animal Physiology. The successful applicant will
develop an independent research program, and is expected to excel in teaching core courses related to organismal and human physiology at the undergraduate
and M.S. levels. Candidates must have a record of published research and show potential for developing and
sustaining an independent, externally funded research
program involving both undergraduate and M.S. students. Candidates must have a Ph.D. in the biological
sciences; postdoctoral experience is desirable. Application deadline is November 30, 2010, or until position is
filled. Submit curriculum vitae, statement of research
accomplishments and goals, statement of teaching philosophy, and three letters of reference to: Dr. David
Polcyn, Chair, Attn: Animal Physiologist Search, Department of Biology, Cal State San Bernardino, 5500
University Parkway, San Bernardino, CA 92407.
Website: http://biology.csusb.edu/jobs.php.
YALE UNIVERSITY
The Department of Chemistry at Yale University
invites applications for tenure-track positions at the
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR level to commence 1 July
2011. We seek creative teacher-scholars who show
promise for developing outstanding research programs and we will consider applications in any area
of chemistry. Particular foci this year will be in the
areas of inorganic and physical chemistry. Applicants
should send their curriculum vitae, a statement of
research plans, and arrange for the submission of three
letters of recommendation. All materials should be
received by 1 November 2010. Send applications to:
Chair, Junior Faculty Search Committee, Department of Chemistry, Yale University, P.O. Box
208107, New Haven, CT 06520-8107. This search
remains subject to final university approval. Yale University is an Equal Opportunity/Affirmative Action Employer and
applications from women and underrepresented minority group
members are especially encouraged.
1 OCTOBER 2010
VOL 330
SCIENCE
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Volume 330 Issue 6000

Georgii Georgiev and Eugene Sverdlov

R. Deibert et al., Eds., reviewed by D. Tambini

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