About the Author

Dr AS Bhalla (MA Cantab; Ph.D Manchester) is a former Fellow of

Sidney Sussex College, Cambridge, UK. His recent publications
include the Royal Tombs of India: 13th to 18th Century (Mapin, 2009);
and Poverty and Exclusion of Minorities in China and India (Palgrave
Macmillan, 2013).

To Praveen, Ranjan and Arman

A. S. Bhalla

BUDDHIST ART IN ASIA

Copyright A. S. Bhalla (2014)

The right of A. S. Bhalla to be identified as author of this work has
been asserted by him in accordance with section 77 and 78 of the
Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
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A CIP catalogue record for this title is available from the British
Library.

ISBN 978 1 78455 059 2

www.austinmacauley.com
First Published (2014)
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Acknowledgments
The publisher and author acknowledge the following for their help and
copyright clearance:
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) (New Delhi) for Figs. 33 and 34
(Chapter 6) taken from Ajanta Murals: An Album of Eighty-five
Reproductions in Colour edited by A. Ghosh (New Delhi, 1987) and for Fig.
39 supplied by the ASI.
Attinger SA of Neuchtel (Switzerland) for Fig. 59 (Chapter 9) taken from
Thailande: Art et religion (Neuchtel, 1974), Audio-Visual Department
(DAV) of the Library of the City of Chaux-de-Fonds, Fernand Perret Fund.
Terence Faircloth, Atelier Teee, Inc., California for Fig. 58 (Chapter 9)
downloaded from the website:sacreddestinations.com.
Dr John Listopad of California State University Sacramento for Fig. 49
(Chapter 8) taken from Art from Thailand edited by Robert L. Brown
(Mumbai, Marg Publications, December 1999).
British Museum, London, for Figs. 9, 10 and 11 (Chapter 2) and Figs. 30, 31
and 32 (Chapter 5), Trustees of the British Museum.
Kolkata Museum for Fig. 29 (Chapter 5), taken by the author.
Lahore Museum (Pakistan) for Fig. 6 (Chapter 2) taken by Ranjan Bhalla.
Oriental Museum, Lisbon (Portugal) and the Berardo Collection for Fig.1,
taken by the author.
Wikipedia for Fig. 12 (Chapter 2).

Co ntents

List of Figures and Tables

Preface

9
11

Chapter 1
Buddhism in India and Abroad

24

Chapter 2
Buddhist Art in Asia

51

Chapter 3
Bodhgaya: The Seat of Enlightenment

64

Chapter 4
Sarnath: Site of the First Sermon

74

Chapter 5
The Stupas of Sanchi, Bharhut and Amaravati

89

Chapter 6
The Cave Temples of Ajanta, Ellora and Karle

103

Chapter 7
The Temples and Sculptures of Angkor

121

Chapter 8
The Temples and Paintings of Ayutthaya

134

Chapter 9
The Temples of Bangkok

Glossary

147

Bibliography

150

Illustration Credits

159

Index

160

List of Figures and Tables

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.
30.
31.
32.
33.
34.
35.
36.
37.
38.
39.
40.

Bodhisattvas Lokesvara and Manjushri, China

Sarnath stupas, India
San Fa Si pagodas, Dali, China
A stupa, Wat Arun, Bangkok, Thailand
A Japanese pagoda, Nikko Toshogu Shrine
An emaciated Buddha, Gandhara, Pakistan
A standing Buddha, Sarnath, India
A Khmer Buddha, Angkor Thom, Cambodia
Buddha footprints, Amaravati, India
A medallion showing worship of Buddha relics, Amaravati, India
A relief showing worshippers, a throne and Buddhas feet, Amaravati,
India
A rock painting from Sirigiya, Sri Lanka
Banteay Srei temple, Cambodia
Stone carvings, Banteay Srei
Mahabodhi temple, Bodhgaya
Granite railing, Bodhgaya Museum
Current railing around the temple
Daijokyo Buddha of Japan, Bodhgaya
Great Buddha, Kamakura, Japan
Tibetan temple and monastery, Bodhgaya
A Buddha statue and tantric decorations, Bhutanese temple
Clay carvings, Bhutanese temple
Dhamekh Stupa, Sarnath
Floral and geometric patterns on the Dhamekh stupa
A decorated pediment, Sarnath
Round stone pillars, Sarnath
Great Stupa, Sanchi
Northern gateway to the Great Stupa, Sanchi
A Bharhut yaksi
A limestone pillar showing the conversion of Nanda, Amaravati
Great Departure of Prince Siddharatha, Amaravati
Floral decoration on a limestone pillar, Amaravati
Round floral decorations, Ajanta
A close-up of an apsara, Ajanta
Carvings on the facade of Cave 19, Ajanta
Nagaraja and his consort, facade of Cave 19, Ajanta
Chaitya interior with a standing Buddha, Ajanta
Facade of Cave 10 (Carpenters cave), Ellora
A loving couple on the facade of the Karle monastery
A naga hood, Angkor Thom
7

41.
42.
43.
44.
45.
46.
47.
48.
49.
50.
51.
52.
53.
54.
55.
56.
57.
58.
59.

Nagas on a pediment, Banteay Srei

General view of Angkor Wat
Painted ceiling and columns, Angkor Wat
A group of dancing apsaras, Angkor Wat
Demon gods, Angkor Thom
Bodhisattvas as guardians, Angkor Thom
Khmer army marching into battle, Bayon
A devata from the central sanctuary, Bayon
A jataka scene on a wall painting, Wat Ratchburana, Ayutthaya
Wat Mahathat behind a meditating Buddha, Ayutthaya
Khmer-style central tower, Wat Ratchburana, Ayutthaya
Stupas of Wat Ratchburana, Ayutthaya
Golden Buddha statue in royal attire, Wat Na Phra Men, Ayutthaya
A close-up of the reclining Buddha, Wat Po, Bangkok
Buddhas feet with mother-of-pearl inlay, Wat Po, Bangkok
Wat Arun from the river, Bangkok
Temple guardians, Wat Arun, Bangkok
General view of Wat Phra Keo, Bangkok
A mural painting depicting a scene from Buddhas life, Bangkok

Tables
Table 2.1
Ancient Indian dynasties and patronage of Buddhist art
Table 4.1
Differences between Sarnath and Mathura images of Buddha
Table 5.1
Characteristics of the railings in Sanchi, Bharhut, Amaravati and Bodhgaya
Table 7.1
Temples of Angkor

Preface
Buddhism, which originated in India in the sixth century BC, faded into near
oblivion by the thirteenth century. However, it spread to other countries in Asia,
and along with it, Buddhist art. Tracing the Indian influence on Buddhist art in
Asia is a central theme of the book.
Why did Buddhism disappear in India? This question has not yet found a
satisfactory answer. Some scholars and historians believe that Buddhism was so
tolerant of other faiths that it was gradually reabsorbed by the Hindu tradition. It
may have lasted as long as it received royal patronage during Ashokas reign
and that of his successors. This religion was also popular among the mercantile
community which provided financial support to the Buddhist temples and
monasteries. The decline of the mercantile community may have lowered the
status of Buddhism. Lack of resources to sustain a new religion may have
further contributed to its downfall. The arrival of Islam in India in the thirteenth
century was perhaps the final blow to Buddhism.
Chapter 1 presents a brief history of Buddhism in South Asia, Southeast
Asia and East Asia as a background to a discussion of monuments (temples,
monasteries, stupas), sculpture (Buddha statues, medallions and relief panels) as
well as paintings in Ajanta, Bodhgaya, Ellora, Karle Sarnath and Sanchi in
India, Angkor in Cambodia, and Ayutthaya and Bangkok in Thailand. It
examines reasons for the spread and later downfall of Buddhism in India and its
expansion in countries such as Burma (Myanmar), Cambodia, Sri Lanka and
Thailand.
Chapter 2 discusses the patronage of Buddhist art by kings, rich merchants
and ordinary people as well as Indian influence on Buddhist art in South Asia
and the rest of Asia particularly Southeast Asia (that is, Cambodia, Indonesia
and Thailand). There are wide variations in the features of Buddhist art
(especially Buddha sculptures) across countries and regions. We examine
whether these differences are due to history, culture, legends or geography.
Early conservative form of Buddhism did not present Buddha in a human form.
His presence was shown by such symbols as the Wheel of Law, lotus, a tree,
footprints, a stupa and an empty throne. However, later the form of Buddhism
broke away from the above symbolism and allowed Buddhas human
embodiment for worship. Buddha sculptures grew rapidly throughout Asia and
replaced the earlier symbols.
Chapter 3 on Bodhgaya discusses its importance as a Buddhist holy place
where Buddha attained enlightenment. It is a small town of international
significance. It contains Buddhist temples and monasteries built by Bhutan,
Burma (Myanmar), China, Japan, Taiwan, Thailand and Tibet (China), which
represent different styles of architecture. Similarly, Buddhist sculptures vary
from temple to temple.
Sarnath is another important Buddhist holy place where Buddha delivered
his first sermon. At the end of the first sermon, five monks became the first
members of sangha (order) in search of dharma (truth). Chapter 4 discusses and
9

illustrates the Dhamekh stupa, the only surviving monument as well as the ruins
of monasteries and stone pillars.
In Chapter 5, the railing pillars of Sanchi (Madhya Pradesh) are compared
with those in Bharhut (Madhya Pradesh), Amaravati (Andhra Pradesh) and
Bodhgaya (Bihar). Sanchi is known for the Great Stupa and its richly-decorated
gateways. Although the Bharhut and Amaravati stupas have not survived, their
railings preserved in the National Museum in Kolkata and the British Museum
in London respectively, offer a rich source of information on Buddhist art.
Chapter 6 discusses Ajanta, Ellora and Karle rock-cut temples in
Maharashtra. The Ajanta mural paintings are some of the oldest Indian paintings
to have survived. The themes of these paintings and sculptures are discussed and
illustrated.
Chapter 7 is devoted to the Khmer temples of Angkor Wat and Angkor
Thom. Angkor was the seat of Khmer kings from the ninth to thirteenth century.
King Yasorvarman I moved his capital to Angkor and built Hindu temples
devoted first to Shiva and later to Vishnu. Later, these temples became places of
Buddha worship. Buddhist art is discussed notably, bas reliefs of devatas,
heavenly nymphs as well as Buddha sculptures which are displayed in
abundance in the various temples.
Chapters 8 and 9 deal with Thailand where Buddhism influenced art from
the first century AD onwards. The two chapters discuss temples, sculptures and
paintings in Ayutthaya and Bangkok respectively as well as the Ayutthaya and
Bangkok Schools of art.
The Indian influence on Buddhist art pervaded South Asia (in Burma,
Ceylon and Nepal, for example) and Southeast Asia (in Cambodia, Indonesia
and Thailand). Different chapters of the book provide concrete examples of this
influence in architecture, sculpture and paintings.
Most illustrations in the book are based on my fieldwork in the various
Buddhist holy places covered in the book.
I owe a debt of gratitude to several friends and relatives, notably, Ingvar
hman, for the scanning of rare photographs; my two sons, Arman Bhalla and
Ranjan Bhalla, for supplying photographs of Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom in
Cambodia and Ayutthaya in Thailand; Sandra Zysset for providing photographs
of Buddhas from Japan: and Anjali Ghate for willingly offering assistance in
library searches.
I would like to thank the Archaeological Survey of India, New Delhi, and a
number of museums for permission to use illustrations, notably, the British
Museum in London, the Oriental Museum in Lisbon, National Museum Kolkata
in India and the Lahore Museum in Pakistan.
Finally, I am grateful to the staff of the following libraries in Geneva and
Cambridge for their valuable assistance in the course of my research work:
Library of the Museum of Ethnography,Geneva;Library of Art and Archaeology
of the City of Geneva; India Office Section of the British Library, London and
the Cambridge University Library.
Commugny, Switzerland

A.S. Bhalla
10

Chapter 1
Buddhism in India and Abroad
Buddhist religion was a driving force behind the evolution of what is commonly
viewed as Buddhist artarchitecture, sculpture and painting. While one may
quibble about whether religion can stimulate art or art can be defined in
religious terms, there is no denying the fact that much of Buddhist art, mainly
sculpture, centres around Buddha, his life before birth, after nirvana and the
religion he founded.
Buddhism originated in India in the fifth or sixth century BC. Hinduism was
the prevailing religion at that time which believed in sacrificial rituals,
transmigration of soul and karmas.
Gautama Siddhartha, later Lord Buddha, was the founder of Buddhism. He
was born in around 563 BC in a southern clan of Sakyas in Nepal, bordering
India. He came from a wealthy family and grew up in the midst of comforts of
life. Since his childhood, Gautama was known to be contemplative. A Brahmin
predicted that he would become a saint by renouncing the world. Therefore, his
father was particularly keen to keep his son away from any discomforts. He was
married at the age of sixteen and was blessed with a son, Rahula.
Gautama was disillusioned with family and social life, and soon decided to
abandon it. At the age of twenty-nine, he left his home, wife and son. He rode
away on his horse, Kanthaka, accompanied by his charioteer, Channa. This
event is known as the Great Departure. He was deeply influenced by the sight of
misery of a decrepit man, a sick man and a dead man.
Buddha learned Yoga, a meditative discipline, and practised it while
searching for the Truth. He attained enlightenment (or bodhi) under a pipal tree
in Gaya (later called Bodhgaya, see Chapter 3) in Bihar in about 525 BC.

Birth, Principles and Types of Buddhism

Buddhism originated in the northeast of India, bordering UP and Bihar, what is
now Nepal, as a reaction to Hindu idol worship, rituals and caste hierarchy.
During Buddhas life time (approximately 563480 BC), India was replete
with small religious movements centred around a few well-known and
charismatic yogis. People were increasingly dissatisfied with the Hindu practices
of rituals and sacrifices. This is when tri-ratna (three jewels) emerged involving
Buddha, Dharma (the doctrine) and Sangha (the community). Buddha himself
spent the first seven years as a yogi. But at the end of this period, he realised that
this was not the right path to salvation. This is when he adopted the middle path
between self-indulgence and self-mortification.

11

The Middle Path and Four Noble Truths

Buddha decided to teach Dharma to others for their salvation. He delivered the
first sermon in Sarnath (see Chapter 4) which is called setting the Wheel of
Law in motion. It enunciated Four Noble Truths about:

Suffering (dukkha)
The cause of suffering (samudaya) which originates within us from the
craving for pleasure.
The removal of the cause of suffering (nirodha), and
The path leading to the removal of the cause of suffering (marga).

Suffering can be eliminated by following a middle path, defined as the

Eightfold Path for the attainment of salvation or release from rebirths (nirvana).
The purification of the soul and the elimination of suffering and misery
requires:

Continual meditation
Right mode of seeing things
Right thinking
Right speech
Right action
Right mode of living
Right effort in every mode of being
Right mindfulness

The adoption of the Eightfold Path involved the creation of such institutions
as the Buddhist Order or sangha, Buddhist councils and monasteries. The sangha
was created with the core membership of the first five disciples of Buddha. It
soon accepted others in its fold, for example, Yasa, the son of a wealthy banker
from Varanasi, his parents and lay devotees.
The sangha rapidly grew due to the simplicity of local dialects in which the
Buddhist message of equality and charity was preached. A number of rules
governing the new Order were introduced.
Initially, only monks were accepted by the Order. However, nuns were also
admitted in due course. It was possible for women to be ordained if they agreed
to follow stringent rules.
In the early days of Buddhism, those who gave up family life started
wandering and living on alms as mendicants. They adopted a guru and started
wandering with him. During the rainy season (vassa) from July through August,
they stayed at fixed retreats in villages. After Buddhas death, rain retreats were
replaced by more permanent monasteries called viharas.

12

Different Types of Buddhism

Buddha died at the age of eighty. After his death, Buddhism and his doctrine
developed in three different directionsTheravada, and Tantra. About 100
years after Buddhas death, divisions began to appear in the Buddhist Sangha
(Council). It was perhaps a consequence of a rapid growth of the Order from a
rather small number of monks to a large community. In this context, the Third
Buddhist Council at Pataliputra (present-day Patna) in c250 BC was quite
significant. At this conference, the Theravada Buddhists attempted to exclude
dissidents from the Buddhist Order. It was also at this Council that the Buddhist
canon (Tripitaka) was completed and it was decided to send missionaries to
Southeast Asian countries. At this stage, there were two main schools (1) A
conservative group which adhered strictly to the original principles and practices
of Buddhism and (2) a more liberal school which offered greater freedom.
Subsequently, the liberal form of Buddhism started incorporating Hindu Tantric
rituals which may have eventually led to its decline.
The three types of Buddhism are briefly discussed below.
1.

Theravada Buddhism (Hinayana or Lesser Vehicle): It is the oldest and

original form of Buddhism that adhered to the teachings of Buddha. It
had three main elements:
The sphere of desire (kamadhatu).
The sphere of material form (rupadhatu); animals, demons, ghosts
and goods.
The fear of the formless (arupadhatu).

At the Third Council, a controversy arose between the reformists and the
early Theravidans over the reality of states of consciousness (cittas). The former
group believed that these states actually existed whereas the latter condemned
this view. The former sect at this stage decided to leave the Ganges Valley and
move to Madhura in the northwest. It is in Madhura that a more reformed school
of Buddhism or Greater Vehicle developed.
Theravada believes that an ideal form of Buddhism is reached when an
ascetic attains nirvana through his own efforts. It lays greater emphasis on his
Dharma than on Buddha himself. It also believes that an ascetic and a layman
have very different roles to play in religion as well as society.
2.

Buddhism: This adaptation of the original form of Buddhism was

presumably meant to bring a larger number of followers within its fold.
It spread to Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Southeast Asia after the gradual
disappearance of Buddhism in India. It believes in Buddha as a
transcendent being who multiplies himself. In several temples in and
outside India, a large number of Buddha statues are found in different
forms, especially in Southeast Asian countries which adopted the form
of Buddhism.

13

Unlike the Theravada form of Buddhism, focuses more on Buddha and

Bodhisattvas (Buddhas-to-be) than on Buddhas doctrine (Dharma). This is
evidenced by the existence of a large number of Bodhisattva images, for
example in Ajanta in India and Angkor Thom in Cambodia (see Chapters 6 and
7) as well as in China. Figure 1 of Bodhisattvas Lokesvara and Manjushri date
back to the Jin or Yuan dynasties of the thirteenth century. There was also a
practice in China of carving them in stone. Often Bodhisattvas are adorned with
garments and jewels unlike Buddha images which are invariably very simple.

Fig. 1 Bodhisattvas Lokesvara and Manjushri, China

Under Buddhism, Buddha is seen as one of many Buddhas who appeared in

different universes. While Theravada Buddhists believe that a Buddhist can
achieve salvation on his own by following the Eightfold Path, the followers
believe in turning to Bodhisattvas.
3.

Tantrism (or Vajrayana): This form of Buddhism is associated with

deities, for example, the goddess of fertility, magical rites, geometrical
symbols, formulae and diagrams and even sexual freedom (sexual
orgies are known to have been allowed). In early stages, Tantrism
appeared in both Hinduism and Buddhism. The objective of this form of
esoteric belief and practice was to attain a state of mystical union of a
deity with his consort. Hence the symbolism of sexual union was a way
of realising an ultimate mystical experience. Morals, celibacy and
asceticism were rejected in favour of indulgence of the senses. This
14

form of Buddhism became open to abuse and misinterpretation of the

true tenets of Buddhism. That is why it is considered by some critics as
a degeneration of true Buddhism. It spread to Ceylon, India, Nepal and
Tibet.
This form of Buddhism is said to be a simplification of the Hindu Vedic
cults. It accepts spouses of male Bodhisattvas as Taras or Saviouresses (Thapar,
1990:261-2). Revered as a goddess, Tara was the female equivalent of the
Boddhisattva Avalokitesvara who became important in Tibet. In sixth-century
Indian art, Tara first appears along with Avalokitesvara as the Mother of all
Buddhas. The mother image was respected, as a woman is the source of all
creation. The fifth century witnessed the emergence of a new cult worshipping
female deities such as the goddess of fertility. This may have been the precursor
of Tantrism, which developed in the sixth century and centred on magical
formulae and symbols as well as worship of a mother image as the source of all
creation.

Spread of Buddhism in India

Several factors account for the rapid spread of Buddhism and its doctrine. This
religion was open to all and did not recognise caste differences (an important
feature of the Indian society at that time). The only differences recognised by
Buddha were those that derived from diverse moral maturity of individuals.
However, this could not have been the only reason for a new religion to survive
Hindu critics and prosper. Royal patronage of the Mauryan, Gupta and Sunga
kings as well as financial support from the mercantile community must have
also played an important part in the propagation of the new religion.
The rapid spread of Buddhism in India is associated with the conversion of
Mauryan King Ashoka to the Buddhist doctrine and principles after the battle of
Kalinga (in present-day Orissa) in 260 BC. The battle for the supremacy of the
trade routes to South India involved a lot of bloodshed, the deaths of a large
number of people and the displacement of those who survived. The king felt
permanent remorse and horror after the bloody battle. He decided to adopt
Buddhism because it preached peace and non-violence.
Ashoka, the grandson of Chandragupta, founder of the Mauryan dynasty in
India (322 BC to 185 BC), is known to be the earliest and most well-known of
the patrons of Buddhism in India and the rest of Asia. He was a Hindu when he
ascended the throne and was converted to Buddhism much later, after the battle
of Kalinga, as noted above. One scholar (for example, Thapar, 1963) believes
that Ashokas conversion to Buddhism was a way to attract support from nonorthodox elements. Apparently, his rise to power was not without difficulties.
He did not receive whole-hearted support from the orthodox Brahmanic
elements.
The Sunga kings took over after the fall of the Mauryan Empire. In 185 BC,
Pushyamitra murdered the last Maurya king and established the Sunga dynasty
(185-72 BC). Although the first Sunga king is said to have persecuted
15

Buddhists, the kings who followed him either tolerated or actually promoted
Buddhism. Controversy surrounds the belief that the first Sunga king actively
persecuted Buddhism. It is known that he was a Brahmin and as such may not
have been enthusiastic about Buddhism. But both religions were practised
during the Sunga dynasty.
There is some historical evidence to suggest that the orthodox Sunga kings
were tolerant of Buddhism and that this religion prospered during the Sunga
Empire. The following two inscriptions found at the Mahabodhi temple in
Bodhgaya suggest royal support:

The gift of Nagadevi, the wife of King Brahmamitra.

The gift of Kurangi, the mother of living sons and the wife of King
Indragnimitra, son of Kosiki. The gift also of Srima of the royal palace
shrine (Barua, 1934).

The Gupta period (fourth to seventh century), the golden age of India as it is
sometimes called, saw Buddhism flourish further. The two Chinese pilgrims, Fa
Hsien1 and Hsuan Tsang2, who visited India in the fifth and seventh century
respectively, testified that both Hinayana and forms of Buddhism had prospered
in the Gupta Empire.
During the Gupta period, Buddhism had spread beyond India, into China,
Southeast Asia and Central Asia. Buddhism drove out the more orthodox
Hinayana form. This period also witnessed the development of Tantrism. It is
also during this period that the King of Ceylon sought permission from King
Samudragupta to build a Buddhist monastery in Gaya. As discussed in chapter 6
on Ajanta and Ellora, this period also witnessed the construction of rock-cut
Buddhist shrines and temples in the Deccan. The literature of this period
frequently mentions the Buddhist wall paintings of Ajanta cave temples.
To conclude, the royal court continued to accept both Hinduism and
Buddhism. Even when some kings practised Hinduism (they were Brahmins)
they did not oppose Buddhism and the construction of its temples and
monasteries.
Even before the advent of the Mauryan dynasty, Hinduism (or more
appropriately, Brahmanism) had developed a complex system of rituals and
caste beliefs. It had become a religion of the high-caste princes and priests, and
possibly wealthier members of the commercial class. The lower castes were
either marginalised or excluded. The merchant class (vaishyas) became
economically and financially prosperous with the opening of trade to Southeast
Asia and West Asia. Building of the road infrastructure by Ashoka must have
helped such trade. In the north, Indo-Greek and later Indo-Roman connections
opened the trade route with West Asia and the Mediterranean. Settlement of
Indian traders in Cambodia and Thailand must also have encouraged the
expansion of trade with that part of Asia. It is logical that the merchant class
would be attracted to Buddhism which did not recognise the caste system and
1
2

Fa Hsien is a title. His real name was Gong.

Hsuan Tsang is a title. His real name was Chen.

16

thus offered social mobility to anyone who adopted it. Adoption of Buddhism by
this class may have been a kind of resentment against the caste-ridden Hindu
orthodoxy. Buddhism may have also been more popular with the Greeks and
Romans due to its egalitarian principles and greater degree of openness.

Decline of Buddhism in India

During the Gupta Empire both Buddhism and Hinduism prospered at the same
time. Buddhism, a more recent religion than Hinduism, did not believe in the
traditional Hindu thought of ultimate reality in things. Buddha believed in the
impermanency of everything. Unlike Hindus, Buddhists do not believe in soul or
atman. They argue that nothing within us is metaphysically real. They believe in
the theory of the non-existence of an eternal I, or atman (anatta). Buddhism
does not recognise caste, social class or ethnic origin. But caste is the
cornerstone of Hindu religion. Buddhism preaches celibacy for monks and nuns.
Were these differences not strong enough for Buddhism to hold its own ground?
What accounts for the decline of Buddhism in India and its spread in the rest of
Asia?
Scholars and historians do not agree on the contributing factors. A popular
belief is that Buddhism became so tolerant of other faiths that it was reabsorbed
by the Hindu tradition. In respect of both worship and rituals, it had
compromised with the brahmanical religion to such an extent that it could
almost have been regarded as a sect of the latter (Thapar, 1990:159). This
argument does not seem to be all that convincing considering that Hinduism and
Buddhism happily coexisted for several centuries. Many Hindu kings who
practised Hinduism continued to patronise Buddhist art and architecture not only
in India but also in Southeast Asia, particularly in Cambodia, Indonesia and
Thailand.
Why would the two religions prosper side by side in Southeast Asia but not
in India? Indeed, Hinduism was strong in Cambodia before King Suryavarma
VII adopted Buddhism. This is amply visible in Angkor Wat bas-reliefs of
scenes from Ramayana and Mahabharata, not to speak of the celestial Hindu
deities, devatas and apsaras. Perhaps the roots of Hinduism were not as strong
abroad to dominate Buddhism? In both India and Southeast Asia, Buddhism
went through different adaptations and phases which must have weakened it vis-vis Hinduism.
Buddhism lasted as long as it received royal patronage during the reign of
Ashoka and his successors. It was also popular among the mercantile
community which provided financial support to the Buddhist temples and
monasteries (see Chapter 2). The decline of this community may have lowered
the status of Buddhism. A lack of resources to sustain this young religion may
have contributed to its downfall in India. The arrival of Islam in India in the
thirteenth century was perhaps the final blow to Buddhism. Muslim invaders
destroyed the Buddhist monasteries in many parts of India, which may have led
to the exodus of Buddhists from eastern India to Southeast Asia. However,
17

Muslim invasions cannot be a primary explanation for the decline of Buddhism

in India. After all, both Hinduism and Jainism survived the Muslim onslaught.
Another explanation may be that Tantric Buddhism was regarded by many
true Buddhists and non-Buddhists as a degenerate form which brought a bad
name to Buddhism. Internal causes of the decline of Buddhism were perhaps as
important as the external ones. Buddhism relied too heavily on costly monastic
institutions enjoying royal patronage but not popular support. Buddhist
monasteries remained isolated from the surrounding village communities (The
Encyclopaedia of Religion, 1987:380).
Hindu Brahmin priests had a strong hold on kings who were generally very
religious at that time. The kings turned to royal priests for ceremonies, rituals
and good omens. With the spread of Buddhism, the royal priests lost their power
and influence and must have resented this situation. They would make every
effort to ensure that Hinduism and its ritual practices were reinstated.

Spread of Buddhism to Asia

The Mauryan kings, especially Ashoka, were largely responsible for the spread
of Buddhism in South Asia (Burma, Ceylon and Nepal) and Southeast Asia
(Cambodia and Thailand).
In the third century BC, Ashoka sent missionaries to Ceylon and Southeast
Asia. There is historical evidence (chronicles of Ceylon) of close relations
between the Mauryan kingdom and the kingdom of King Tissa of Ceylon. The
chronicles note that Ashoka sent to the Ceylon king a branch of the original
Bodhi tree (pipal) under which Buddha attained enlightenment. The tree is
known to have survived in Ceylon although it was cut in India by an antiBuddhist fanatic (Thapar, 1990:75).
Theravada Buddhism, which spread to Southeast Asia in the early eleventh
century, also took roots in Ceylon. In the beginning, it had to struggle against
entrenched Hinduism, Tantrism and various forms of practised there at that time.
Although rather conservative, Theravada Buddhism of Ceylon was flexible and
accommodating. It accepted the worship of Hindu gods as well as local spirits.
The Tamil kings may have been partly responsible for this flexibility.
Missionaries played an important role in the spread of Buddhism outside
India, which took hold in Ceylon with the arrival of King Ashokas son,
Mahinda and his companions. The king sent them there as missionaries to
propagate Buddhism. Mahinda and his companions were successful in
converting King Tissa and many nobles to Buddhism. Many monasteries were
built during the kings reign. After King Tissas death in around 207 BC, the
country was taken over by a Tamil king from South India (Elara) who was a
Hindu. He was opposed to Buddhism and threatened to absorb the new religion
into Hinduism. It is only when Dutthagamani, a descendant of King Tissa,
overthrew the Tamil king that Buddhism was revived in Ceylon.
In Burma, Buddhism was established by the fifth century. It was spread by
the Ceylonese missionaries. Both Theravada and forms were practised.
Theravada was popular in the north and in the south.
18

During the reign of King Anawrahta (1044-77) the north and south of
Burma were united. Theravada Buddhism received royal patronage during this
period and remained popular until Burmas independence in 1948. The tradition
of the councils was preserved. In 1961, Buddhism became the state religion.
However, religion lost its political influence soon after General Ne Win took
over the country. The Armys programme of modernisation and a political
framework of moderate socialism weakened the religious influence on the
affairs of the state.
The Mon in the south of Burma, the first to be influenced by Buddhism,
were influential in converting the Burmese people to Theravada form of
Buddhism. Tantrism flourished in upper Burma at this time. However,
controversy arose about ordination when Upper and Lower Burma were united
during the reign of King Anawrahta. One school believed that the ordination
dating back to Ashokas missionaries in the second century BC was still valid.
Another believed in the ordination in the line of succession established by the
Sinhalese monastery of Mahavihara. Finally, King Dhammazedi (1472-92)
decided in favour of the latter.
Buddhism also spread to the Himalayan kingdoms of Nepal, Bhutan and
Sikkim. Buddha was born in Lumbini in Nepal, but Buddhist religion developed
there much later. The Indian form of Buddhism based on Sanskrit texts
continues to be used in rituals in Nepal. Inscriptions provide evidence of the
existence of Buddhist monasteries in the country during the fifth century. By the
eighth century, Nepal had fallen under the Tibetan cultural influence which is
visible even today in such symbols as prayer wheels. In Bhutan, a Tibetan Lama
introduced Buddhism in the seventeenth century. Tibetans also introduced the
religion in Sikkim which they usurped in the seventeenth century.
Buddhism spread to Central Asia through northern India. However, not
much is known about who brought Buddhism to this region. Did King
Kanishkas missionaries spread the religion there? A son of Ashoka is believed
to have founded the kingdom of Khotan in around 240 BC and his grandson
introduced Buddhism there. In around the first century BC, Buddhism was
practised in Eastern Turkistan which had several Indian colonies. Buddhism
must have declined in Central Asia after the spread of Islam in the seventh
century.
Buddhism was brought to Tibet from India in the seventh century. So the
Indian influence was to be expected. But the form of Tibetan Buddhism and
Tibetan art were also influenced by China and Central Asia.
Buddhism in Tibet was a curious mixture of shamanism. Tantrism and
Indian Madhyamika gradually became the core of what came to be known
erroneously as Lamaism, the religion of the superior ones (The New
Encyclopaedia Britannica, 1981a:411).3 It represented a synthesis of and
Vajrayana types prevalent in the north of India during the seventh to eleventh
3

Barbara Lipton and Nima Dorjee Ragnubs (Treasures of Tibetan Art, Oxford, 1997), p.19,
note that Lamaism is an anachronistic and pejorative term that mistakenly suggests that the
religion of Tibet is not Buddhism. Indeed, Tibetan Buddhism is a valid religious tradition
whose influence extended well beyond the national boundary.

19

century. While the former stressed a gradual process of understanding an

established doctrine, the latter preached the use of mystical means to achieve
quicker results. The Buddhist religion also adopted some practices of the Bon
cult (which believes in local divinities and divine kingship) that prevailed at the
time of the advent of Buddhism. The Bon cult favoured Tantric principles,
performed rituals and sacrificed animals.
In the eighth century, Indian monks went to Tibet to preach Buddhism.
Clearly, their major task was first to subdue the Bon spirits that were being
practised. During the tenth and eleventh centuries, Indian monks went to Tibet
to translate sacred Buddhist texts. Rivalry between different groups of monks
following different masters developed in the seventeenth century. It was a case
of gaining political power rather than religious supremacy.4 The Theravada form
of Buddhism in Cambodia was perhaps introduced there by Ceylonese monks.
There is evidence of frequent contacts between Ceylon and Cambodia.5 Chinese
influence spread to North Vietnam, Indonesia and Thailand through merchants
and missionaries.
The Khmer kingdoms of Chenla (sixth century) and Angkor (ninth century)
inherited many features of Buddhism from Funan. At the time of its arrival,
Hinduism was the state religion. First, Shiva was worshipped and later Vishnu.
Buddhism was practised at the same time. First, the Hinayana form was
introduced. Later in the fifth century, under King Kamdinya Jayavarman,
Hinduism and Buddhism began to be practised.
Shiva worship declined in the eleventh and twelfth centuries and Buddhism
and Vaishnav Hinduism became stronger (the existence of Vaishnu temple at
Angkor Wat bears testimony to this). Buddhism was declared the state religion
under King Jayavarman VII (1181-1215) whose reign represents the heyday of
the Khmer Empire.
However, when the Thai captured Angkor Wat in 1431, the Mon started
spreading Theravada Buddhism (1200-1350). The Khmer conversion to
Theravada Buddhism was completed by the time of the Thai capture of Angkor.
In Thailand, Theravada Buddhism is the state religion. During the reign of
King Chulalongkorn (1873-1910), Buddhism was considered to be a peaceful
religion good for the unity of the country. The Thai came into contact with the
form in China in the ninth century. Later during the twelfth and thirteenth
centuries, Thailand was swept by the reformed Sinhalese form of Theravada
Buddhism which had been spreading fast through Southeast Asia. In the
thirteenth century, two Thai kingdoms were established in Sukhotai and
Chiengmai. A powerful Thai kingdom emerged in 1350 in Ayutthaya. By the
sixteenth century, Chiengmai had become the leading centre of Theravada
4

The head of one religious order Dge-Lugs-Pa known as the Dalai Lama, approached a
Mongol chieftain, Ghri Khan, for help against a rival group Karma Pa, a sect patronised
by the rulers of Gtsang. When Khan defeated the Gtsang forces, he awarded Tibet to the Dalai
Lama. Thus from 1642 till the Chinese Communist rule in 1951, the Dge-Lugs-Pa has been
the dominant sect in Tibet (The New Encyclopaedia Britannica, London, 1981a), p. 388.
5
Prior to the arrival of Buddhism, Hinduism had spread to Cambodia. It had also spread to
Indonesia and Thailand.

20

Buddhism. The Khmer people at this time followed Brahmanic Hindu tradition,
some elements of which were absorbed by the Thai in Ayutthaya. King Rama I
(1782-1809), who established the kingdom in Bangkok, also followed this
tradition. The kingdom of Bangkok became the state of Thailand after
Ayutthaya fell into the hands of the Burmese in 1769.
At present, there are two Buddhist sects in Thailand. First, a larger sect or
Mahanikaya, and second, a sect of the followers of Dhamma (DhammayuttikaNikaya). The king names a patriarch who is accepted by the heads of the two
sects. The sangha is state-directed and carries out such social functions as
education, public works and the administration of religious property.
In Southeast Asia, Vietnam is the only country where both Theravada and
(mainly Zen and Pure Land) forms of Buddhism continue to be practised side by
side. In Laos, Buddhist statues of style date back to the eleventh and twelfth
centuries, suggesting that Buddhism arrived during this period under the Khmer
influence. However, in the fourteenth century, Theravada form became more
popular.
Different forms of Buddhism and Hinduism were found in Indonesia before
the thirteenth century when Islam had established its roots there. As in
Cambodia and Thailand, the Indian influence travelled to Indonesia through
Brahmins who were invited by Indonesian princes to dedicate temples and
explain their beliefs (Fahr-Becker, vol. I, 1998:326). The Buddhist Srivijaya
dynasty in Sumatra and the Shailendra dynasty in Java bear testimony to the
Indian influence (also see Chapter 2). Hinduism continues to be practised on the
Indonesian island of Bali today even though Indonesia is a predominantly
Muslim country.
In China, historical records suggest that Buddhism was known and practised
as far back as the third century BC when Ashoka ruled in India and promoted
Buddhism far and wide. It seems to have become popular during the Han
dynasty (206 BC-AD 220). There were close links between Taoism (which was
then practised) and Buddhism. Taoism believed in magical practices and folk
beliefs; it may have been influenced by Buddhism which preached nirvana
through various ascetic practices.6
Buddhism prospered particularly well during the Tang dynasty (618-907)
whose emperors favoured the religion. They brought the Buddhist monasteries
and the legal status of monks under government control. Buddhist temples and
monasteries expanded rapidly. Many pilgrimages to India were organised;
several foreign monks visited India in the seventh century and wrote about
Bodhgaya and other Buddhist centres.
During the Sung dynasty (960-1279), Buddhism spread throughout China. It
became popular because of its pragmatism and worldly outlook compared with
Buddhism practised in India at that time. For example, monasteries owned and
operated oil presses, lent money and maintained roads. The Indian-style sangha
was reorganised from a democratic institution to one controlled by the state.
Buddhism was brought to Korea from China in the fourth century and it
gradually spread to several kingdoms. The unification of different kingdoms into
6

Many Buddhist sutras were translated into Chinese during the Han dynasty.

21

one country led to the adoption of the religion throughout the territory.
Buddhism began to decline during the Koryo period (935-1392). The
government gradually curtailed privileges offered to the monks. Confucianism
replaced Buddhism as the state religion.
Korean refugees and craftsmen carried Buddhism to Japan in the sixth
century. Its introduction was not without controversy. While the powerful Soga
clan accepted it, others rejected it out of a sense of nationalism. They felt that
the introduction of Buddha statues was an insult to local deities. The fortunes of
Buddhism were revived by Prince Shotoku Taishi (573-621) who became regent
in AD 593. He introduced a Seventeen Article Constitution which attempted to
harmonise Confucianism and Buddhism as a spiritual foundation of the state.
Shinto was the dominant religion in Japan when Buddhism arrived there.
Those practising Shinto worshipped the gods of the sky and the sun. Buddhism
had to overcome the scepticism of these followers. The spread of the new
religion was facilitated by the conversion of Prince Shotoku to Buddhism as was
the conversion of Emperor Ashoka in India much earlier.
Buddhism became the state religion during the Nara period (710-784). Nara,
which is home to the Great Buddha Statue, Daibutsu, became an important
Buddhist centre. Several Buddhist sects developed: Hinayana, Shingon and Pure
Land. In the thirteenth century, Zen Buddhism (Chinese Chan) became popular,
especially with the military.
Buddhism gradually incorporated some elements of Shinto and
Confucianism. Local divinities worshipped under Shinto were accepted as
incarnations of the Buddha. In turn, in AD 767 an imperial decree announced
that kami (sacred objects and symbols of Shinto) were to guard the Law of the
Buddha. Buddhist monks were also permitted to officiate in Shinto temples.
In the thirteenth century, Japan witnessed the emergence of its own Buddhist
monk, Nichiren (1222-82), who was considered a prophet. He preached that
salvation could be achieved by reciting the Lotus Sutra. During the later periods,
Zen Buddhism became popular. Several schools of Zen thought and practice
developed. During the Tokugawa period (1603-1867), Buddhism was promoted
as the state religion. Temples were used to register population in order to
prevent the spread of Christianity.7
The association of Buddhism with the Tokugawa regime made it unpopular
during the Meiji period (1868-1912) particularly among the elite who wanted to
bring back Shinto as the state religion. This led to the separation of two
religions. Lands were confiscated from the Buddhist temples and many Buddhist
priests were dismissed.
Many new religions emerged in Japan during the inter-war and post-war
periods. This plurality of religions is rare if not unknown in other Buddhist
countries.
Thus, it can be seen from the above brief account that Buddhism spread far
and wide in South Asia, Central Asia, Southeast Asia and East Asia despite its
disappearance from India. But India continued to wield important influence in
these regions especially in Southeast Asia.
7

Francis Xavier introduced Christianity to Japan in 1549.

22

Indian Influence in Southeast Asia

From the very beginning of Christian era, the Indian influence has been felt
outside India particularly in Southeast Asia. Indian seafarers went out in search
of trade and commerce despite Hindu strictures against travelling overseas.
There was a continuation of earlier contacts between pre-Aryan India and
Southeast and East Asia (Groslier and Arthaud, 1957). The Indian expansion to
Southeast Asia was in sharp contrast to that of China southwards.8 Ren Gousset
considers Indian spiritual colonies of Borobodur and Angkor constituting
Indias greatest title to fame, her contribution to mankind (cited in ibid.:16).
There is no consensus on why Indians moved outwards in ancient times. No
single explanation is satisfactory. The following are several plausible reasons.

Internal population pressures in India.

Expansionist policies of South Indian states.
Political upheavals in northern India which may have triggered exodus
from India.
Emergence of Buddhism which was much more tolerant and
egalitarian than Hinduism.
Development of maritime technology and the building of large ships.
Growth of trade and commerce. When trade with the Mediterranean
reached its peak, Indians needed new sources of supply of spices,
gold, precious stones and perfumes which might have led them to
Southeast Asia in search of these goods. Combined with this was
Ashokas desire to spread the message of Buddhism.

Buddhist sculpture, architecture and painting spread from India to the

Southeast and East Asia along with the spread of Buddhist religion. Buddhist art
is discussed in the following chapters with special reference to Indian (Buddhist
and Hindu) influence on it. Chapter 2 discusses the subject in general in India
and the rest of Asia. Chapters 3 to 9 are devoted to Buddhist sculpture,
architecture and paintings, particularly to the places of importance to Buddhist
religion.

Bernard Philippe Groslier and Jacques Arthaud (The Arts and Civilization of ANGKOR,
New York, 1957), p.15, note: The distinguishing mark of Indian expansion was that it was
peaceful and at first almost unnoticed, in complete contrast with the contemporary southward
drive of the Chinese which, at any rate in Indo-China, constituted a regular process of
colonization on the Roman model.

23

Chapter 2
Buddhist Art in Asia
Indian art is often said to be religious in the sense that it represents a particular
religion such as Hinduism or Buddhism by depicting its gods, temples and other
places of worship. Some observers go even further and say that in India art is
religion and religion is art. However, strictly speaking it may be more
appropriate to speak of Indian art that represents Hindu or Buddhist themes. The
art form is more a function of time and space than of religion per se. For
example, whether a piece of art or sculpture represents a Hindu deity or Buddha
does not change the form or type of sculpture. For purposes of exposition, the
term Buddhist art and architecture is often used, but one needs to bear in mind
this caveat.
Any art is generally defined in terms of architecture, sculpture and painting.
Buddhist architecture encompasses stupas, prayer halls and temples. Buddhist
temples in the old Hindu tradition are rare in India. The two main examples of
such temples are Temple 17 in Sanchi (see Chapter 5) and Mahabodhi temple in
Bodhgaya (see Chapter 3). Simple prayer halls (chaityas) provided places of
worship and monasteries (viharas) places of accommodation for monks. As
discussed below, stupas were the most common form of Buddhist architecture in
ancient India.
Temples, stupas and viharas were the main symbols of Buddhist art during
the early period. For example, the Mahabodhi Temple, the Dhamekh Stupa (see
Chapter 4) and the Great Stupa in Sanchi (see Chapter 5) are some of the earliest
examples of Buddhist art and architecture which remain intact until today. The
Buddhist cave temples of Ajanta and Ellora (see Chapter 6) dating back from the
third century BC to the sixth century AD depict the art of mural painting,
sculpture and stone carvings. Below we shall first discuss the royal and nonroyal patronage of Buddhist art followed by its various aspects, namely,
architecture, sculpture and paintings.
The earliest Hindu and Buddhist monuments used wood as the main
building material which was later replaced by brick, clay, stone and metal. Since
wood is perishable, very little of ancient structures remain in existence today.
During later periods, the use of stone became particularly popular. Most
buildings discussed in this book are of brick or stone. Artisans, who were
familiar with wood and clay, continued to imitate wooden forms in stone, which
is evident in many buildings that have survived.

24

Patronage of Buddhist Art

Early Buddhist art was promoted by kings (such as Ashoka) and rich merchants.
A number of scholars (Dehejia and Zimmer, for example) cite inscriptional
evidence showing that laymen and women also contributed to the building of
Buddhist monuments. There is no doubt that religious devotion in a country
such as India involved ordinary people contributing financially and/or materially
to holy places. But lay sponsorship alone without any royal backing could not
explain such magnificent buildings as Sanchi stupas, toranas and the Mahabodhi
temple in Bodhgaya.
The three types of sponsorship by kings, merchants, laymen and women are
discussed below.
Royal Patronage
Royal patronage was an important factor explaining the spread of Buddhist art in
India and the rest of Asia. Table 2.1 describes the royal dynasties in India under
which Buddhist art prospered. Royal members of some dynasties practised
Hindu religion but tolerated Buddhism and promoted Buddhist art by building or
renovating monuments. Perhaps royal patronage was motivated by the concern
of the rulers for the fortunes of their empire (Dehejia, 1997:112).
Table 2.1 Ancient Indian dynasties and patronage of Buddhist art
Dynasty

Period of reign

Religion

Monuments
supported

Maurya
Ashoka

321-185 BC.
274-237 BC.
185-72 BC.

Hinduism/Buddhism
.
Hinduism.

Andhra
(Satavahana)

220 BC-150 AD.

Hinduism.

Kushana

First-second
century.

Buddhism,
Hinduism,
Zoroastrianism.

Gupta

Fourth to seventh
century
Sixth to eighth
century

Hinduism.

Sarnath,Bodhgaya,
Amaravati, early stupas.
Sanchistupano.2, Sarnath
railings.
Bodhgayarailing; Bharhut
gateway and railing;
Bhaja; renovation of
Amaravati; decoration of
the gateways in Sanchi.
Images of Buddha and
Bodhisattva in Sarnath;
expansion of Dharmajika
stupa.
Sarnath, Ajanta.

Sunga

Chalukya

Hinduism.

Below we discuss the royal patronage of each dynasty.

25

Ajanta
Ellora.

wall

paintings,

Ashoka (Mauryan) Dynasty

Ashoka of the Mauryan dynasty was the first important patron of Buddhist art in
India. According to legend, he built 84,000 Buddhist stupas in a single night
(Rowland, 1953:40) which must be a gross exaggeration. A more realistic
number seems to be a hundred or so. However, it is not unfair to say that he did
more for Buddhist art and religion (not only in India but also in other parts of
Asia and the Hellenistic kingdoms) than any other royal figure.
Ashoka provided support for the building of temples, stupas and
monasteries. There is no trace of any stupas built during the pre-Mauryan
period, which suggests that he was the first Mauryan emperor to have introduced
them perhaps as a way of unifying the empire. Historical records show that he
distributed the Buddha relics to a large number of stupas built by him in all the
principal towns of the empire.
Historic monuments of such holy Buddhist places as Bodhgaya and Sarnath
are associated with Ashokas name. His stone and rock edicts are pieces of
Buddhist art which also offer historians useful insight into his religious
inclinations as well as economic and social life in his empire. The edict pillars
have survived more than the Buddhist monuments (with the exception of stupas
of Piprawa in Nepal and Sanchi in India) which are largely ruined.
It is suggested that Mauryan art was influenced by Persian and Hellenic art.
The lion capitals on top of the Ashokan pillars reflected the ancient solar symbol
in Persia, Mesopotamia and Egypt long before Buddhism was born. Rowland
(Ibid.:43) concludes that the idea of such memorial columns is, of course, not
Indian, but is yet another derivation from the civilization of ancient
Mesopotamia. Even if we accept the existence of foreign influence in the
Ashoka pillars, they were intended to convey an entirely Indian Buddhist
message of peace. However, Rowland may be right in stating that the primary
function of any religious memorial built during Ashokas reign was magical
and auspicious, neither decorative nor architectural (p.45).
Of all the Buddhist monuments built by Ashoka, the following may be cited
as the most important: the Sarnath stupa (Dhamekh); the Sanchi stupa I; and the
Bodhgaya temple. These are discussed in subsequent chapters.
Sunga Dynasty
Would the Sunga Brahmins have promoted Buddhist art in the tradition of
Ashoka? Historical accounts show that a good deal of it (for example, the
Bharhut stupa, gateway and railing, the Sanchi gateways and the Amaravati
stupa) belong to the early period of the Sungas. How does one reconcile this
apparent paradox of Brahmins patronising Buddhist art? It is quite likely that the
successors of Pushyamitra, though Hindus, were tolerant of Buddhism and
contributed to the construction of Buddhist monuments. This view is supported
by an inscription attributed to the Sungas found at the Mahabodhi Temple in
Bodhgaya (Barua, 1934).

26

Several Buddhist monuments were built, renovated or expanded during the

Sanga dynasty, for example, Sanchi Stupa no. 2. These monuments are
discussed in Chapter 5.
Satavahana (Andhra) Dynasty
The Satavahana rulers (also known as Andhras) who ruled in Maharashtra and
Andhra Pradesh from 230 BC to AD 220, gave financial support for the building
of Ajanta cave monasteries and temples. They are also known to have financed
the four gateways to the Great Stupa in Sanchi. The Amaravati Stupa built
during the Andhra dynasty north of Madras (Chennai) at the mouth of the river
Krishna is one of the most important examples of Buddhist art in South India.
This dynasty represents the golden age of Buddhist art (Rowland, 1953:123).
Several Buddha statues of the Andhra period dating to the second and third
centuries have been found in Ceylon (Sri Lanka) and Champa (modern IndoChina), which suggests that the Satavahana kingdom had commercial and
religious contacts with neighbouring countries.
Kushana Dynasty
Images of Buddha and Bodhisattvas in Sarnath are associated with the Kushana
kings such as Kanishka who made popular the human image of Buddha,
replacing the earlier symbolic representation. Kushanas may have sponsored the
production of the Mathura type of Buddha image. Mathura was almost the
second capital of the Kushanas.
Gupta Dynasty
Buddhist art flourished further under the Gupta patronage which is reflected in
the Buddha statues in Sarnath (see Chapter 4) and Buddhist rock-cut temples in
Ajanta (for example, Cave no. 19, see Chapter 6). Thapar (1990:157-8) notes
that the Buddha images discovered in Sarnath represented the highest
achievement of classical sculpture. They reflect a serenity and contentment
which have come to be associated with the religious atmosphere of the age.
This period also witnessed the construction of rock-cut Buddhist shrines and
temples in the Deccan.
Not many buildings of the Gupta period have survived. However, the
following remain intact:

The Buddhist temples such as Temple 17 near the Great Stupa

in Sanchi. It is a simple temple with a flat roof.
The Ajanta cave temples, for example, cave no. 19, a Buddhist
sanctuary (see Chapter 6) whose facade contains rich and
decorative sculpture of Buddha and Bodhisattvas.
The Buddhist chaitya-hall in Karle (Maharashtra), converted
into a temple, represents Buddhist sculpture in Western India.
27

It contains a statue of Buddha flanked by the Bodhisattvas

Avalaokitesvara and Maitreya.
The Buddha images discovered in Sarnath, for example, a
statue of the preaching Buddha with ornamental halo around
Buddhas head is its main feature.
Metal statues and statuettes of Buddha, for example, the
colossal copper image of Buddha from Sultanganj in the
Birmingham Museum in the UK.
Mural paintings of Ajanta temples (1, 2, 6, 17 and 19) (see
Chapter 6), the Gupta caves of Badami and paintings of Bagh.

Gupta art, sculpture and paintings provided prototypes not only for India but
also for Cambodia and Thailand where Buddha statues have also been
discovered (see Chapters 7 to 9). The Chinese pilgrims to India during the Gupta
period may have taken the Gupta style to China in the sixth and seventh
centuries.
That Buddhist art developed during the Gupta period cannot be doubted.
However, was it the result of an explicit royal patronage of the Gupta rulers?
One cannot be entirely certain about this point. The promotion of art during the
period may have resulted from a combination of royal patronage, patronage by
wealthy merchants and by the ordinary devotees of Buddhism.
Subsequent Dynasties
Pala kings, who ruled eastern India (eighth to twelfth century), appeared to have
continued promoting Buddhist art even when Buddhism was in decline in the
north. Chandra kings of eastern Bengal (tenth to eleventh century) and Bhaumas
of Orissa (eighth to tenth century) were devout Buddhists who patronised
Buddhist monuments. However, Buddhist building art witnessed a marked
decline from the twelfth century onwards in the wake of Muslim invasions.
In the Deccan, during the fifth and sixth centuries, the Chalukya and
Vakataka kings patronised early mural paintings of Ajanta. They may have also
supported the construction of Buddhist prayer halls in Ellora.
Patronage of the Merchant Class
Wealthy merchants provided strong financial support to the construction of
monasteries, stupas and viharas. Inscriptions on ancient Buddhist monuments
show that they offered individual and collective donations for the building of
shrines.
What was the motivation behind the generosity of the merchant class? First,
it is important to note that India at that time was quite prosperous which made
philanthropy possible. Secondly, religious donations may have been made in the
hope that donors would acquire better karmas in life after death. This may partly
explain why many Hindus donated funds for Buddhist shrines even though they
did not practise the religion.
28

Patronage of Ordinary People

Contributions of ordinary people, Buddhists and non-Buddhists alike, are known
to have been made for the building of Buddhist monuments in Amaravati,
Sanchi and Bharhut. Inscriptions show that a large number of ordinary people as
well as monks and nuns gave donations for their construction. Dehejia (1992:67)
notes that Sanchi brings us into contact with the everyday world of the
housewife and householder, the fisherman and gardener, the merchant and
banker, who left as many as 631 records of donations inscribed in stone. Only
three out of the 631 records mention royal patronage. She further adds: Nuns
and lay-women were also significant donors with just under half the donations.
This is particularly true of the building of Amaravati stupa. Records of
donations on inscriptions show that two-thirds of the gifts came from lay
worshippers, of whom a large proportion were women (Dehejia, 1997:75). The
remaining one-third came from monks and nuns. It is surprising that there is
hardly any mention of any royal patronage for the construction of either Sanchi
stupa or Amaravati stupa.
Particularly problematic are the financial contributions of monks and nuns
who were not supposed to indulge in material pursuits. They lived on alms
which offered them a very simple and modest living. So when and how did they
become wealthy enough to make donations, and where did their wealth come
from? What was the motivation of ordinary men and women to finance art and
sculpture? Religious devotion? Or expectation of better karmas in life after
death? These questions deserve a systematic analysis.
The Buddhist religion must have become affluent to be able to afford wellequipped and spacious monasteries for monks and nuns who no longer lived on
alms.9 But does this development suggest that Buddhism moved away from the
common people?
Having presented a general picture of the sponsorship of Buddhist art, below
we discuss its different aspects: architecture, sculpture and painting.

Buddhist Art
Architecture
Buddhist architecture centres around stupas, monasteries and prayer halls which
are discussed below.
Stupas: One of the most common Buddhist monuments is a commemorative
mound which generally contains relics of Buddha or his disciples. Many stupas
were built to commemorate Buddhist events.
9

Romila Thapar (History of India, London, 1990), p.129, notes: Gone were the days when
the Buddhist monks lived entirely on alms [] they ate regular meals in vast monastic
refectories []. Secluded monasteries were sufficiently well-endowed to enable the monks to
live comfortably. She argues that the Buddhist Order thus tended to move away from the
common people and isolated itself, which in turn diminished much of its religious strength, a
development which one suspects Buddha would not have found acceptable (Ibid).

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A stupa consists of a hemispheric cupola/dome (or anda) on a base encircled

by a balustrade that may be intersected by four gateways (toranas). A square
rests on the cupola railing or a balcony-like structure (harmika) from which rises
a shaft of metal or wood, supporting umbrellas (see Chapter 5).
The dome was intended to be a replica of the dome of heaven, and the
harmika at the top of the stupa mound may typify the Heaven of the Thirtythree Gods located at the summit of the cosmic peak. Thus, the stupa is seen as
a cosmic diagram and perhaps also as representing the body of Buddha after the
attainment of nirvana.
In India, stupas are defined in terms of four categories;

Sarrika: stupas built on the relics of Buddha and his disciples and
saints.
Paribhogika: stupas containing objects (such as a begging bowl) used
by Buddha.
Uddesika: stupas commemorating the life of Buddha by narrating
incidents.
Votive: small stupas built by pilgrims to commemorate their visits to
Buddhist holy shrines (see Mitra, 1971).

The reliquary and votive stupas are distinguished by size differences. The
latter are generally small such as those at the Mahabodhi temple in Bodhgaya
(see Chapter 3). The Indian stupas changed form over time and grew in size and
height.
Some observers regard stupas as Buddhist tombs, but they were more like
sanctuaries for storing Buddha relics and as places of worship for both kings and
commoners.
Gateways to stupas and railings between them (see Chapter 5) are stone
imitations of earlier wooden portals found at the entrances of old Indian towns.
The panels and the posts in the form of bas-reliefs depict jatakas from Buddhas
various lives.
The forms of stupas vary across Asian countries. For example, in India
various shapes are found in Sarnath, Bodhgaya and elsewhere (Fig. 2). In
Myanmar, the stupa is usually gilded and rests on a high base mounted by stairs.
In Cambodia the cupola is generally bell-shaped. In Tibet, one finds stupas of
many doors (sgo-mang) since they have many chapels attached to them with
frescoes depicting various Tantric deities. The pagodas of China and Japan can
be described as turreted stupas. In China, various types of pagodas have been
found: wooden and masonry pagodas, single-storeyed, multi-storeyed and multieaved pagodas. Although the stupa in its original Indian form was known in
China, it was never transplanted there. It is unclear why. Fig. 3 shows the three
quadrangular pagodas at the foot of Mount Gangshan in the northwest of Dali in
Yunnan (China). The tallest of the three, Qianxun Pagoda, is nearly 70 metres
high, has 16 storeys and a hollow brick structure of beautiful proportions. They
were built in AD 836 during the Tang Dynasty. The complex was an important
Buddhist centre for the Bai kingdom of Nanchao.
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