Minesite Water Management Handbook

Minesite
Water Management
Handbook
1997
Copyright © 1997
Minerals Council of Australia
Inquiries should be addressed to

the publishers.
Minerals Council of Australia
PO Box 363, Dickson ACT 2602
Telephone: 61 262793600
Facsimile: 61 262793699
Email: minerals@ozemail.com.au
First Edition 1997

Minesite Water Management Handbook
ISBN 0 909276 73 0
In 2008 the first edition was transcribed into electronic format,
without consideration of the accuracy or currency of the content.
Users should note that in some areas of the book, more recent
publications (post 1997) provide updated technical information.
Every effort has been made to contact the copyright

holders of material used in this book. However,
where an omission has occurred, the publisher will
gladly include acknowledgment in any future editions.
Disclaimer
This Minesite Water Management Handbook (the Handbook)
has been prepared by the Minerals Council of Australia in the
interests of encouraging excellence in environmental
management. However, the Minerals Council of Australia
accepts no liability (including liability in negligence) and takes
no responsibility for any loss or damage which a user of the
Handbook or any third party may suffer or incur as a result of
reliance on the Handbook and in particular for:
(a) any errors or omissions in the Handbook;

(b) any inaccuracy in the information and data on which the
Handbook is based or which is contained in the Handbook;
(c) any interpretations or opinions stated in, or which may be
inferred from, the Handbook.
Contents
1. Introduction 8
2. Statutory Requirements 9
3. Planning and Principles 11
3.1 INTRODUCTION 11
3.2 THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE AND MINESITE WATER BALANCE 11
3.3 SITE DESCRIPTION 12

3.3.1 Climate 12
3.3.2 Geology and Geomorphology 12
3.3.3 Topography 12
3.3.4 Catchment Characteristics 12
3.3.5 Site Water Requirements 12
3.3.6 Vegetation and Fauna Assessment 12
3.3.7 Aquatic Ecology 13
3.3.8 Heritage Values 13
3.3.9 Downstream and Offsite Users 13
3.3.10 Monitoring 13
3.4 SITE PLAN 13
3.5 MONITORING AND DATA MANAGEMENT 14
4. Water Chemistry 15
4.1 CHEMISTRY OF NATURAL WATERS 15
4.1.1 Introduction 15
4.1.2 Dissolved Versus Particulate and Total Constituents 15
4.1.3 Difference Between Organic Acid and Carbonate Water Systems 16
4.1.4 Load Versus Concentration 17
4.1.5 pH 18
4.1.6 Alkalinity 19
4.1.7 Hardness 19
4.1.8 Conductivity 20
4.1.9 Salinity 20
4.1.10 Solids 21
4.1.11 Turbidity 23
4.1.12 Oxygen Demand (Dissolved Oxygen, BOD and COD) 23
1 9 9 7 M I N E S I T E W A T E R M A N A G E M E N T H A N D B O O K 1
CONTENTS
4.1.13 Anions and Cations 24

4.1.14 Metals (Trace Metals, Heavy Metals, Metal Speciation) 25
4.1.15 Nutrients 25
4.1.16 Oils, Greases and Hydrocarbons 26
4.1.17 Organics, Natural Organic Matter, Dissolved Organic Carbon 26
4.1.18 Colour 27
4.1.19 Cyanide 27
4.1.20 Odour and Taste 28
4.1.21 Radionuclides 29
4.2 BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF WATERS 30

4.2.1 Micro-organisms 30
4.2.2 Algal Blooms 31
4.2.3 Toxicity and Ecosystem Health 31
4.2.4 Factors Influencing Bioavailability and Toxicity of Contaminants 32
4.2.5 Bio-monitors, Bio-accumulation and Bio-amplification 32
4.3 NATURE OF WATERS 33

4.3.1 Beneficial Use 33
4.3.2 Assimilative Capacity 33
4.3.3 Receiving Waters 33
5. Water Sampling and Flow Measurement 34

5.1 INTRODUCTION 34
5.2 PRINCIPLES AND PURPOSE OF MONITORING 34
5.3 COMPLIANCE MONITORING 35

5.3.1 Ambient, Point Source and Non-point Source pollution 36
5.3.2 Mixing Zones 36
5.4 DATA COLLECTION - QUALITY 36

5.4.1 Monitoring Design 36
5.4.2 Identification of Key Monitoring Parameters 37
5.4.3 Initial Screening Program 37
5.4.4 Sampling Locations 37
5.4.5 Sampling Frequency 37
5.4.6 Sampling Techniques and Design 38
5.4.7 Sample Transportation 39
5.4.8 Sample Analysis 39
5.4.9 Data Management 40
5.4.10 Laboratory, Pilot Plant and Leach Tests 40
5.5 DATA COLLECTION - QUANTITY 40

5.5.1 Rainfall Reading 41
5.5.2 Flow Recording 41
2 1 9 9 7 M I N E S I T E W A T E R M A N A G E M E N T H A N D B O O K
CONTENTS
5.6 GROUNDWATER 42
5.6.1 Groundwater Mapping 42
5.6.2 Testing and Monitoring 43
5.6.3 Groundwater Parameters 46
5.6.4 Prediction of Groundwater Characteristics and Responses 46
5.7 REVIEW OF MONITORING DATA 46
6. Water Supply 48
6.1 SURFACE WATER 48
6.1.1 Catchment Yield 48
6.1.2 Recycling of Water 49
6.2 GROUNDWATER 49
6.2.1 Sources of Supply 49
6.2.2 Security of Supply 49
7. Exploration 53
7.1.1 Surface Water Data Collection 53
7.1.2 Access Tracks 54
7.1.3 Exploration Sites 54
8. Open Cut Mines 56

8.1 SURFACE WATER RUNOFF 56
8.1.1 Flood Mitigation 56
8.1.2 Methods of Flood Mitigation 57
8.1.3 In-Pit Drainage 59
8.1.4 Interception Drainage Around Pit 60
8.1.5 Sediment Containment 61
8.2 GROUNDWATER 62
8.2.1 Groundwater Inflow 63
8.2.2 Managing Groundwater Inflow 63
8.3 WATER QUALITY 65

8.3.1 Pit Water Disposal 65
8.3.2 Acid Drainage 65
8.3.3 Salinity 66
8.4 PIT CLOSURE 66
CONTENTS
9. Underground Mines 68
9.1 SURFACE DRAINAGE AWAY FROM HEAD WORKS 68
9.2 GROUNDWATER INFLOW 68

9.2.1 Managing Groundwater Inflow 68

9.3.1 Treatment and Disposal of Underground Mine Water 69
10. Heap Leach Processes 70

10.1 INTRODUCTION 70
10.2 PLANNING FOR HEAP LEACHING 70

10.2.1 Baseline Evaluation 70
10.2.2 Rainfall Events, Acceptable Risk, Contingency Planning 70
10.2.3 Baseline Groundwater Monitoring 71
10.2.4 Closure Planning 71
10.3 SOLUTION CONTROL DURING OPERATIONS 72

10.3.1 Maintenance of Drain and Pond Capacity 72
10.3.2 Integrity of the Pad or Liner 72
10.3.3 Integrity of Piping and Valves 72
10.4 WATER MANAGEMENT ON CLOSURE 72

10.4.1 Criteria for Long-term Leachate Quality 72
10.4.2 Residues and Long-term Contaminated Site Management 72
11. Waste Dumps 73

11.1 WASTE DUMP CONSTRUCTION FOR WATER MANAGEMENT 73

11.2.1 Location of Waste Dumps 73
11.2.2 Erosion on Waste Dumps 73
11.2.3 Interception Drainage Around Waste Dumps 74
11.2.4 Sediment Containment Around Waste Dumps 75
11.3 GROUNDWATER 75
11.3.1 Infiltration to Groundwater 75

11.4.1 Acid Drainage 77
11.4.2 Salinity 77
11.4.3 Suspended Solids 78
11.4.4 Leachate and Other Constituents 78
CONTENTS
12. Tailings Water Management 79

12.1 DISPOSAL METHODS 79
12.2 CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT OF TAILINGS WATER 80

12.2.1 Nature of the Water 80
12.2.2 Management 80
12.3 SEEPAGE MANAGEMENT 80

12.3.1 Seepage Control 80
12.3.3 Water Control 81
13. Mine Infrastructure 82

13.1 PROCESS PLANT 82
13.1.1 Characteristics 82
13.1.2 Containment and Treatment Technologies 82
13.2 INDUSTRIAL AND WORKSHOP AREAS 83

13.2.1 Containment and Treatment Technologies 83
13.3 HAUL ROADS 84

13.3.1 Environmental Issues 84
13.3.2 Surface Water Drainage 84
13.3.3 Groundwater Drainage 84
References 86
Glossary 88
List of Tables
Table 2.1: Typical State and Commonwealth Legislation 9
Table 4.1: Typical Conductivity Range of Waters 20
Table 5.1: Key Planning Steps for Water Monitoring 35
Table 5.2: Selection Criteria for Establishing Sampling Sites 38
Table 5.3: Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Numerical Models 47
Table 6.1: Sources and Uses of Recycled Water 50
Table 10.1: Suggested Minimum Design Event Criteria for Heap Leach Operations 71
Table 11.1: Prevention and Remedial Strategies for Acid Drainage 78
CONTENTS
List of Figures
Figure 4.1: Species of the Carbonate System as a Function of pH 17
Figure 5.1: Typical Groundwater Surface Map 42
Figure 5.2: Relationship Between Piezometric Level and Groundwater 43
Figure 5.3: Typical Piezometer Installation 44
Figure 5.4: Diagram of a Piezometer Dip Meter 45
Figure 8.1: Calculating the Lowest Cost Flood Mitigation Scheme 57
Figure 8.2: Types of Constructed Embankments 58
Figure 8.3: Conceptual Drainage Around an Open Pit 60
Figure 8.4: Idealised Pit Inflow 62
Figure 8.5: Effects of Barriers to Groundwater Flow 63
Figure 8.6: Effects of Dewatering Around a Pit 64
Figure 8.7: Channel Dewatering 64
Figure 8.8: Water Flows in Open Voids 67
Figure 11.1: The Soil Capillary Zone 75
Figure 11.2: Monitoring Network Around a Waste Rock Dump 76
Figure 12.1: Seepage Paths from a Tailings Storage Facility 81
Figure 13.1: Drainage Considerations on Haul Roads 85
Fact Sheets
Fact Sheet No. 1: Field Record Data Sheets 93
Fact Sheet No. 2: Estimation of Surface Runoff 97
Fact Sheet No. 3: Understanding Event Probability 101
Fact Sheet No. 4: Open Channel Drains 103
Fact Sheet No. 5: Construction of Small Earth Embankment Dams 105
Fact Sheet No. 6: Culvert Crossings 110
Fact Sheet No. 7: Acid Drainage 112
Fact Sheet No. 8: Erosion Control and Sediment Containment 115
Fact Sheet No. 9: Bioremediation Technology 121
Fact Sheet No. 10: Hydrological Data for Design Purposes 122
Fact Sheet No. 11: Groundwater 124
Fact Sheet No. 12: Numerical Modelling 125
Acknowledgments
The Minesite Water Management Handbook has undergone a considerable gestation period and many
individuals have assisted in its production. It is with much appreciation that the Minerals Council of
Australia acknowledges the contributions of these people, all experts in their individual fields, who
gave freely of their time: Raj Aseervatham, Denis Brooks, Michael Cox, Geoff Day, Tom Farrell, Kurt
Hammerschmid, Gavin Murray, Pamela Ruppin, Peter Roe, Ian Wood, and Ray Woods. The comments of
many other individuals on earlier drafts were invaluable in efforts to treat such a broad range of material
as fully and accurately as possible. The Minerals Council of Australia would also like to acknowledge
the companies and organisations for whom the individuals work. All input has been most valuable.
1. Introduction
In the course of mining and mineral processing, which include both theoretical and practical
landscapes are altered and soils, rock and water topics relating to mine water management. The
are subject to physical and chemical change. These first five chapters provide an overview of the
changes must be managed to ensure that any regulatory requirements, management planning
resulting impacts are minimised, do not jeopardise and principles, basic water chemistry and the
future land and water uses, and do not breach principles of sampling and flow measurement.
any regulatory requirements. Failure to manage Chapters 6 to l3 describe the major water-related
these impacts in an acceptable manner will result technical issues relevant to all areas of a mining
in the mining industry finding it increasingly operation. They include generic guidelines for:
difficult to obtain community and government
support for existing and future projects. • the design, construction and maintenance of
site surface water drainage;
The Minesite Water Management Handbook provides
practical guidance, based on scientific principles and • issues associated with erosion and sediment
leading industry practice, on how to investigate and control; and
manage surface and groundwater during exploration, • management and monitoring of surface and
mining and mineral processing. The information groundwater quality:
is sourced from industry, government(s) and
research organisations, consultants and individuals Specific topics, for example acid drainage, are
actively participating in the minerals industry. presented as fact sheets. Both theoretical and practical
aspects of each issue are discussed. A glossary of
This handbook has been prepared as a companion terms is included and, finally, a reference list which
document to the AMIC (now the Minerals Council is designed to direct the reader to a greater level
of Australia) Rehabilitation Handbook (AMIC 1990). of detail than is provided in this handbook.
The handbook has been developed for those who
are not familiar with the fundamentals, processes
and requirements (both technical and legislative)
of water management for mining purposes, and for
those site personnel with limited or no experience or
training in water management from an environmental
perspective. It also provides an indication of what
the minerals industry sees as its prime objectives and
directions with regard to water management.
The handbook is divided into 13 main chapters
2. Statutory Requirements
Environmental management of mining and Typical State and Commonwealth environmental

mineral processing requires consideration of legislation relevant to water management in the
both State and Commonwealth legislation, Australian minerals industry is shown in Table 2.1
although most minerals industry operations
This legislation is frequently supported by regulations
are subject only to State environmental law.
which provide more detail on how the legislation
Legislation relevant to water issues within the mining is to be implemented and complied with. For
industry is passed by both State and Commonwealth example, regulations under a Clean Waters Act may
governments. These laws are usually enforced by the contain limits for physical, chemical and biological
relevant State Environmental Protection Authority parameters which cannot be exceeded in effluents.
or Department, State Department of Mines or the
Commonwealth Department of the
Environment.
TABLE 2.1: Typical State and Commonwealth Legislation

State Legislation Commonwealth Legislation
• Mining Act • Environment Protection (Sea Dumping)
• Environmental Protection Act Act 1981
• Local Government Act • Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Act 1975
• Clean Waters Act • Petroleum (Submerged Lands) Act 1967
• Groundwater Act • Protection of the Sea (Prevention of Pollution
• Pollution of Waters by Oil Act from Ships) Act 1983
• Environmental Protection/Marine • Seas and Submerged Lands Act 1973

(Sea Dumping) Act • National Parks and Wildlife Conservation
• Marine and Harbours Act Act 1975
• Petroleum (Submerged Lands) Act • Environment Protection (Alligator Rivers
• Coastal Protection Act Region) Act 1978
• Soil Conservation Act • Environment Protection (Impact of Proposals)
• Dangerous Goods Act Act 1974
• Radiation Control Act • Industrial Chemicals (Notification and
Assessment) Act 1989
• World Heritage Properties Conservation

Act 1983
S TAT U T O RY R E Q U I R E M E N T S
Most operations involving water, either supply or

disposal, will be licensed under the relevant act.
Licences are issued for a defined period, typically
one year, and have conditions attached to them.
These conditions may specify the monitoring
which is required to ensure compliance, the
limits which apply, and specific procedures
which must be followed in order to reduce
the environmental impact of the discharge.
As a minimum, every operation should ensure

that its facility fully complies with the relevant
State and Commonwealth acts, laws, regulations
and licences. Therefore, systems need to be
established and maintained to track compliance
with these statutory requirements and to
report this compliance on a regular basis.
3. Planning and Principles
3.1 Introduction 3.2 The Hydrologic Cycle and

Minesite Water Balance
Water respects no boundaries, and drought and
floods are events beyond our direct control. The hydrologic cycle is the primary model for the
The industry’s role in water management input and output water management elements in
is one of stewardship, not ownership, and any site development. These elements include:
therefore our operating philosophy should rainfall;
be based on the following concepts: surface runoff;
• efficient use of water; evaporation;
groundwater flow;
• implementation of the reduce, re-use, recycle
seepage;
concepts;
site and process water uses;
• avoid or minimise contamination of site and process water outputs;
clean streams and catchments; offsite discharges; and
• recognise and protect downstream beneficial on-site discharges.
uses (for both surface and groundwaters); and Assigning values to the parameters of the
• on relinquishment of title, the quantity and hydrological cycle will identify the water
quality of drainage from the site should not surplus or deficit nature of the site. This
prejudice the productive use of the land. process is referred to as the water balance.
Implementing these concepts requires considerable The minesite water balance is a central component in
planning, based on a clear understanding of the the minesite water management system. Through the
project and the hydrological, geochemical and water balance, we can gain a clearer understanding
processing regimes in which it operates. This section of the principal water management issues of
sets out the principles, while subsequent sections supply, protection, containment and discharge.
will provide the tools to prepare a detailed water
The principal data required for a
management plan for a site.
water balance include:
• determining the appropriate timestep for the

flow detail being assessed (hourly, daily, monthly
or yearly); and
• defining the inputs, demands and outputs.
The results obtained from the water balance

present data that provide definable benefits
in developing the components and systems
for effective water management.
P lanning and P rincip L E S
Various tools are available for the water balance contour intervals are dependent on the level of
including: spreadsheets for analysis; commercial investigation and the type of structures - the more
software such as AWBM and RORB for rainfall/ advanced the project the closer the contour intervals
runoff analysis; and customised software to and the greater the accuracy. Typical values are 0.5
suit the circumstances of a particular site. to 1.0 m (+/- 0.25 to 0.5 m) intervals for detailed
design and 2.5 to 5.0 m (+/- 1 to 2 m) intervals
for preliminary investigations. More detailed
3.3 Site Description
survey data may be required in particular cases.
Basic information about a site is necessary so that 3.3.4 CATCHMENT CHARACTERISTICS

a workable water management strategy or plan A characterisation of the site for parameters relevant
can be developed. Many of the components and to the surface and groundwater hydrology is
processes in this description are required for other essential for the planning, design and operation of
site assessment purposes. However, each topic site water management systems. Storm and volume
should be considered in terms of the information runoff coefficients, times of concentration for
needs required to address potential water peak runoff, storage parameters, erosion potential,
management issues at the site. Not all topics will sedimentation characteristics and hydraulic
need to be researched intensively for every site. coefficients such as Manning’s “n” are relevant for
3.3.1 CLIMATE surface characterisation. Hydraulic conductivity and
permeability, sub-surface water zones and aquifers
The essential climatic parameters are rainfall
and storage and yield characteristics are typically
and evaporation. To a lesser extent, temperature,
required for an understanding of the groundwater
relative humidity, wind speed and direction and
system. Monitoring systems are necessary to obtain
solar radiation are also required. Prior to resource
site-specific data and to confirm calculations.
development, daily records generally form the
basis of data collection systems. Because long- 3.3.5 SITE WATER REQUIREMENTS
term historical data are central to optimising It is important to understand what are the site
water management studies and design, the earliest water demands and how they may vary with
possible installation of real-time continuous data time. A dynamic water balance is frequently a
recording equipment is advised when a nearby great asset in establishing and maintaining a water
weather station is not available. Once a project management program. Short-term benefits in
is undergoing detailed feasibility studies, climate reducing water use and cost should not jeopardise
monitoring systems which provide more frequent future opportunities for expansion of the operation.
and specially targeted records may be required.
3.3.6 VEGETATION AND FAUNA ASSESSMENT
3.3.2 GEOLOGY AND GEOMORPHOLOGY
The purpose of this assessment is to provide
The data compiled here will assist with an a clearer understanding of the catchment
understanding of the groundwater and surface water characteristics for rainfall runoff assessments, and
movement characteristics and likely responses to to highlight sensitivities to the implementation
mine induced changes in flow or water quality. of the various water management strategies.
3.3.3 TOPOGRAPHY
A site plan showing the geographic setting, contours

and the land systems at the site is required. The
3.3.7 AQUATIC ECOLOGY changes to the water budget may be accommodated.

The planning process should consider:
The impact of the various strategies must recognise
the type and diversity of species and relevant • identifying the locations of potential sources
conservation values. Opportunities to utilise natural and probable yields (including surface water
systems, eg. local wetland species in water treatment yields from rainfall and groundwater);
schemes can be highlighted in this assessment. • identifying the locations of potential users
3.3.8 HERITAGE VALUES of water and their likely demands;
A comprehensive assessment, listing and plan of • sizing and positioning of dams and other water
archaeological, heritage, historical values and the control structures to cater for local demands;
visual character at the site will enable proper planning • preventing degradation of water
and locating of water management structures. quality by identifying and separating
3.3.9 DOWNSTREAM AND OFFSITE USERS “clean” and “dirty” streams;
Identification of the potential offsite impacts from • optimising the flexibility of the water system
the changes to the existing water patterns is required. by linking components in the water circuit
The operator should assess the constraints, the (using gravity drainage where possible);
target quality and quantity parameters required and • focusing excess water to down-gradient
where any benefits of the mine water management control dams of adequate size and at key
systems might pass to downstream users. locations to control offsite discharges;
3.3.10 MONITORING • implementing recycling schemes to re-

use water wherever possible; and
Monitoring will be required during the various
phases of mine development: baseline, feasibility, • implementing monitoring systems to
construction, operations, decommissioning and quantify water entering the circuit, moving
active rehabilitation. The monitoring systems within the circuit and exiting the circuit.
must be established with a view to understanding Frameworks of water management systems derived
the catchment responses to the proposed site in this way may be used to assess the impact of
activity and verifying licence requirements, and future changes in the water budget. This may be
for corroborating design data. Such systems need achieved by modelling the response of the mine
consistency through all phases of the project. water circuit to these changes commonly referred
to as the minesite water balance. Models may be
3.4 Site Plan written using computer programming languages
or developed using conventional spreadsheets.
Mine water management is a long-term Models should include:

process which may be simplified by:
• flexibility to alter quantities of
• planning for the energy-efficient storage, source and demand water;
transport and use of water; and • flexibility to alter water transport rates;
• modelling to quantify present • flexibility to alter dam sizes;
and future water budgets.
• flexibility to add or delete water
The thoroughness of the initial planning process will transport routes; and
determine the ease with, and extent to which future
• ‘calibration’ checks against monitored • ensure that Commonwealth, State and local
quantities where appropriate. statutory requirements are observed and
Planning and modelling of site water budgets incorporated into the monitoring plan;
will allow any imbalances between water supply • ensure that sufficient data are collected over
and demand at the site to be quantified and time in order to enable accurate assessment
accommodated efficiently. The quality of water may of the physical and chemical properties of
also need to be considered in such an analysis. all point source, diffuse source, industrial
and domestic wastewater streams; and
The site plan must also address the final land
use and the use of the water management • collect representative samples of the medium
infrastructure for the site after mining is finished. being measured and an adequate number
This will be a constant reference for ongoing of duplicate and quality control samples.
planning of the water management systems. Data management forms an important part of the
Where quantitative data are collected as part of the monitoring system. The following points should be
site description they should be compiled and stored considered when designing a monitoring system:
on an appropriate water management database • samples must be collected according to a
for reliable reference and review. Where possible, site-specific protocol, established to fulfil
qualitative data arising from this compilation the objectives of the monitoring program;
should be stored on the same database.
• all samples should be analysed using
NATA registered methods;
3.5 Monitoring and Data • all data collected using electronic loggers
Management must be validated and calibrated against
physically measured data wherever possible;
Within the resources industry, the basic
• calibration procedures must be established
principles of water monitoring are to:
at the earliest possible stage in a monitoring
• identify the receiving waters or natural resources program and the calibration of equipment
which require protection from the existing or should be checked periodically;
proposed mining and processing development;
• all water quantity and quality data should be
• establish water quality objectives stored in a database designed specifically for
for these resources; the site’s requirements; data should be able
• collect and evaluate site specific data such to be retrieved rapidly and systematically;
as local climatic conditions, permeability of • water information should be reported
soil and underlying bedrock, any potential regularly to site management (ie. actually
pathways for the migration of contaminants; used for management purposes); and
• prepare and implement a monitoring program • data should be regularly reviewed and
for the region prior to the commencement of interpreted to ensure that the beneficial
mining. Collect rainfall data, background flow uses (eg. ecological, recreational) of regional
and water quality data for all surface waters watercourses are protected in accordance with
(especially up and downstream of the operation), appropriate guidelines for receiving water
groundwater, estuarine and coastal waters that quality in the region (eg. ANZECC 1992).
may be affected by the development;
Further information on the establishment of site
monitoring programs can be obtained in EPA (1995).
4. Water Chemistry
4.1 Chemistry of Natural Waters • units in which the parameter is commonly

measured and reported;
4.1.1 INTRODUCTION • sources (what activity can contribute to

the levels of these parameters); and
Water quality is a generic term and is usually
determined by the levels of various indicator • environmental significance of the
substances. These indicators are generally selected parameter being determined.
on the basis of the type of waterbody in question However, before discussing individual
(eg. stream, estuary, groundwater, potable water) and physico-chemical parameters, several terms
the water use (eg. the quality of water required for and concepts common to most aquatic and
drinking is higher than that required for recreation). geochemical parameters will be introduced.
Impacts on surface and groundwater water quality 4.1.2 DISSOLVED VERSUS PARTICULATE AND
can occur during exploration, construction and TOTAL CONSTITUENTS
operation of mines, as well as at abandoned and
Definition
rehabilitated minesites. Uncontrolled drainage
from mines can contribute potentially harmful The distinction between dissolved, particulate and
materials to local waterways and may degrade total constituents is one of the most important
the water’s suitability for domestic, agricultural definitions used in water quality assessment.
or industrial uses, or be harmful to the ecology An element can move between the dissolved
of the receiving environment. Government and particulate phase depending on physico-
authorities are placing tighter controls on site chemical conditions such as temperature, pH or
discharges and many sites throughout Australia the presence of some other element or compound.
now operate under a zero discharge policy. This is often referred to as “partitioning”. Discharge
licences generally relate levels of a certain element
It is important to understand the characteristics
to either the dissolved, particulate or total
associated with the various types of water sources
concentration. The following example depicts
and discharges likely to be encountered.
the relationship between the three phases.
While the quality of the source or discharge at
Consider a one litre bottle of a water sample
any given site is dependent on the geochemistry,
collected for the analysis of cadmium. The sample
mineralogy and geographical location of the
contains both dissolved and particulate forms of
operation, there are general characteristics
cadmium. The dissolved cadmium concentration
associated with the water that may be encountered
is the cadmium in the sample after it has been
in Australia. This section includes a general
filtered through a 0.45µm pore size filter. The
overview of some of the common physicochemical
particulate cadmium in the sample is what
parameters and includes for each:
remains bound to the material on the filter.
• definition and alternate names;
water chemistry
Total concentration can be determined either 4.1.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN ORGANIC ACID
directly or by calculation from the dissolved and AND CARBONATE WATER SYSTEMS
particulate results. It is not simply a summation
The main aquatic geochemical processes throughout
of the two concentrations as the suspended solids
most of Australia's inland fresh waters are dominated
concentration has to be taken into account. For
by one of two general geochemical systems. In the
example, the dissolved cadmium concentration
context of this handbook, these will be termed:
was found to be 3µg/L, the particulate
concentration of cadmium was determined as • carbonate water (water in which the carbonic
250µg/g (or mg/kg), and the suspended sediment acid equilibrium plays the dominant role
concentration was 6540 mg/L (0.650 g/L). in governing water chemistry); and
Therefore the total cadmium concentration is: • organic acid water (water with natural
0.650(g/L) x 250 (µg/g) + 3 (µg/L) = high levels of dissolved organic matter).
154.5 µg total Cd/L. Waters in which the primary control is the carbonic
Alternatively, the total cadmium concentration acid system have pH values ranging from 6 to 8.5
may be measured directly by digesting and electrical conductivities up to many thousands
(using acid) and analysing a sub-sample of mS/cm. Organic acid systems generally have a pH
of the original one litre sample. less than 6 and much lower electrical conductivity.
The definition of “dissolved” using a 0.45 Carbonate Waters

µm filter is purely operational and has no The carbonate, or carbonic acid, system describes
direct biological rationale. Precise definitions water in which carbonate species in solution control
may be found in APHA (1994). or influence aquatic geochemical processes. The
The classifications of total, particulate and dissolved principal components of the carbonate system include
concentration are used widely when setting discharge carbon dioxide (CO2), carbonic acid (H2CO3),
permits and water quality criteria. Generally, dissolved bicarbonate (HCO3-) and carbonate (CO32-)The
criteria are more often used for the protection of reactions involving these species are very important in
aquatic ecosystems. This is because most toxicity surface waters, groundwaters and in the atmosphere.
data show that it is the dissolved phase of pollutants Carbonic acid in water can be derived from several
which is bioavailable to aquatic organisms and thus sources, the most important of which are:
potentially toxic. Total concentration criteria are 1. the weathering of carbonate rocks via:
generally used for recreation, livestock and human
CaCO3  Ca2+ + CO32-
health water quality criteria, given that separation
of the particulate load prior to either swimming or CO32- + H+  HCO3-
drinking raw water is unlikely to occur. In addition,
and
the acidic nature of the human gut means that
many pollutants can remobilise into the dissolved 2. uptake of CO2 from the atmosphere via:
phase and therefore become more bioavailable. CO2 + H2O  H2CO3
H2CO3  H+ + HCO3-
water chemistry
The species of the carbonate system that is present Almost all surface partitioning and adsorption
depends on the pH of the solution (see Figure 4.1). processes involving natural sediments are mediated
Below pH 6.4, carbonic acid (H2CO3) is the dominant to some degree by organic matter of this type. Rivers
species in solution whereas above pH 6.4 bicarbonate draining regions where little or no carbonate is
(HCO3-) is the dominant species. The greater the present, and where bedrock is resistant to weathering,
total concentration of the carbonate species, ie. tend to have a low pH and low conductivity. Soils
HCO3- plus CO32-, the greater the buffering capacity developed in these areas are frequently organic-rich
of the water, ie. the greater the ability of the water because the bedrock is resistant to breakdown and
to resist change from either acidic or basic inputs. therefore contributes little mineral to the soil. As
The amount of carbonate produced from reaction water percolates and circulates through the organic
2 is far less important than that derived from the rich soil, cations that are present in solution (Ca, Mg,
weathering process of rocks. Generally, carbonate Na, K) are exchanged for H+ in the soil organic matter.
system rivers have a higher conductivity, due not to
As the H+ accumulates in solution, the pH
the presence of bicarbonate but rather the co-cations
decreases. As the pH decreases, organic
in solutions which are also weathered as a part of
compounds are leached from the surface litter,
the same process that liberates the bicarbonate.
into solution. Organic acids are also synthesised
Organic Acid Waters by soil organisms and excreted by plant roots.
The particular organic acids which control the These waters also originate from areas of high
second major system of aquatic geochemical rainfall where peat deposits are common,
processes occurring in Australian freshwater rivers eg. the western highlands of Tasmania.
and streams are derived from what is loosely
4.1.4 LOAD VERSUS CONCENTRATION
termed humic and fulvic material or dissolved
organic matter (DOM). DOM is derived from In determining water quality, the distinction
the breakdown products of organic matter and between load and concentration must often be
comprises a wide range of complex molecules. made. Concentration of the element compound
water chemistry
is emphasised in systems where a threshold or generated than the initial alkalinity of the water,
regulatory level is desirable in the receiving water, the alkalinity will be consumed and acid water will
eg. maintaining total suspended solid values below result. If sufficient oxygen is present, the amount
100 mg/L, or dissolved oxygen above 9.5 mg/L. of acidity generated is determined by the amount
Concentration is usually expressed in terms of of reactive sulphides in the material. In the absence
mass per unit volume, ie. µg/L, mg/L, g/L or %. of mining, acid waters are uncommon because
dissolved oxygen in the groundwater is insufficient
There are other situations where total load or flux
to produce acidity greater than the alkalinity of
(ie. the total amount - mass or volume - of substance
the groundwater. During mining, gaseous oxygen
per unit time) may be of more concern, eg. nutrient
is introduced as the rock is broken up, and water
loading into lakes and rivers to avoid algal blooms
movement through the system is accelerated.
or the spread of nuisance weeds and phytoplankton.
Loadings are usually expressed in terms of mass per The bacteria that catalyse the acidity producing
unit time (g/day, tonnes/year), mass per unit area (kg/ reactions thrive only under acid conditions so that,
ha), or mass per unit area per unit time (kg/ha/year). once acidity is initiated, acid production becomes
more rapid and the problem increases rapidly.
4.1.5 pH
A phenomenon only recently identified in Australia
Definition and Alternative Names
is natural acidification of water as a result of acid
pH is an indicator of the intensity of the acidic sulphate soils. These waters have developed in tidal
or basic character of a solution (APHA 1994). swamps, wetlands and estuarine environments along
Units of Measurement coastal regions where iron rich silts and muds have
mixed with accumulated organic matter. Bacteria
pH is a dimensionless parameter and is thrive in these anaerobic conditions, creating pyrite.
represented on a logarithmic scale of 1 to When these soils are exposed to air, as occurs with
14. A pH value of 1 indicates a highly acidic disturbance due to coastal development, sulphuric
solution, 7 is neutral and 14 is strongly basic, acid is produced due to oxidation of the pyrite.
or alkaline. The technical definition is: Potential acid sulphate soils occur in most coastal
pH = -1/log10[H3O+]. regions from north of Sydney to Onslow in Western
Australia. Any mining development which potentially
Sources and Environmental Significance
affects such soils could also result in acid drainage.
One of the greatest causes or contributors to the
In most natural streams where acid drainage is
production of acidic water is from sulphide oxidation
not present, pH levels range between 5.5 and 8.5.
of iron sulphide minerals such as pyrite (FeS2) in the
Extremes to these levels are usually the results of
presence of oxygen (air) and water. The oxidation
high loads of natural organic acids (DOM) or high
reactions are bacterially mediated, primarily by
carbonate concentrations. Another effect of mixing
Thiobacillus ferrooxidans. Acid generating conditions
acid water with receiving waters high in carbonate
can occur in damp mine workings, in exposed waste
is the formation of CO2 which affects the respiration
rock dumps, tailings dams and in washeries. Fact
of aquatic biota. When pH values fall below 4,
Sheet No.7 discusses acid drainage in greater detail.
most aquatic biota will be severely stressed.
As the water moves through the acidic material,
In contrast to the low pH water produced by acid
oxidation of reactive sulphides occurs, generating
rock drainage, many mineral processing facilities
acidity which initially can be neutralised by
alkalinity in the groundwater. If more acid is
water chemistry
require water with an elevated pH (9 to 11) which • pH and effects from acid drainage;
is normally achieved through the addition of lime. • dissolved metal solubility and bioavailability
Problems of scaling in pipes and ecosystem stress (toxicity) to aquatic organisms;
brought about by high pH waters are no less serious
than the problems associated with low pH waters. • foaming, scaling and metallurgical problems; and
• dissolution of bicarbonate and carbonate,
Treatment Options
causing liberation of CO2 and corrosion.
Several approaches can be adopted to
4.1.7 HARDNESS
raise or lower pH including:
• addition of an alkali or acid;
Hardness is commonly associated with a waters
• activated carbon or ultra-violet
ability to lather or foam soap. The harder the
irradiation to remove DOM; and
water the more difficult it is to lather the soap.
• bubbling with CO2 to manipulate The principal components of hard water are
the carbonic acid equilibrium. calcium and magnesium ions (Ca2+ and Mg2+).
4.1.6 ALKALINITY Total hardness is defined as the numerical sum
Definition and Alternative Names of the calcium and magnesium concentrations,
expressed as calcium carbonate. When hardness
Alkalinity refers to the acid neutralising capacity
is numerically greater than the sum of carbonate
(pH buffering) of water, ie. its ability to reduce
and bicarbonate alkalinity, that amount of
changes in pH brought about by the addition
hardness equivalent to the total alkalinity is called
of an acid. The higher the alkalinity, the more
“carbonate hardness”; the amount of hardness in
acid is required to reduce the pH. Alkalinity is
excess of this is called “non-carbonate hardness”.
generally due to the presence of inorganic anions
When hardness is numerically equal to or less
including carbonate (CO32-), bicarbonate (HCO3- )
than the sum of the carbonate and bicarbonate
and hydroxide (OH-); however alkalinity may
alkalinity, all hardness is carbonate hardness and
also result from the presence of borates (B4O72- ),
non-carbonate hardness is normally absent.
phosphates (P0 3-) and silicates (SiO 2-).
4 2
Units of Measurement
Hardness is reported in the same units
Alkalinity is expressed in the units of:
as alkalinity, ie. mg (CaCO3)/L.
mg of calcium carbonate per litre
There are two methods for determining hardness.
of water (mg CaCO3/L).
The first is by calculation from the Ca2+ and Mg2+
The reported results for alkalinity are influenced by concentration in solution, the other is by titration.
the method of the determination and depend on
Hardness may range from zero to several
the pH end-point used in the analysis. Analytical
hundred mg/L, depending on the source
methods are documented in APHA (1994).
and any prior pre-treatment of the water.
The main sources of alkalinity are the soluble
Hardness usually occurs through dissolution
salts of the anions listed in Section 4.1.13.
of minerals containing calcium, magnesium,
Alkalinity is known to influence several and silica compounds, typically calcium and
aquatic geochemical processes including: magnesium carbonates, sulphates, chlorides or
water chemistry
nitrates. Because of the inverse solubility of Units of Measurement

these compounds with temperature, at high
Conductivity is usually determined by
concentrations they precipitate out of solution
measuring the resistance where:
in, for example, boilers and hot water pipes.
There are no reported human toxicological Conductivity = 1
consequences of elevated hardness; however, Resistance.
high hardness waters are generally unpalatable. The SI1 unit for conductivity is mS/m (milliSiemens
Treatment Options per metre); however µS/cm is still in common use,
and many conductivity instruments use the units
Treatment options for water with high hardness µmhos/cm, where 1 mS/m = 10 µmhos/cm.
comprise mainly precipitation of the Ca2+ and
Mg2+ ions using a mixture of lime (Ca(OH)2) and Sources and Environmental Significance
soda ash (Na2CO3). In this process, the Ca2+ and Conductivity is used to monitor several
Mg2+ ions precipitate as CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2. different processes, some of which include:
As this process occurs at high pH, subsequent pH • determination of amounts of ionic
adjustment may be required. This can easily be reagent needed in certain precipitation
achieved by the addition of either H2SO4 or by the and neutralisation reactions; and
bubbling of CO2 through the softened solution.
• estimation of total dissolved solids (TDS) in
4.1.8 CONDUCTIVITY mg/L and salinity in a sample by multiplying
Definition and Alternative Names the conductivity in mS/m by an empirical factor.
For TDS this factor may vary from 0.55 to 0.90
"Conductivity" is a measure of the ability of water depending on the soluble components of the
to conduct an electric current. Factors affecting water and the temperature of the measurement.
conductivity include temperature and the type, In the absence of a site-specific relationship,
concentration and valency of ions present a factor of 0.68 is commonly assumed.
(eg. Na+, Ca2+, Cl- and SO42-). Similarly, an estimate (in milliequivalents
The higher the concentration of conducting per litre) of either anions or cations can be
solutes, such as salts, the higher the derived from the conductivity measurement.
conductivity (see Table 4.1). 4.1.9 SALINITY

TABLE 4.1 Typical Conductivity Range of Waters Salinity is an indirect measurement of the
Conductivity Range total amount of soluble salts in solution.
Water
(mS/m) These salts include sodium chloride as well
as various calcium and magnesium salts
Freshly distilled 0.5 - 2
of chlorides, sulphate and nitrates.
Potable waters 50 - 1 500
Seawater 40 000 - 50 000
Salinity is generally expressed as parts
Groundwater up to 50 000 per thousand (ppt or 0/00).
1 Systéme lnternationale = International System of Units
water chemistry
The only direct method of measuring absolute industry has standardised on a range of filters from
salinity is to analyse the individual chemical various manufacturers all with a similar nominal pore
components. Given the time and costs associated size of around 1.2µm. In Australia, perhaps the most
with individual analyses, indirect methods widely used is the Whatman glass-fibre filter GF/C
such as conductivity are normally favoured. After the water sample is filtered through the GF/C
Conductivity measurements can be made in the filter, the filtrate is evaporated to dryness at 1800C
field or laboratory with a meter and probe which and weighed; the TDS is calculated from this result.
has temperature compensation. Total dissolved
It is important not to confuse dissolved solids,
solids is also an approximate measure of salinity
which are filtered through the GF/C type
Sources and Environmental Significance filters, with the dissolved component of metals.
Dissolved metals refers to that portion of the total
Dry land salinity is a major problem in certain areas
metals in a sample which pass through, or are
of Australia, caused primarily by the widespread
not retained on, a 0.45µm filter membrane.
clearing of native vegetation. Replacement of deep
rooted perennial native vegetation with shallow TSS may also be referred to as non-filterable residue
rooted annual pastures which use much less water, (NFR) or suspended particulate matter (SPM).
allows the water table to rise, bringing dissolved
This parameter measures the amount of solids
salts to the surface where they are concentrated
suspended in a water sample which can be separated
by evaporation. Similarly, the storage of acid and
from the water and dissolved solids phase by
saline mine water in dams can pollute high quality
filtration through a filter of fixed pore size.
groundwater reserves. Hypersaline groundwater,
with salinities well in excess of seawater, is used as TSS can be related to the turbidity of a water
process water in the goldfields of Western Australia. sample. With careful site-specific calibration, and
Release of this water into the environment can where the sediment source is relatively constant
cause death of vegetation and land degradation. and homogenous, turbidity can be used to calculate
TSS (see: Section 4.1.11). However, extreme care
Criteria for salinity pertaining to various
must be taken in developing this relationship.
livestock, irrigation and domestic uses can be
found in ANZECC (1992) and DME (nd). Units of Measurement
4.1.10 SOLIDS Total solids and its constituent parts are

reported as mg/L. In samples with very high
Total solids, as the name suggests, is a measure of
concentrations the units may be expressed as %.
all the substances associated with a water sample,
other than the water itself. It can be further refined Sources and Environmental Significance
into its constituent parts, total dissolved solids The composition of total solids depends on the
(TDS) and total suspended solids (TSS), ie. geology, land use, geochemistry and the environment
TS = TDS + TSS. of the catchment. Dissolved solids in water may result
from the dissolution of materials exposed during
mining, or from the addition of soluble chemicals
Another name for total solids is total residue. during the processing of ores. High levels of TDS
are often not suitable for potable water, mainly
TDS or filterable residue is that portion of a sample
due to inferior taste. In addition, waters high in
(other than water) which passes through a filter of
TDS are rarely suited for industrial applications.
pre-defined pore size. This will obviously depend
on the pore size of the filter used. For this reason,
water chemistry
Suspended solids can result from erosion of land through controls on clearing and prompt
unprotected ground surfaces, from wash water, revegetation, are ways of reducing solids loadings
or from stormwater mobilising solids deposited to water. Sediment retention through the placement
on the ground surface as a result of mining or of sediment traps will lead to a reduction in the
processing activities. The TSS in water can affect amount of sediment reaching natural watercourses.
the operation of biological and physical wastewater Sediment traps upstream of a storage dam are
treatment processes. Samples high in TSS are also an effective means of prolonging the life of a
aesthetically unsatisfactory and affect the partitioning relatively small dam. Treatment of water containing
and distribution of various contaminants in the suspended sediments prior to use in a plant or
aquatic system. Suspended solids reduce light for domestic potable water may require settling,
penetration through the water column, affecting screening, filtering or dosing with a flocculant.
growth of aquatic flora and fauna as well as the
4.1.11 TURBIDITY
aesthetic appeal of the water and its subsequent
use for recreation. Under certain flow conditions, Definition and Alternative Names
suspended material settles out and can smother "Turbidity" is an optical measurement of the
benthic organisms and their habitats. Other problems sample’s inherent ability to scatter light. Turbidity
with sedimentation include possible disruption to measurements can be affected by the particle size
navigation. Since most pollutants can be carried by of the suspended matter, its mineral content and
or adsorbed onto suspended solids, tight controls its respective abilities to scatter and absorb light. In
of TSS in a water management plan can also addition, fine colloidal material can have a major
lower the flux or total load of pollutants entering effect on increasing the turbidity (light scattering)
watercourses. Adsorbed nutrients and organic matter of a sample but only have a minor effect or increase
are also a source of nutrients for algal blooms. in the concentration of total suspended solids.
Solids remain in suspension only when there Optical right angled back-scatter nephelometers are
is enough force or energy (turbulence) in the generally used for low level turbidity measurements
water column to keep them in suspension. Rivers while forward scattering devices, which are more
with lower gradients and lower energy enable sensitive to the presence of larger particles, are
suspended sediments to settle out and become generally used for in-stream analysis systems.
benthic sediment or bed load. The effect of Care must be taken in using optical devices,
increased sediment loads to a river system are especially in tropical regions where algae and
numerous. High suspended sediment loads can slime growth can rapidly affect the calibration
effect the gills of fish leading to irritation and of these instruments. Similarly, in waters with
lesions. When suspended sediment settles, it can high suspended solids, abrasion of the optical
increase river bed elevation or aggradation which, surface can affect calibration of the instrument.
as well as affecting aquatic organisms, may also
lead to increased overbank flows and flooding. Units of Measurement
Sedimentation in water storage can reduce the life The units of turbidity are generally reported in
of a dam, or increase the costs of dredging as well nephelometric turbidity units (NTU). It is possible
as decreasing the quality of the retained water. to produce a calibration curve or regression curve
Treatment Options of turbidity versus TSS at a given site; however,
this must be repeated for each site, because of the
Prevention of dust generation through control likely changes in the characteristics of suspended
of processes and stockpiles, and erosion of solids between different geological regions.
water chemistry
Flow rates can also affect particle size distribution and Reduction in dissolved oxygen within natural
hence the relationship between turbidity and TSS. aquatic systems can result from inputs of
organic material to the system (eg. sewage, some
mineral processing effluents) and also from algal
By world standards, Australian watercourses are quite blooms. Dissolved oxygen concentrations usually
turbid as a result of intense rainfall and flood events, decrease with increasing water temperature.
and the erodibility of agricultural and arid soils. The
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
aquatic ecosystems of many Australian watercourses
have adapted to higher turbidity levels than existed Definition and Alternative Names
prior to white settlement, but most probably at
The BOD test is an empirical test in which
a cost of lower species numbers and diversity.
standardised laboratory procedures are used to
Turbid waters normally require some form of determine the relative oxygen demand of wastewaters,
treatment prior to their use as industrial or potable effluents and polluted waters. It is often referred
water. Treatment processes used to remove turbidity to as the BOD5 test, referring to the biochemical
can include filtration, coagulation and settling. oxygen demand over a five day incubation period.
4.1.12 OXYGEN DEMAND Units of Measurement

(DISSOLVED OXYGEN, BOD AND COD)
The units of BOD5 are expressed in mg/L
Dissolved oxygen is a key water quality parameter along with the incubation time.
required to sustain a healthy aquatic ecosystem.
The presence of excess organic materials such
as sewage sludge can significantly add to the The BOD test measures the oxygen consumed
oxygen demand of a system, consuming dissolved by biochemical degradation of organic material
oxygen from the water as they decompose. (carbonaceous demand) and the oxygen used
to oxidise inorganic material such as sulphides
Dissolved Oxygen
and ferrous iron. It may also measure the
Definition and Alternative Names oxygen used to oxidise reduced forms of
nitrogen (nitrogenous demand), unless their
Dissolved oxygen refers to the oxygen
oxidation is prevented by an inhibitor.
molecules that are dissolved in water.
If BOD5 in effluent is high, then oxygen
dependent organisms in the receiving
Dissolved oxygen is usually expressed in parts waters may become stressed.
per million or mg/L. For some natural systems,
Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
% saturation is also commonly used.
The COD test is used as a measure of the oxygen
For the protection of aquatic ecosystems,
equivalent of the organic matter concentration
ANZECC (1992) recommends that dissolved
of a sample that is susceptible to oxidation by
oxygen should not normally be permitted to fall
a strong chemical oxidant. For samples from a
below 6 mg/L or 80-90% saturation, this being
given location COD can be empirically related
determined over at least one diurnal cycle.
to BOD, organic carbon or organic matter.
water chemistry
Units of Measurement minerals such as pyrite (FeS2). Phosphates (which

are present in domestic and industrial detergents)
Results are expressed in units of mg O2/L.
and nitrates (from mine explosives and fertilisers
Sources and Environmental Significance used in mine rehabilitation) can also find their
COD is a useful, but not commonly used, parameter way to watercourses. If these nutrients occur in
in mine water management. Its usefulness stems from moderate to high concentrations they can readily
its measurement of the total oxygen demand, unlike stimulate the growth of algae and aquatic weeds.
BOD which measures oxygen demand available to Inorganic Cations
bacteria over a five day period. As a result, COD
Definition
concentrations will normally always be higher
than BOD concentrations from the same sample. Cations are those elements with a positive charge,
such as sodium (Na+), potassium (K+), calcium (Ca2+),
4.1.13 ANIONS AND CATIONS
and magnesium (Mg2+). These are among the most
Definition abundant natural elements in the environment.
Anions are those elements with a negative charge (eg. Units of Measurement
Cl-, OH-, HCO3-, SO42-, CO32-, P043-) as opposed
Cations are typically reported in the
to cations which are positively charged (eg. Na+,
units mg/L. Values in natural surface and
K+, Ca2+, Mg2+). This discussion will be restricted
groundwaters and wastewaters range
to the common inorganic anions and cations.
between zero to several hundred mg/L.
Inorganic Anions
Common anions associated with mine water
The concentrations of these elements in natural
quality management are chloride (Cl–), hydroxide
waters depends on the geology and geochemistry
(OH–), bicarbonate (HCO3–), nitrate (NO3–), sulphate
of the host rock. Calcium concentrations in
(SO42–), carbonate (CO32–), and phosphate (PO43–)·
water from limestone areas are typically higher
Units of Measurement than for waters from non-calcareous areas.
Anions are typically reported in the units mg/L. High concentrations of these cations are typically
Values in natural and wastewaters range found in groundwaters and increase their hardness.
from zero to several hundred mg/L. They also affect the permeability and fertility of
Sources and Environmental Significance soils and, for this reason, their concentrations are
closely monitored in the agricultural sector.
The sources of these anions is dependent on
geology as well as prior treatment and uses of Other sources of these cations include leachate
the water. Sources of chloride are salts such as from waste rock and tailings dams.
NaCl and CaCl2 which are often present in high The ratio of the specific major cations relative to
concentrations in groundwater. For example, the each other is also an important factor in considering
aquifers of the Hunter Valley of New South Wales the implication of their respective concentrations
contain high concentrations of salt as a result of in either feed, process or discharge water.
deposition of sediments in a marine environment.
The most common source of soluble SO42– from
mine operations is from the oxidation of sulphide
water chemistry
4.1.14 METALS (TRACE METALS, HEAVY The impact of a particular metal on water quality
METALS, METAL SPECIATION) depends not only on the type and concentration of
the metal, but also on its chemical form or speciation.
Definition
The chemical speciation of a metal (eg. whether
Two terms are commonly used when discussing copper exists as Cu2+, CuCO3, Cu(OH)2, or Cu-
metals in water and environmental management. dissolved organic matter complexes etc.) dictates how
These are: bioavailable it is and the extent to which it may enter
• Trace metals, which commonly refers to: the food chain, where it may accumulate to toxic
– metals at very low levels in the environment levels. Generally, metals are most toxic in their soluble
(trace analysis); or free ionic form (species) eg. Cu2+, Ag+ etc., compared
to metals complexed with either inorganic or organic
– trace elements
ligands (eg. CuCO3 or Cu-DOM) or in particulate
which are either essential nutrients or
form (associated with minerals). One exception is
serve some other necessary biochemical
mercury which is more toxic in the methyl mercury
function. These include zinc, iron, copper,
(CH3Hg) species compared to the free (Hg2+) species.
cobalt, sodium and potassium;
Further information on individual metals and their
and
environmental Significance can be obtained from
• Heavy metals, which are generally thought the various ANZECC guideline documents.
to mean toxic metals. Strictly speaking the
4.1.15 NUTRIENTS
term refers to metals with an atomic weight
greater than that of sodium (22.9). Definition and Alternative Names
Units of Measurement The term "nutrient" refers collectively to elements
The units are dependent on the metal and its and compounds which are essential to sustaining
concentration. Particulate metals are usually adequate biological function. The most common
reported as µg/g or mg/kg. Dissolved metals are nutrients which may affect the water management
usually expressed in terms of µg/L or parts per of a mining operation are nitrogen and phosphorus.
billion. Other units in which metals are sometimes There are various forms of nitrogen such as ammonia,
reported include mol, millimol or micromol per nitrite, nitrate, and organic nitrogen. Phosphorus
litre (mol/L, mmol/L, µmol/L). These units relate can be found in the form of orthophosphate, total
to the number of molecules of the metal that are phosphorus and organically bound phosphates.
present and are not influenced by the actual weight The form of the nutrient has an integral role in
of the elements of concern. This unit is most its function and fate in the aquatic environment.
commonly used in toxicological assessment. Biological productivity may be limited by the
availability of either nitrogen or phosphorus,
Sources and Environmental Significance which are often referred to as the growth limiting
In natural systems, most metals are only sparingly nutrients. Silica has also been identified as a
soluble in water, with higher concentrations limiting nutrient in some aquatic systems.
usually associated with the particulate phase. The Units of Measurement
amount of a metal released from its particulate
phase into solution is a function of pH, particle The units of measurement for nutrients depend
geochemistry, aquatic geochemistry, hydrologic on the form of either phosphorus or nitrogen
factors, temperature, etc. Mobilisation of metals is that is being measured. Typical expressions are
frequently a secondary effect of acid drainage.
water chemistry
micrograms of total phosphorus or total Units of Measurement

nitrogen per litre (µg TP/L or µg TN/L) and
Oil and grease in water samples is commonly
milligrams of ortho-phosphorus or nitrate
expressed in mg/L. Oil and grease in solid
nitrogen (mg Ortho-P/L or mg NO3-N/L).
sludge is expressed as % of dry solids.
Sources and Environmental Significance Hydrocarbons are also expressed in this way.
Sources of nutrients in mining operations include: Sources and Environmental Significance
• sewage or septic wastewater; If present in high amounts, oil and grease can
• nitrogen based nutrients from explosives; reduce the efficiency of water treatment processes
by interfering with anaerobic and aerobic
• phosphorus based nutrients from process biological processes. Large quantities of oil and
chemicals and industrial detergents; grease discharged in wastewater can cause surface
• fertilisers applied during rehabilitation works; films and deposits and result in the staining of
and riverbanks and coast lines. They can also affect
oxygen exchange, oxygen demand and palatability.
• degradation products of cyanide.
Treatment Options
Excessive concentrations of nutrients can promote
and accelerate growth of aquatic plants and algae, Treatment options available for the reduction
including attached and floating macrophytes and of synthetic organics (fuels, oils, grease etc.)
dense suspensions of free-floating algae. These reduce include simple oil-water separators through to
light penetration and, upon decomposition, cause expensive dissolved air flotation systems.
odours and loss of oxygen in the host ecosystem. 4.1.17 ORGANICS, NATURAL ORGANIC
4.1.16 OILS, GREASES AND HYDROCARBONS MATTER, DISSOLVED ORGANIC CARBON
Definition and Alternative Names Definition and Alternative Names
The parameter “oil and grease” refers to a The term organics refers to a broad group of chemical
range of chemicals which can be extracted parameters, some of which are used in the resource
from a water sample into the organic solvent development and mineral processing industries.
trichlorotrifluoroethane. The types of compounds In addition to manufactured organic compounds,
collectively analysed by this method are primarily there is a broad group of naturally occurring organic
fatty components from animal and vegetable sources compounds which play an important role in aquatic
and hydrocarbons from petroleum products. While biogeochemical processes. Collectively, these
trichlorotrifluoroethane is used to extract the group compounds are referred to as dissolved organic matter
of compounds of interest, there are three subsequent (DOM), natural organic matter (NOM), dissolved
analyses which can be conducted depending on organic carbon (DOC), or humic substances (HS).
the make-up of the water being examined and the
likely constituents. Oil and grease determination Units of Measurement
can also be performed on sludge samples. For the more general definition of synthetic
If required, total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH) organics, the units of measurement depend on
can be selectively analysed as a separate group by the analysis being undertaken. Most commonly,
a modification of the oil and grease method. they are reported in either mg/L or µg/L.
water chemistry
Naturally derived organic material is most Units of Measurement

commonly measured as DOC and expressed
Several methods exist for the analysis of colour,
in units of mg C/L. DOC typically represents
varying from the simple visual comparison, to
approximately 50% by mass of DOM.
techniques requiring sophisticated instruments
Sources and Environmental Significance and determination of the colour wavelength of
the sample. The units of colour depend on the
Process reagents such as collectors, frothers
method of analysis but generally correspond to
and flocculants are all synthetic organic-based
a “colour number” or code which is based on a
compounds. Usually, the amounts of organic
visual comparison of the colour of the sample to
compounds used for mineral processing are small
that of a series of standards, usually made with a
and any residual concentrations decay rapidly.
platinum cobalt solution. Alternatively, the colour
DOM, NOM, DOC and HS refer to a generic group can be measured by light transmittance through a
of compounds which are best described as the humic special system of photoelectric cells and light filters.
and tannin extracts of soil and plant materials which The final choice of measurement depends on the
impart the characteristic tea colour of some natural specific water quality to be determined. Regulatory
waters. The organic compounds making up DOM are authorities usually specify the parameters to be
a group of weakly acidic molecules which, in high determined and the specific method of analysis.
concentrations, are able to reduce the pH of the water.
Treatment Options
Colour may result from a number of sources
The removal of natural organic material can be including metallic ions (iron and manganese),
performed in many ways and is dependent on dissolved organic material (humus and peat material),
the amount of DOC present and the amount of plankton and weeds. Highly coloured industrial
water requiring treatment. Common treatment wastes can also contribute to the colour of water.
options include adsorption onto activated
The environmental implications of colour depend
carbon, UV oxidation and ozone oxidation.
on the element that is imparting the colour.
4.1.18 COLOUR
4.1.19 CYANIDE
The term colour can be divided into:
Cyanide (CN) is used widely throughout the
• True colour, ie. the colour of a sample from mining industry to dissolve and complex
which turbidity has been removed; and gold and silver to separate them from the ore.
• Apparent colour, which includes the colour In terms of water quality management there
and turbidity of the total sample. are three main forms or species of CN:
Apparent colour is measured on the sample prior • total CN - refers to all forms of CN and is
to any treatment (except inversion of the sample to usually determined by performing an exhaustive
suspend all particulate matter) and true colour is hot acid extraction whereby all the CN from
measured after either filtration or centrifugation. both liquid and solid phases are dissolved
and subsequently analysed as NaCN;
Normally, unless otherwise stated, the term
colour refers to the measure of true colour. • weak acid dissociable CN (WAD CN) includes
only those CN compounds that are liberated
water chemistry
under weakly acidic conditions, ie. it does not • complex formation with metals - CN forms
include all the CN present in the sample; and complexes with metal ions which are common
• free CN (CN–) and hydrogen cyanide (HCN) in mineral processing wastes. These complexes
are the most bioavailable forms of CN, the are usually resistant to biological uptake and
abundance of which is strongly dependent are stable in the environment, although some
on pH. The lower the pH the greater the may be readily broken down to their basic
proportion of the total CN that exists as HCN. components, for example CuCN; and
Units of Measurement • photochemical degradation - although complex

ions such as ferro-CN and ferri-CN are
The units in which CN is expressed depends on the thermodynamically stable, they can undergo
form being analysed and from where it was collected. photo-reduction to form free CN in the presence
Samples from process waters containing CN will of UV light. In compacted and solid tailings
generally have total CN values in the mg/L range; dams, this is only a problem at the surface of
however, after storage or treatment the values may the dam. Beneath the surface, away from the
realistically be in the very low µg/L range. Generally, UV light, the CN remains as a stable metal-CN
for process waters using CN values are reported as: complexes. The conversion of CN complexes
• mg total CN/L; to free CN is affected by pH, temperature,
pond geometry and the intensity of UV light
• mg WAD CN/L; and
incident on the pond. The concentration of
• g free CN/L. total CN has been observed to drop from
around 60 mg/L to less than 5 mg/L in just
over 1.5 months (Smith &. Mudder, 1991).
While CN can be formed naturally by nitrifying
4.1.20 ODOUR AND TASTE
bacteria, the main source in the mining
industry is waste streams from cyanidation Definition and Alternative Names
processes. The mechanisms affecting the Both odour and taste are subjective tests which
environmental fate of CN include: often depend on an individual’s personal criterion to
• bacterial degradation - movement of CN through determine the acceptability of the water or otherwise.
soils and sediments is thought to be restricted The tests are usually based on a comparison with
through biodegradation by soil organisms tasteless and odourless water samples. Flavour
and adsorption to soil particle complexes; is more objective, and can be used instead.
Documented procedures for flavour are available.
• atmospheric diffusion - at neutral and acidic pH,
CN in solution occurs predominantly as HCN Units of Measurement
gas which readily diffuses into the atmosphere;
Taste and odour are generally reported as
• conversion to thiocyanate - free CN dimensionless descriptive numbers which
reacts with pyrite and pyrrhotite to form relate to threshold detection limits where the
thiocyanate, which is relatively stable and sample is compared to a standard with no, or
non-toxic. Thiocyanate is also produced some definable taste or odour characteristics.
as a part of the natural detoxification and The measurements include threshold odour
biodegradation of CN in biotic systems; number, flavour threshold number, flavour rating
assessment and flavour profile analysis number.
water chemistry
Sources and Environmental Significance 4.2 Biological Aspects of Waters

Taste and odour may render the water unsuitable
for human consumption and domestic use Mining and mineral processing operations rely on
as well as tainting fish and other foods which or influence the biological component of natural
inhabit the water. There is no single compound or artificial systems. These systems can include:
which causes odour. However, tests exist for
• biological processes beneficial to the
the determination of several of the prime
operation, eg. anaerobic and aerobic
compounds which impart an odour in waters.
treatment ponds, artificial wetlands;
4.1.21 RADIONUCLIDES
• ecosystem protection, ie. limiting the
Definition and Alternative Names physical and/or chemical parameters
associated with mine discharges to levels
The mining and milling of ore containing uranium
suitable for ecosystem protection; and
may result in water and wastewater that contains
variable concentrations of radionuclides present • bio-monitoring, ie. using aquatic organisms
in the ore. The water that is retained or discharged to monitor the effects and effectiveness
from an operation should, as a minimum, be of water management practices.
analysed for radium-226, thorium-230, lead- ANZECC (1992) recommended four biological
210, uranium-238 and polonium-210. indicators to assess ecosystem condition or health.
Units of Measurement These indicators are based on the assumption that
the extent to which the integrity of an ecosystem
The commonly used unit of measurement for
is being maintained can only be assessed when
radionuclides is the becquerel (bq). For water,
the characteristic biological communities of a
the units are expressed as bq/L and for soil and
region are known or, since this will rarely be the
sediment the units are expressed as bq/g.
case in Australia, by comparison of the biological
Sources and Environmental Significance community at the site or sites of interest with
unimpacted communities in similar habitats
Radionuclides can be found in wastewater arising
elsewhere in the region. Each of these indicators
from the mining and milling of radioactive ores.
relies on a rigorous and statistically sound
Typical streams are:
sampling scheme, which is able to distinguish
• excess process water, which may be between various population parameters between
pumped to a tailings impoundment; impacted and unimpacted sites. Of these biological
• runoff from the mine pit, ore stockpiles, waste indicators, two relate to biological community
dumps, borrow areas, haul roads and plant area; structure and two to community processes.
• seepage from the mine pit, tailings The biological indicators recommended are:
dam and evaporation ponds; and Species Richness
• water from water supply bores and dams which
Measures of specific richness indicate the number
has flowed through mineralised material.
of species present in a sample of organisms of
given size. They differ from diversity measures
which also incorporate the concept of species
evenness. A decrease in richness is generally
considered as an indicator of ecosystem stress.
water chemistry
Since different components of an ecosystem may major energy pathways is maintained, and
respond differently to stress, it is important that all that natural detritus-driven aquatic systems
the major biological groups (eg. macroinvertebrates, are not converted to autochthonous primary
fish) be evaluated. The ANZECC guideline production driven systems, and vice versa.
specifies that the species richness as measured
Levels of Protection
by a standardised index should not be altered.
Two categories of aquatic ecosystems are identified
Species Composition
within the national ANZECC guidelines:
ANZECC (1992) has proposed a guideline that, in
• Pristine ecosystems are not subject to
any waterbody, impacts that result in Significant
human interference through discharges
changes in species composition compared to those
or activities within the catchment. For
in similar, local unimpacted systems should not be
these ecosystems, now largely restricted
permitted. It is possible, although probably unlikely,
to National Parks, it is appropriate for the
that ecosystems could maintain species richness while
existing water quality to be protected and
still changing markedly in species composition.
preserved through strict management; and
Primary Production • Modified ecosystems include all those systems
Primary production forms the basis of most subject to human interference. Some modified
aquatic food chains. In any waterbody, net ecosystems have been permanently altered
primary production should not vary from the physically, for example through stream
levels encountered in similar local, unimpacted channelisation or port construction. Others
habitats, under similar light, temperature and have been changed through long-term
nutrient loading regimes. Primary production chemical toxicity caused by contaminated
is known to be sensitive to light (water clarity), sediment or by changed river flow regimes.
temperature and nutrients, amongst other factors. 4.2.1 MICRO-ORGANISMS
Ecosystem Function Micro-organisms play an important role in natural
In any waterbody, changes that vary the relative aquatic systems and in the treatment of wastewater.
importance of the detrital and grazing food chains The greatest use of microbes in wastewater treatment
should be minimised. Production to respiration is for the treatment of sewage using anaerobic and
ratios should not vary significantly from those aerobic treatment systems. Other uses of micro
of similar, local, unimpacted systems. organisms relevant to the minerals industry are:
Some ecosystems, such as large standing waterbodies, • treatment of cyanide waste streams generated
have autochthonous primary production (produced from mining and mineral processing operations;
within the waterbody) as their major energy • treatment of hydrocarbon contamination
source. Others, including forest streams and some arising from spillage or leaks from
wetland systems derive most of their energy from storage tanks or pipes; and
allocthonous detritus (produced from outside the
• remediation of high nutrient or
waterbody and is transported to where it is used).
sulphate wastewaters.
Aquatic systems should be managed such
that the relative balance between these two
water chemistry
4.2.2 ALGAL BLOOMS The time required to kill 50% of the population
is then used as an index of toxicity. Standard LC50
Problem algal blooms are usually the result of a
and LD50 tests are performed over 96 hours. The
number of factors and not generally the result of
96 hour duration is operationally defined and
a single person or a projects activities. A bloom is
has no biological or biochemical foundation. It
usually an indication of widespread problems or
was established so that a test could be completed
stress throughout the catchment, as in the case of
within one working week. It refers to a specific
blue-green algal blooms along the Murray-Darling
dose of a test compound and is usually expressed
system. While localised algal blooms can occur on a
as a concentration of the test compound per mass
site, they usually do not pose any great problems and
of test organism body weight. Such information is
can frequently be controlled. Algal blooms are usually
usually used to calculate and assign a safe exposure
short-term occurrences leading to a population
limit or of recommended dose per person per day.
explosion and normally result from a combination of
high light penetration and water temperatures, slow Lethal concentration50 (LC50) is similar to the lethal
flowing or stagnant water and high concentrations dose but refers to a concentration. Therefore,
of nitrogen and phosphorous. Oxygen depletion this figure is more widely used to test aquatic
and the release of toxic constituents from blue- organisms such as fish and invertebrates. Often,
green algae are common problems that can develop toxicity data are related to a time of exposure,
when a bloom collapses and the algae decay. eg. a value of 50µg/L is not to be exceeded more
than once over any 12 month period. While such
4.2.3 TOXICITY AND ECOSYSTEM HEALTH
limits do take into account accidental spillages,
In general, toxicity testing involves determining they are assigned on a purely arbitrary basis and
the effect of various compounds on test organisms the toxicological information in relation to this
under set conditions. The terms LD50 and LC50 are value being exceeded is not absolute in nature.
both acute measures of toxicity. However, toxicity
Chronic Toxicity
can also be measured in terms of non-lethal, chronic
parameters such as an organism’s growth rate, This term refers to long-term toxicity as opposed
fecundity changes and behavioural response changes. to sudden death resulting from a test compound.
Chronic toxicity is much more difficult to diagnose
An extensive listing of toxicological data has recently
and relates to longer term exposure to a specific
been compiled within the ANZECC guidelines,
compound. Continued chronic exposure can
which list the types of compounds and the range
include adverse responses such as changes to
of toxicity data available. In general, toxicity
spawning, metabolism or growth rates, or appetite,
evaluation is time-consuming and very expensive.
behavioural or reproductive changes. Because
Acute Toxicity chronic effects are harder to identify, minimal work
This term refers to a relatively short-term lethal has been performed to date on the chronic effects
or other effect, usually defined as occurring of most pollutants, except in the case of human
within four days for fish and macroinvertebrates health (mercury for example). Chronic toxicity is
and less for smaller organisms. often more subjective than a measurement of acute
toxicity or LC50 or LD50. However the chronic toxicity
Lethal dose50 (LD50) refers to the dose of a test effects of pollutants are now becoming much more
compound, which kills 50% of the test population. important to maintain long-term ecosystem health.
water chemistry
4.2.4 FACTORS INFLUENCING particulate phase compared to the aqueous

BIOAVAILABILITY AND phase, in addition to the pH and concentration
TOXICITY OF CONTAMINANTS of organic matter. The more the compound
is associated with the particulate phase, the
The following factors play a major role
less bioavailable it will be. The partition
in determining the fate of any waste
coefficient is the term which defines the ratio
discharge to the aquatic environment.
of the amount of particulate bound pollutant
• Carbonate equilibria and effect on metals to the amount in the aqueous phase.
speciation - The presence of carbonate enables
4.2.5 BIO-MONITORS, BIO-ACCUMULATION
the formation of inorganic carbonate-metal
AND BIO-AMPLIFICATION
complexes, as well as buffering pH which can
have a major effect on metal speciation. Definitions
• pH effects on speciation - The lower the pH (ie. the Bio-monitors are organisms used to determine
more acid the water), the higher the proportion the extent of pollutant transport and the
of a dissolved metal which is bioavailable or in extent of biological uptake of a pollutant.
the free ionic or weakly complexed state. If there
Bio-accumulation refers to the increase in a
are significant quantities of particulate-bound
contaminant concentration within a particular
metals in the waterbody, a reduction in pH can
organism or group of organisms, eg. liver
leach metals from the particles into solution and
of fish, egg shells of birds of prey.
thus alter the distribution (partitioning) of the
metal between the soluble and particulate phases. Bio-amplification refers to the amplification of the
bio-accumulated contaminant through the food
• Effects of organic matter on complexation and
web from one organism up the trophic order.
speciation - Natural organic matter in aquatic
systems can consist of large polyelectrolytic Organisms such as bivalves (mussels, oysters etc.)
molecules with numerous binding sites of are sometimes used as bio-monitors because they
different polarities. Consequently, on a single filter large volumes of water and any associated
molecule, numerous sites are available for metals and organic pollutants, thus bio-concentrating
binding metals and pesticides. The degree the actual levels of a pollutant within the water
to which organic carbon partitions between column. At this stage bio-monitors can only be
the solid and solution phase also influences used reliably as indicators of the presence of a
pollutant partitioning. High concentrations of pollutant. Further research is required before the
dissolved organic carbon (DOC) can increase the significance of any relationships between bio-
solubility of metals and pesticides by stabilising monitor and ecosystem health can be established.
and complexing these compounds into Whether a compound will bio-accumulate depends
soluble aqueous complexes. If high suspended on a number of physico-chemical parameters
solids are present, DOC also binds strongly such as the class of compound (eg. metal, organic
with sediment particles, and consequently pesticide), its concentration, exposure frequency
detoxifies the adsorbed contaminant. DOC is and duration. Bio-accumulation also depends on
critical in assessing the environmental fate of the target organism, the compound of concern and
effluent containing metal and organic wastes. its fate within the target organism. Many organisms
• Partitioning between dissolved and particulate have the ability to regulate pollutant levels in certain
species - Bioavailability is dependent on
whether a compound is associated with the
water chemistry
parts of their body. Therefore identification 4.3.2 ASSIMILATIVE CAPACITY

of key organs (kidney, liver, adipose or fat
Assimilative capacity refers to a waterbody's
tissue) are important considerations when
ability to absorb or resist changes brought about
interpreting bio-accumulation data.
by the addition of a particular parameter. An
Bio-amplification is an extension of bioaccumulation example is that of buffering capacity, where high
where a contaminant which has been taken up by one alkalinity waters are able to assimilate additions
particular organism or trophic level is passed on to of low pH water with no adverse changes.
higher order organisms - such as the case of mercury
4.3.3 RECEIVING WATERS
in fish which are then consumed by humans.
The type of receiving water into which wastewater
is discharged is an important factor in determining
4.3 Nature of Waters the effect and ultimate fate of discharged pollutants.
For example, the fate of metals discharged into a
This section outlines a number of additional freshwater lake will be different to that of an estuary
concepts which are pertinent to the complete or ocean. Physical characteristics such as temperature,
understanding of the properties of water. flow, pH, salinity, dissolved oxygen and light
4.3.1 BENEFICIAL USE penetration determine the behaviours of a specific
pollutant in the aquatic environment. The capacity
Beneficial use refers to the designated uses of a
of the receiving environment to dilute and assimilate
waterbody. Examples of beneficial uses include:
the effluent stream is also of primary importance.
• ecosystem protection; These considerations should be evaluated prior to an
effluent stream being discharged to a receiving water.
• recreation - swimming, fishing, aesthetics;
Effluent streams of significance emanating from
• domestic and potable water; mining operations include sewage treatment plants,
• livestock watering; stormwater discharges from haul roads, waste dumps,
workshop discharges and machinery washdown
• commercial fisheries; and
discharges containing hydrocarbons, or surfactants.
• irrigation.
Dischargers to waterbodies will generally be required
to identify and meet a designated beneficial use.
This may include the designation of a mixing zone.
5. Water Sampling and Flow Measurement
5.1 Introduction loggers, portable computers and associated

software. Standard and uniform sampling
and preservation procedures need to be used.
Water monitoring can be a very expensive
If this expertise is unavailable within the
and time consuming exercise and therefore
organisation, consideration should be given to
the monitoring plan must be well designed
using a reputable and experienced consultant.
before the program is implemented. Suggested
planning steps are shown in Table 5.1 3. Execution of the program - The type of
sample collection (eg. automatic or manual grab
In addition to these key steps, specific requirements
sampling), frequency, number of monitoring
of the National Water Quality Management Strategy
sites and phase (exploration, feasibility,
need to be considered and the ANZECC (1992)
construction, operation, decommissioning
guideline documents also need to be reviewed.
and after site closure) of the project should be
identified within the initial planning stage.
5.2 Principles and Purpose of 4. Budget - Sufficient financial resources must be
Monitoring assigned to meet the objectives of the program,
or else the program needs to be modified.
The key issues that must be addressed Ideally, staff and financial resources allocated
before the commencement of sampling to a monitoring program should complement
and flow monitoring are listed below. the scope of the program, and the sensitivity of
1. Reasons for monitoring - The objectives and the local environment. In circumstances where
purpose of the monitoring program must be financial resources are limited, it is better to:
established. Monitoring programs are usually • ensure that the samples collected are
implemented for compliance with an operating representative in both time and space;
licence, to meet company or corporate policy
• restrict sample collection to key
requirements, for project design input data or
locations (including controls); and
for a baseline survey. Data from monitoring
will also provide valuable feedback and • review previously collected data to ensure
corroboration of design data adopted. The unwarranted analyses are not requested.
program should meet the defined objectives. Finally, when allocating and revising
2. Trained field staff - Personnel who collect financial resources, all the associated costs
meteorologic, hydrologic and water quality need to be incorporated. Expenses that
data should be skilled in hydrography, are frequently neglected include:
field flow measurement techniques and the • sample storage costs (ice for field
fundamentals of water chemistry. The increased storage, temporary refrigeration);
use of electronic field data also requires field
• sample transport costs to the laboratory;
personnel to be skilled in the use of data
water sampling and flow measurement
TABLE 5.1: Key Planning Steps for Water Monitoring

The Key Planning Steps
1. Identify the potential receiving waters and their beneficial uses.
2. Outline the site resources (personnel, financial) which are available for the monitoring program.
3. Locate and review the presence of any existing data, environmental audits and reports.
4. Identify all Local, State and Commonwealth statutory requirements which must be met by the operation.
5. Select a reputable laboratory which can advise on sampling methodology, containers,
preservation and storage, etc.
6. Using a site plan, identify the physical and chemical properties of all likely point and non-point
sources of pollution, the network and the catchment partitioning.
7. Design and implement a “screening” monitoring program to identify all sources and types of
contaminants (eg. suspended solids, zinc, phosphates, E. coli) from each location. The screening
program should include all surface waters, groundwater, industrial and domestic discharges,
receiving waters etc. Control or background sites should also be identified and sampled. This
program should be undertaken during dry and wet weather periods and the results reviewed in
detail to identify contaminants which should or should not be analysed for a specific location.
8. Identify all monitoring sites which require flow measuring facilities (if contaminant loadings
are required for water balance data, for catchment yield characterisation and rainfall/runoff
parameters). Ensure a proper program is in place for physical measurement of flows for
calibration and for validation of all recorded data.
9. Design and implement a calibration, quality control and quality assurance program with
appropriate control sites, blank and duplicate samples, etc., and ensure detection limits are appropriate.
10. Ensure rainfall guages (and climate stations as appropriate) are in place for catchment
rainfall/runoff characterisation.
11. Implement a site-wide sampling program and review the data once they are available.
Parameters that have been measured below the detection limit can be sampled less frequently.
12. Review all results against statutory requirements.
13. Design an appropriate computerised database management system so that results can be
managed and retrieved with ease.
• consumable costs (sample bottles, acid rinsing 5.3 Compliance Monitoring

of sample bottles, labels, coolers, field clothing);
• costs associated with calibrating streamflow In the past, licence and discharge criteria varied
data, which requires qualified personnel frequently between the States. Recently, a more
manually undertaking a program uniform approach has been taken with a move
of streamflow gauging; and towards the ANZECC Water Quality Guidelines
• database development, data analysis costs (1992)1, which consider both discharge limits and
(eg. computer facilities and employees’ receiving water quality. This document should be
time) and implementation of an reviewed in order to understand the existing national
appropriate data management system. approach to water quality management in Australia.
1 Under revision 1997-98.
5.3.1 AMBIENT, POINT SOURCE AND 5.4 Data Collection - Quality

NON-POINT SOURCE POLLUTION
Ambient concentrations generally refer to natural The resources allocated to environmental

or background levels of water quality parameters data collection will depend on the phase
within a receiving water. It is important to determine of the mining operation (ie. exploration,
if the background values reflect actual natural construction, operating, closure).
conditions or a natural system which may have
• Baseline studies and associated monitoring
been modified over the past two centuries.
programs should be implemented at prospective
Discharge or point source criteria refer to the sites prior to the commencement of any major
concentration of a contaminant or parameter earthworks or infrastructure development.
at the point of discharge (eg. an outfall from
• The resource evaluation and feasibility phases
a wastewater treatment plant). The criteria
usually involve the collection of meteorological
may specify a mean value and a higher level
and hydrological data, if no long-term data
not to be exceeded at a given frequency.
exist for the local region. Long-term time series
Non-point source pollution refers to a diffuse data will improve techniques for optimising
source rather than a single discharge point, eg. tailings dam design, surface drainage works,
unconfined stormwater runoff from a minesite, water supply and flood mitigation.
workshop and maintenance areas. Contaminants • The construction phase generally involves
from diffuse sources may be measured as a expanding the monitoring program as staff
concentration (eg. Mg/L), but usually contaminant and financial resources increase. A target
loading data (eg. kg/ha/yr) are required and both monitoring program during construction
quality and quantity data must be collected. is often necessary to measure the impacts
5.3.2 MIXING ZONES of the construction activities. It also
allows fine tuning of initial “screening”
When assessing compliance with receiving water
programs prior to full-scale operation.
quality guidelines, the “mixing zone” of the
waterbody must also be considered. This is a region • The operational phase will normally involve
of the receiving water at which elevated levels of frequent monitoring of all point source (eg.
a contaminant can be present due to a discharge sewage effluent, potable water, process and
source, before dilution to an acceptable level. tailings dam water), non-point source (eg.
stormwater from the plant area, landfill
ANZECC (1992) defines a “mixing zone” as an
leachate) and receiving water quality and
explicitly defined area around an effluent discharge
quantities (waterbodies within and adjacent
where certain environmental values are not protected.
to the mine and mineral processing lease).
All relevant mixing zones, both within and • The decommissioning phase and the extent
outside a lease area, should be clearly identified. and duration of monitoring will depend on the
Monitoring programs and interpretation of nature of the operation and the requirements
data need to consider that these areas exist. outlined in the mine decommissioning
Control strategies should ensure that the area plan, agreements and licences.
of a mixing zone is limited in order that the 5.4.1 MONITORING DESIGN
value of the waterbody is not prejudiced.
Initially both a statistical evaluation of the
monitoring design and a review of the procedures
and techniques to be adopted should be undertaken. be compared with guideline values such as those
Once a preliminary plan is prepared, the logistics (eg. published by ANZECC (1992) and NHMRC (1994).
staff and financial resources) need to be reviewed. Locating best positioned flow monitoring stations,
relative to the monitoring locations required, can also
Development of the statistical design and validation
be assessed as part of the initial screening program.
of the sampling program, analytical methods and
final data set need to be undertaken by personnel 5.4.4 SAMPLING LOCATIONS
with appropriate expertise. The use of blank
The selection of suitable sampling sites within
samples, unidentified duplicate samples and
and surrounding a mining operation should be
inter-laboratory testing should be incorporated as
based on the potential for a specific area, process
key components of the monitoring program.
or activity to have an environmental impact.
Electronically collected hydrological data from
Selection criteria for sampling and
streams and rivers should also be validated using
control sites are shown in Table 5.2
appropriate statistical procedures and manual
gauging methods during low, medium and It should be noted that the conditions required
high flow flood events. Electronically collected for an acceptable control site for biological
rainfall data should be validated similarly. monitoring programs are generally more
stringent and complex than a control location
5.4.2 IDENTIFICATION OF KEY
for chemical monitoring programs.
MONITORING PARAMETERS
Sufficient samples should be collected to quantify
The monitoring parameters selected (physical,
accurately the concentrations and behaviour
chemical and biological) will depend on the
of a compound from the time it is discharged
ore being mined at the operation, the process
through to the point where it can no longer
technology and chemistry, the geographical
be detected above ambient concentrations.
location and the beneficial environmental uses
which need to be protected. It is important 5.4.5 SAMPLING FREQUENCY
to identify all the key monitoring parameters The frequency interval selected for the collection
early in the program in order to avoid possible of samples for a water monitoring program
delays at some later stage of the development. will depend on the following factors:
5.4.3 INITIAL SCREENING PROGRAM • statutory and licence conditions
Prior to commencing a full-scale monitoring program, (eg. weekly, monthly);
it is worthwhile undertaking an initial screening • size and geographic location of
survey at all potential monitoring locations within the mining operation;
the project area to determine which parameters are
• distance and ease of access to sample locations;
relevant, significant and measurable above analytical
detection limits. This should be done in conjunction • variability of natural and seasonal conditions;
with the statutory authorities concerned and the • availability of staff resources to collect
analytical laboratory. Multi-element screening of samples and process data; and
water samples for total and dissolved contaminants
• type of analysis.
on a selected number of samples is a cost-effective
technique to identify parameters which should be
incorporated into the site monitoring program.
Results from the initial screening program should
TABLE 5.2: Selection Criteria for Establishing Sampling Sites

Sample Sites Control Sites
The selection of sampling sites within and outside Control sampling sites are an essential component
the project area should reflect the: of any water monitoring program. The location and
number of control sites selected will depend on:
• beneficial uses requiring protection;
• geographic location and the area potentially • the geographic and topographic
impacted by the operation; location of the operation;
• the nature of the operation and the type of • the spatial coverage of the proposed
ore/minerals/metal produced; monitoring program; and
• conditions of the licence agreement; • financial constraints.
• access to sampling sites (all weather if It is essential that control and

required); and routinely monitored sites:
• budget and analytical constraints. • are in similar locations, preferably

in the same catchment;
An overview of the "typical" monitoring sites that
should be sampled at an operation are: • are not influenced by past or current mining
operations or other human influences;
• within or adjacent to areas of beneficial use;
• have similar geochemical conditions, ie. either
• the discharge point for industrial or domestic carbonate systems or organic systems; and
waste streams prior to entering receiving waters;
• have similar meteorological and
• monitoring of receiving waters upstream hydrological conditions.
and downstream of the discharge point
or property boundary, if a mixing zone
is identified in licence conditions;
• monitoring of all impounded water
including tailings dams, retention
pond water, seepage ponds;
• monitoring of groundwater downstream
from contaminated sites, eg. dirty water
ponds, hazardous waste sites; and
• below the confluence point of major
tributaries within the region.
5.4.6 SAMPLING TECHNIQUES AND DESIGN thoroughly documented, and all persons using
them are adequately trained in their use.
There are numerous methods by which a
representative sample can be collected, with the Surface Water Sampling
final technique selected primarily dependent on
Sample collection of surface waters (sewage
the type of waterbody or waste stream requiring
effluent, stormwater, tailings dams, streams and
assessment. It is particularly important that the
estuaries) can range from simple grab sampling
procedures used, and any changes to these, be
techniques through to sophisticated automatic To facilitate the collection of high quality

samplers, which have the capacity to collect both samples and data interpretation, field log
discrete or composite samples over a specified period. sheets need to be completed at the time of
sample collection. Examples of field record data
When surface sampling techniques are to be
sheets are presented in Fact Sheet No. 1.
used the following should be considered.
The reader is strongly recommended to review
• The sample containers used must be appropriate
published guidelines and texts for the collection
for the chemical parameter being measured
and preservation of samples prior to designing
(eg. acid washed high density polyethylene
and implementing a monitoring program.
for trace metals, organic solvent rinsed glass
Examples of such documents are provided in
bottle with teflon lid for organic compounds).
the references section of this handbook.
• Before filling, rinse the sample bottle out three
times with the water being collected, unless 5.4.7 SAMPLE TRANSPORTATION
the bottle contains a preservative. Ensure clean The remote location of most Australian mining
hands are used as dirty hands may contaminate operations means that samples may need to
the sample (eg. cigarette smoke or residual travel considerable distances to the laboratory
ash will contaminate low level nutrient and at which the analysis will be performed.
metal samples). For trace metal samples,
Water samples should be freighted in portable
prevention of contamination is paramount,
“coolers” containing ice, as many parameters
and special techniques such as the use of
require storage at 40C prior to analysis. Samples
non-powdered latex gloves are required.
should be placed in designated “coolers”
• Avoid contamination of the sample and to allow the separation of low-level control
disturbance of the waterbody being sampled. samples from high level effluent samples.
• Exclude air from the sample containers. Some parameters (for example alkalinity) require
• Appropriate sample preservation techniques analysis within 3 to 24 hours of sample collection
must be implemented immediately after and so, it is recommended that these analyses be
sample collection (eg. filtration and addition performed at the mining operation using properly
of AR grade HNO3 for dissolved trace metals, calibrated instrumentation and clean conditions.
temporary storage at 40C for nutrients). Others, such as pH, EC and temperature should be
measured in the field. The remaining samples should
Note that sample holding times vary between 3 hours
be rapidly transported to the allocated laboratory
and 28 days for different parameters being analysed.
if possible by same-day or overnight transport.
• Ensure the laboratory and the analytical
Appropriate chain-of-custody forms must also be
techniques used are NATA (National
dispatched with the samples, clearly identifying
Association of Testing Authorities) registered.
all sample details and the required analysis.
Variations in sampling and preservation techniques,
storage times prior to analysis and the analytical 5.4.8 SAMPLE ANALYSIS
methods chosen all contribute to incompatibility The selection of a laboratory is an important
of data. Considerable time and effort should be decision in the design phase of the program. It is
allocated to ensure that the samples collected, and preferable that the laboratory and the methods
the results obtained, are of a consistent high quality.
used for a specific analysis are NATA registered. A relational database linked to a geographic
NATA registration means that the laboratory has been information system (GIS) provides a particularly
inspected by personnel from the governing authority; powerful tool for the management and interpretation
the analytical method has passed stringent quality of data. For example, geographic trends, such as
control procedures and the method has been used in downstream dilution of groundwater contaminants,
inter-laboratory quality control programs. The results are easily identified and readily appreciated
of these interlaboratory quality control programs by management when presented visually.
should be requested prior to commissioning
5.4.10 LABORATORY, PILOT
long-term work to a specific laboratory.
PLANT AND LEACH TESTS
The inclusion of duplicate and blank samples
In some circumstances, laboratory bench scale tests
within all sample batches sent to a laboratory
can increase the knowledge about the behaviour
is recommended. Feedback should be
and removal of a pollutant within a treatment
provided to the laboratory to identify and
plant, sedimentation dam or tailings dam.
remedy problem areas in the analysis.
Pilot plant and laboratory studies can often be
As a guide, the QAQC component of monitoring
more closely and easily monitored than full-
and analysis should account for at least 10-15% of
scale field studies, as samples can be collected
the effort (and cost) of the monitoring program.
more frequently and the time, travel and cost of
It is essential that all aspects of a QA/QC collecting samples is significantly less. Examples
program are discussed with the selected include the use of leach columns to test the acid
laboratory once the site screening program is generation potential and leachability of tailings,
complete and prior to the implementation of waste rock and other materials stored in bulk.
a long-term site-wide monitoring program.
Where laboratory and pilot plant tests are
5.4.9 DATA MANAGEMENT conducted, it is important that findings and
conclusions based on these studies are verified
Data management is an important component of
in the field under full-scale natural conditions.
any environmental monitoring program, as vast
amounts of data can be generated within short
periods. Data management should be incorporated 5.5 Data Collection - Quantity
into the initial planning stages of the program in
order that the database may be used to meet the When considering the data measuring systems
initial objectives of the monitoring program. for the volumetric water parameters such as
The use of spreadsheets for data storage and rainfall, evaporation, and stream flow, the specified
management is often insufficient for most long-term use of the data is the primary consideration
environmental monitoring programs. A relational in selecting the appropriate recording system.
database is more applicable due to its capacity to The following is an overview of appropriate
store and easily process vast quantities of data. recording systems and controls for various climate
It also has the advantage of rapidly retrieving and water-related parameters and the various
information for a specific purpose, such as reporting circumstances when each may be utilised.
to government authorities. In most cases, existing
hydrologic, water quality and meteorological data
which are stored in a spreadsheet or ASCII format can
be imported easily to a central relational database.
5.5.1 RAINFALL READING rated controls in streams, pipe monitoring systems

and manually flow rating the streams. Regardless
There are two methods of recording data.
of the type of hydraulic control structure it is
• Manual recording of rainfall collectors, eg. a imperative that the following basic rules be followed
standard rain gauge, on a daily basis. These in establishing the flow recording system.
data are useful for general interpretation of
1. Select the monitoring location that will maximise
rainfall trends and long-term water balance
the reliability of data recovery for the range
analyses. The data can also be used to
of flows that will occur. This may require
verify automatic recording rain gauges.
construction of hydraulic control devices such
• Automatic recording rain gauges, which have a as a flume or v-notch weir. Where natural
calibrated tipping bucket gauge with associated controls are selected they must be robust.
electronic data recording logger. The advantage
2. Select the appropriate flow depth recording
with the automatic system is its ability to record
hardware for the monitoring location.
the time sequencing of rainfall events. These
Typical flow depth recording sensors
data are valuable for characterising the storm
include pressure gauges, sonic systems,
intensities for an area and for the establishment
float gauges and capacitance probes.
of the rainfall runoff response at the site.
3. It is essential that flow monitoring stations
An automatic recording system is relatively
be rated for flow and height. This may be
inexpensive to install, with power from localised
undertaken using a hydraulic structure that has
battery or solar panels. These systems can
a pre-determined rating relationship. Where
manually download data to a computer or can
natural controls are used, it is critical that the
be connected to a telemetry system for data
flows are rated by physically measuring the flows
capture remote from the site of installation.
through the control and relating this directly
5.5.2 FLOW RECORDING to monitored flow heights at the station. It is
Flow recording in existing streams and waterways not sufficient to rate a flow monitoring station
and future waste streams or diversion works is using only theoretical and analytical hydraulic
essential for comprehensive characterisation of relationships that require subjective assessments
the site hydrology and water management plan. of coefficients (eg. Mannings equation).
The critical areas where flow recording 4. Few chances occur to collect time related data,
instrumentation is either required or desirable and therefore it is critical that both reliable
for developing site specific characteristics are: and appropriate monitoring equipment be
installed. As vital development and strategic
• at licensed discharge locations from the site; decisions depend upon the values recorded
• at stormwater discharge locations around the site; at these stations, the hardware monitoring
and recording equipment must be of a high
• on existing streams both upstream
calibre. The following questions help with
and downstream of the site; and
the selection of suitable instrumentation:
• selected catchments where flow monitoring
• Will the equipment be intact and
will provide useful design data.
record throughout extreme events?
The selection of flow monitoring systems will depend
• Is the site accessible during flow periods for
on the characteristics of the monitoring location.
manual flow recording (for rating relationship)?
These normally range from constructing hydraulically
• How often can loggers be downloaded to the Australian Standard 3778 - “Measurement
and is a telemetry system required? of water flow in open channels” and all its
• What is the potential for vandalism or associated sub-sections. Care must be taken
damage by animals or large trees? that specific requirements for the location of
the system and measuring devices are followed,
• Have rainguages been installed at otherwise inaccurate monitoring data will result.
appropriate locations for characterising
the rainfall/runoff response?
5.6 Groundwater
• Do personnel responsible for collecting
the data and maintaining the station
5.6.1 GROUNDWATER MAPPING
have the required levels of expertise?
5. Measured and recorded data must be Groundwater mapping involves the identification
validated to ensure the data is correctly and location of groundwater resources. A typical
presenting the conditions being measured. groundwater map contains contour information
representing piezometric levels. Groundwater
The validation must take place as soon as
contours should be shown relative to an absolute
possible after it is collected and should check:
datum (eg. AHD or a suitable mine datum) rather
• that the data recorded are realistic; than relative to ground level, as the ground contours
may bear no relation to groundwater levels.
• any malfunctions in instrument recording; and
• the calibration data. Figure 5.1 shows a typical groundwater surface map.
Validation processes involve processing the Groundwater flow is always from a region of high
raw data into physical outputs (height and water level or piezometric level to a region of low
flow), checking compliance against similarly water level or piezometric level (see Figure 5.1).
recorded data, verifying where the data fall The following steps are required to construct a
within the calibration limits and scanning the groundwater map.
data for anomalies and unrealistic outputs.
• Groundwater “borders” should be determined
For the installation and operation of flow (eg. rivers, lakes, oceans and significant changes
monitoring systems, reference should be made in types of soil and rock). Where practical,
mapping should include the entire then be used to derive groundwater parameters
groundwater resource as well as its borders. related to these events. These parameters allow
• Observation bores or piezometers (see Section calculation of quantities such as drawdown
5.6.2) should be installed in a relatively regular for various pumping rates, rates of recharge or
grid pattern over the area of interest. Piezometers speed and direction of contaminant flow.
should be located such that the difference in Prior to establishing a groundwater testing program,
water levels between adjacent piezometers is less hydrogeologists and analytical laboratories
than the planned contour interval of the map. should be consulted to determine the appropriate
• Ambient groundwater levels should be measured testing, sampling and storage methods required
at regular temporal intervals to identify for identification of individual compounds in the
seasonal fluctuations as well as responses to groundwater. Samples may need to be gathered
rainfall and periods of drought. Care should and stored in non-reactive containers to ensure
be taken to gather ambient data well before that they are not contaminated. Special care may
activities such as pumping are commenced. be required for biologically active contaminants.
• Interpolation packages available for computer Groundwater levels and quality may be monitored
simulation of contours may be used to using piezometers. Piezometers extending into
generate maps from gathered data. Each map unconfined (water table) aquifers show water
should be a snapshot of groundwater levels levels which represent the surrounding water
for the relevant period of monitoring. table level. Piezometers extending into confined
aquifers show water levels which represent the
5.6.2 TESTING AND MONITORING
pressure existing within the aquifer. When there
Groundwater testing and monitoring is carried are strong flows within the aquifer, a component
out to establish water quality and changes in of the measured pressure may result from inertial
quality, and water levels and changes in levels. forces as well as static groundwater levels.
Testing and monitoring should be undertaken Figure 5.2 indicates the water levels given by
for ambient or pre-existing groundwater reserves piezometers in unconfined and confined aquifers.
to establish baseline groundwater characteristics.
Testing and monitoring subsequent to events such
as pumping, recharge and contaminant leakage can
Piezometer Construction becomes impractical, the well may be capped

and a pressure transducer installed within it;
A piezometer is simply an open stilling well into
which a probe may be inserted to measure water • wells should be slotted or screened to
level or quality, or from which a sample of the facilitate a good connection to the aquifer.
groundwater can be collected. Piezometers are Open-bottomed, unslotted wells may
primarily made of either PVC (polyvinyl chloride) be used effectively in granular soils;
or ABS (acrylonitrile butadiene styrene). • slotted wells often form the cheapest alternative,
The material chosen for piezometer construction as slots may be machined by the manufacturer
should have strength, rigidity, low maintenance, or cut by hand on site. Slots should be cut
resistance to galvanic and electrochemical liberally (either horizontally or vertically) but
corrosion, resistance to abrasion, high strength-to should be small enough to exclude significant
weight ratios, partial flexibility and low cost. intake of soil. Porous geotextile fabrics may
be used to filter out soil particles if required;
Other considerations are:
• prevention of contamination is critical for the
• piezometers may be installed using a variety collection of water quality data; the installation
of means from hand augers to drilling rigs. In of slotted or screened casing will be important.
all cases, the piezometer tube is installed after In these instances, a hydrogeologist should be
drilling a hole of sufficient diameter and depth; consulted to provide appropriate well designs;
• the diameter of the piezometer used depends on • piezometers should be capped at the
the type of monitoring or sampling that needs to surface, preferably with a screw-in cap for
be carried out. The sizes of probes and sampling ease of removal and re-application;
devices need to be considered. It is rare to find
piezometers of less than 50 mm in diameter, and • a tether wire and concrete collar serve to
100 mm diameter piezometers are common; anchor the piezometer and reduce the risk
of slippage in unconsolidated material or
• the length of the piezometer needs accidental movement from outside impact; and
to be sufficient to measure the
maximum possible drawdown; • the lip of the piezometer should be surveyed
into the mine datum or Australian Height
• when monitoring confined aquifers, the well Datum (AHD), as this is the most convenient
may need to protrude significantly above point of reference for manual monitoring.
ground, in order to measure the standing
head of the water. However, if this protrusion Figure 5.3 shows a typical piezometer installation.
Monitoring Remote monitoring carries a much higher

risk of data contamination or error. A rigorous
Monitoring of piezometric levels may be performed
schedule of equipment maintenance, data
manually or remotely. Manual devices include:
verification using manual methods, and frequent
• dip meters: these comprise an electrical calibration checks should be in place.
sensor at the end of a graduated wire. Contact
Groundwater Sampling
with water completes the electrical circuit
between sensor and wire, causing a tone to Testing of groundwater quality may be carried
be emitted (see Figure 5.4). The distance out using in-situ methods or by the extraction
between the sensor and the reference point of a representative sample. A range of field
(eg. the lip of the piezometer) may be read off equipment exists for measuring such basic
the graduated wire. Dip meters are popular parameters as pH and conductivity, using probes
because of the ease and speed of use; and which may be lowered into piezometers.
• graduated transparent piezometers or Groundwater samples are normally collected from
manometers (when the piezometric a piezometer or bore using one of two techniques:
level is above ground). a bailer or submersible pump. Submersible pumps
Remote monitoring is carried out using a sensor powered by a battery or generator are preferred
installed within the piezometer. The sensor may due to the large volumes of water that need to
be connected to a central monitoring system or to be displaced from a bore prior to the collection
a data logger which reads, at regular intervals, the of a representative groundwater sample.
voltage output at the sensor. The data logger may be In addition to these two methods,
downloaded regularly using a portable computer, groundwater samples may also be collected
or may have removable memory banks which can from sample valves located near above-
be replaced and downloaded later. The recorded ground pumps on water supply bores.
voltages are then translated into water levels via
When groundwater samples are to be collected,
calibration relationships. Popular sensors include:
the following should be considered:
• pressure transducers;
• the piezometer or bore needs to be purged
• capacitance probes; and prior to sample collection. This technique must
• float levels. be used in order to obtain a representative
groundwater or aquifer sample. In the absence 5.6.4 PREDICTION OF GROUNDWATER

of extensive pumping, the sample collected CHARACTERISTICS AND RESPONSES
will merely represent water held in the bore
Prediction of aquifer responses to various scenarios
or piezometer which has been exposed to
allows “what if ... ?” questions to be answered.
atmospheric conditions. Extensive pumping also
Predictive modelling may be carried out using
reduces cross contamination of the sampling
analytical models (simplified equations) or, more
equipment between bores. Typically, three times
recently, numerical models which use the technically
the volume of water held in the piezometer or
rigorous and complex physics of groundwater flow.
bore needs to be removed prior to sampling;
Numerical models have developed significantly
• if a bailer is used then extensive bailing of in the last two decades and their popularity
water held in the bore must be undertaken has increased. A brief discussion of the types
prior to sample collection. Most bailers only of numerical models is presented in Fact Sheet
have about one litre capacity and consequently No.12, and advantages and disadvantages of using
manual bailing of a bore can be a time numerical models are summarised in Table 5.3.
consuming procedure. If sufficient funds
Predictive modelling in groundwater now enjoys
are available, disposable bailers should be
widespread use and offers significant benefits
considered to eliminate the risk of sample
in assessing groundwater-related issues. An
contamination between bores; and
increasing environmental focus in the mining
• appropriate sample containers, rinsing industry and the recognition of groundwater as
procedures and preservation techniques a fragile natural resource has seen the expanding
must be used, as for surface waters. use of groundwater models. Models simulating
5.6.3 GROUNDWATER PARAMETERS contaminant transport in groundwater and root-
zone behaviour are now widely available.
Physical and chemical parameters are of interest
when attempting to characterise and model aquifers Predictive modelling should always be used with
in order to simulate various scenarios. Groundwater a questioning attitude, and a rigorous process of
parameters are best obtained by stressing the aquifer calibration, verification and sensitivity analysis should
and observing the response induced. These stresses be an integral part of any modelling program.
are typically obtained by pumping water out of the
aquifer or pumping water into the aquifer via bores. 5.7 Review of Monitoring Data
A large range of pump tests and analytical methods
exist for this purpose. Advice from qualified For a vast majority of existing monitoring programs,
hydrogeologists should be sought to determine: insufficient time is spent actually reviewing and
analysing the data. Regular screening of data can
• which parameters are of interest;
detect problems in sampling and analytical techniques
• cost-effective methods of obtaining this data; and as well as in hydrographic data recording systems.
• the applicability of these methods
to site-specific conditions.
TABLE 5.3: Advantages and Disadvantages of Using Numerical Models

Primary Advantages Primary Disadvantages
• Ability to run complex and lengthy • Initially high level of labour intensity
calculations in increasingly short times during setting up a numerical model;
as computers evolve rapidly; • development of a ‘black box’ mentality which
• a low level of labour intensity results in the widespread use of models without
during simulations; understanding of concepts and limitations;
• high capacity for testing the sensitivity • a tendency among the public to perceive
to groundwater parameters; models as infallible and acceptance
• the development of increasingly visual outputs, of results as the literal truth; and
which allow the lay person to understand • high capacity for misunderstanding or misuse
the answers proposed by the models; and of models because of their complexity.
• flexibility in assessing a range of
scenarios quickly and easily.
A review of the data set can establish seasonal Regular review will also forewarn management
trends and will detect analyses that are unwarranted of any impending changes which may effect
(ie. those continually below the detection limit). the sites ability to obtain or discharge water
Sites with data that do not fluctuate to any degree or any breaches in compliance with statutory
can be sampled less frequently to reduce costs. obligations. Presentation of data in a graphical
format allows easy scanning of large numbers of
results and identification of trends in the data.
6. Water Supply
In a country as arid as Australia, mining and mineral Rainfall runoff: the quantity and quality of rainfall
processing operations will almost certainly require runoff will be dependent on the catchment area soil
a regular supply of water. Therefore, identification, type, topography and vegetation. A discussion on
evaluation and maintenance of this supply will be estimation of rainfall runoff is given in Fact Sheet
critical to the continued operations. While this topic No.2.
could demand a handbook of its own, some concepts
Groundwater seepage: during periods of rain, a
will be introduced in this section.
percentage of the water will seep into the ground as
infiltration. Some of this water will percolate into
6.1 Surface Water groundwater stores. However, on sloping sites or
areas underlain by shallow rock, most water will flow
This section examines sources of surface water supply through the soil profile to the bedrock and percolate
around typical minesites. out into a watercourse or cutting. This water will
continue to flow long after rain has ceased.
6.1.1 CATCHMENT YIELD
Mine dewatering: surface and groundwater reserves
When discussing the useful yield of surface water
that flow into mine workings are usually pumped
within a catchment it is important to realise that it
out to a suitable storage. This aspect is covered in
can never be any greater than the facilities available
Sections 8 and 9.
for storing or continuously using water. This can
include groundwater recharge, as discussed in the Outflow
next section. Outflows will result from any combination of
The balance of processes contributing to the final the following.
yield at a given storage facility can be represented as Releases: resulting from:
Yield = Inflow - Outflow. • excess water overtopping storages and passing
Inflow into the next catchment or off the lease;
The inflow into a storage may originate from any of • water drained from darns to allow for
the following sources. maintenance, to make room for expected inflows
or as regulated to provide water for downstream
Imported water: reservoirs, irrigation schemes or major ecosystems or users; or
supply pipelines are often the major source of water
• treated water which may be released after
for minesites in Australia.
sufficient residence time to remove pollutants
Recycled water: most minesites in areas of water (eg. acidity, suspended solids, salinity).
scarcity are now recycling water from various stages
of the mine process. This is discussed in the following
section.
Direct rainfall: within shallow storages covering

large surface areas, the amount of direct rainfall may
be appreciable.
water supply
Evaporation: the loss of water from reservoirs It is usually a more environmentally sound
through evaporation is appreciable in many practice to recycle lower quality water on a
regions of Australia. Where water supply is a minesite rather than to discharge the water and
critical issue, it can be worthwhile attempting use better quality water from clean supplies when
to reduce evaporation by the use of a deeper it is not needed. Some examples of sources and
storage or various cover techniques. Evaporation uses of recycled water are given in Table 6.1.
is also often used as a disposal method for
highly saline or otherwise polluted waters.
6.2 Groundwater
Water use: this will depend on the location of the
storage, the quality of the water and the scarcity 6.2.1 SOURCES OF SUPPLY
of water on the site. Other potential users of the
There are two primary sources of groundwater
water must also be considered. A number of ideas
supply; unconfined aquifers and confined
for recycling water are presented in Section 6.1.2.
aquifers. Perched water tables (see Fact Sheet
Seepage: although seepage through the ground has No. 11) are a special form of unconfined aquifer.
been identified as an inflow it is also an outflow Unconfined aquifers may be used for water
mechanism. Any dam is likely to lose some water supply via the pumping of bores. Confined
through seepage into the groundwater unless the aquifers are generally under pressure and,
groundwater level is higher than the base of the in some cases, may not require pumping to
dam. In earth darns (as most minesite dams are) extract water (eg. a flowing or artesian bore).
seepage may also occur through the dam wall.
Individual groundwater resources tend to be
If considering the yield of a specific catchment, it compartmentalised by geology, but are rarely truly
will be necessary to obtain specific information on isolated. Despite some connection to other aquifers,
all the above processes relevant to that catchment. an individual groundwater resource should be
Historical records of inflows and outflows will viewed as a finite body of water. Replenishment of
provide invaluable information for the calculations. groundwater (or recharge) is a vital component in
The water balance method for identifying the inflows assessing the long-term viability of a source of supply.
and outflows is a useful tool for understanding how Recharge may occur through rainfall infiltration, or
the water supply for a minesite may be achieved from rivers and streams, or from artificial recharge
by considering all the potentially contributing (such as pumping of surface water into aquifers).
elements. The water balance allows the user to 6.2.2 SECURITY OF SUPPLY
optimise parameter values for the most desirable
Security of supply may be breached if the sustainable
outcome and to explore the probability boundaries
yield is compromised when a bore is overpumped
when variations are introduced (refer also to
or drawdown is quick but recovery slow. The quality
Fact Sheet No.3 for probability information).
is compromised when pumping stresses lead to
6.1.2 RECYCLING OF WATER dissolution of salts from the soil matrix and excessive
Most minesites promote the use of recycled salinisation of the pumped water or development of
water. Recycling often occurs when water is flow paths from neighbouring contaminated aquifers.
scarce, or the discharge of polluted waters could
be a hazard to the surrounding environment.
Even where water is freely available, it may
be more cost-effective to recycle water.
water supply
TABLE 6.1: Sources and Uses of Recycled Water

Sources of Recyclable Water Uses for Recycled Water
Dirty mine water: surface runoff from dirty Dust suppression: dust control for haul roads,
areas, intercepted to remove suspended conveyor belts and transfer stations, loading facilities,
solids and/or other pollutants. dump hoppers, stockpiles (product and waste),
construction sites and working faces does not require
Clean mine water: there will be some limitations on
high quality water. Issues which may affect this are:
the amount of water which can be intercepted from
undisturbed areas. This is to ensure that downstream • suspended solids, which may block
users and ecosystems are not disadvantaged. pumping and spraying equipment;
Process water: most process plants or washeries • viral and bacterial micro-organisms
will use large quantities of water which is often which, if present in fine aerosol mists,
returned to a process water tank or dam, and are easily ingested by workers; and
then recycled back through the process. • nutrient levels which can promote algal
Tailings liquor: tailings are deposited with varying growth and block spray equipment.
percentages of water to allow pumping, and to Process water: processes which involve crushing,
ensure proper deposition and drying. Excess water washing and screening are suited to using
remaining after solids have settled can be recycled recycled water. Co-disposal tailings will utilise
directly or after passing through a filter dam. recycled water. Typical quality issues are:
Washdown water: vehicle and workshop • chemical make up of the water; and
washdown water should be passed through
• suspended solids.
a settling pond and oil separator, after which
it may be suitable for selected recycling. Irrigation: rehabilitated areas, gardens and perhaps
even neighbouring properties or stock may be a very
“Grey” water: wastewater from showers, hand
efficient use of wastewater. Irrigation to rehabilitated
basins, laundries and kitchens should be treated to
areas may result in water dependant regrowth with
remove solids and can then be recycled. Chemical
shallow root systems which will struggle to survive
dosing (eg. chlorine) may be necessary if people
if irrigation ceases. Water quality issues are:
will come into contact with the recycled water.
• chemical, salinity and pH extremes which
Treated effluent: package or site built treatment
may adversely affect plants and/or stock;
plants are used to treat sewage to acceptable levels
after which it can be used for limited recycling • suspended solids (as for dust suppression);
applications. Treated industrial effluent from • viral and bacterial micro-organisms.
workshops may also be used for recycle water.
Wetlands maintenance: during rainy periods there
will usually be enough dilution and flushing to
keep wetland systems healthy. However during dry
periods there may be a build up of pollutants from
mine dewatering or simply a shortage of water.
Quality issues are similar to those for irrigation.
water supply
TABLE 6.1: Sources and Uses of Recycled Water (CONTINUED)

Sources of Recyclable Water Uses for Recycled Water
Slurry transport water: at the end of a slurry Washdown water: recycled “grey” water and treated
pipeline, the slurry is dewatered, leaving large wash down water can be used for washdown of mine
quantities of water. The location will often be equipment and workshop areas. Quality issues are:
environmentally sensitive, hence the water
• build ups of oil or detergents;
would require treatment to high standards before
discharge; re-use may be a better option. • viral and bacterial micro-organisms
which if present in fine aerosol mists
are easily ingested by workers.
Potable water: in very arid and remote areas it may
be viable to treat recycled water to very high levels
and use it as a potable water source. Clean and
dirty water runoff are obvious sources, but other
sources can be used. All facets of water quality
will obviously be vital if this is the intended use.
Sustainable yield is a significant parameter in water Constant monitoring of quantity and

supply. It determines the maximum flow which quality is an integral part of water supply
may be extracted over the long term. This factor evaluation and maintenance.
is determined by pump testing and analysis of
• Quantities of pumped water should be
drawdown. Borefields of two or more bores will
noted throughout the life of a bore. Flow
incur some penalty in the sustainable yield of each
totalisers are a convenient and cheap method
bore because of interaction between the drawdown
of monitoring quantity. These show the total
from each bore. More intensive analyses are required
volume of water pumped. When monitored
to identify the sustainable yields of borefields. The
regularly and used together with a record
sustainable yield should be identified whenever bore
of pump down time, adequate information
water supply is considered. Expert advice should be
on pump rates may be gathered.
sought before commissioning a bore drilling program.
• Aquifer drawdown should also be monitored
The quality of water pumped out of a bore may on a regular basis. This may be done using
depend on the rate of pumping exerted. The adjacent observation bores and, where possible,
sustainable yield of a bore should be identified within the pumping bores themselves.
in conjunction with any deterioration in the
quality of water being pumped. The likelihood • Water quality monitoring should be carried out
of quality deterioration may increase with the regularly on representative samples pump from
rate of aquifer pumping. For example, in coastal bores. Relevant water quality standards should
locations seawater may migrate towards a bore be consulted, depending on the use of the
which is pumped beyond its sustainable yield. supply. These may be for potable water, ablution
water or process water. Site-specific process
water requirements should be determined
where the water is used for processing.
water supply
If a licence is required for the bore or borefield,

conditions such as these are generally included
on the permit. The information gathered
usually has to be provided to the licensing
authority on renewal of the permit.
The intensity of the monitoring program

selected for water supply bores should reflect
the importance placed upon the supply.
7. Exploration
Water is an important component in 7.1 Surface Water

exploration activities and therefore careful
management is necessary as in any other
Most exploration activities in Australia will be
aspect of mining and mineral processing.
in areas where minimal knowledge of ground
A lack of water for process, potable and fire and surface water behaviour exists. Therefore
protection requirements or an excess of water (eg. the collection of all possible information that
high groundwater table, large aquifers, flood risks) may be relevant is encouraged. At the same time,
can determine the subsequent economic viability of care of the existing environment is required.
a mining project. Therefore serious consideration
7.1.1 SURFACE WATER DATA COLLECTION
must be given to water constraints during the
early exploration phases of a project. This should The lack of water or the possibility of serious
include data gathering of both surface water and flooding may seriously impact the extent or timing
groundwater resources as well as initial flood studies. of an exploration program. Information on rainfall,
evaporation and stream flows in the project area is
The environmental significance and sensitivity of
often inadequate, and important decisions are usually
watercourses and other waterbodies (surface or
made using data extrapolated from many kilometres
ground) will determine the extent of exploration and
away. Exploration teams can provide important data
subsequent mineral extraction allowed in any area.
to reduce the risk associated with these decisions.
This will be dictated by the relevant legislative body
(ie. Mining, Environmental and Water Resources Records should be kept of local surface water
departments) at both State and Commonwealth level. conditions. This can include evidence of previous
flood heights through the location of debris and local
Water will also play a role as a resource and/or
knowledge, conditions of watercourses (ie. flowing
hindrance to the actual exploration efforts. Rivers,
regime, photographs), signs of erosion, and quality
streams, rainfall runoff and groundwater all need to
of water. Monitoring water quality will also provide
be managed to avoid or minimise damage
valuable background information, which may form
during exploration.
an important part of future license conditions.
Many exploration activities could be
If a new deposit has high potential and continuing
considered as miniature minesite operations;
exploration is likely, a remote weather station
hence all sections of this handbook will be
network as well as stream gauges in all major
applicable, albeit at a modified level.
watercourses should be established. These
installations should measure rainfall, temperature,
wind speed and direction, evaporation and stream
flows. A few years of local climatic data between
exploration
the time of initial exploration and the stage of disturbed areas will impact the
feasibility decisions will provide invaluable assistance undisturbed drainage line; and
in the design of water supply dams, tailings dams, – keep tracks a reasonable distance
evaporation ponds and any flood mitigation or away from watercourses to ensure a
mine drainage works required (refer to Sections vegetation strip is maintained.
5.4 and 5.5, and also Fact Sheet Nos 3 and 10).
• When constructing tracks:
7.1.2 ACCESS TRACKS
– avoid using heavy earth moving
Exploration projects which cover a large area with equipment to construct temporary
many drill holes in different locations will often tracks, as this will destroy root stock;
result in a “spider web” of access tracks linking
– culverts are recommended for creeks and
the different sites. The clearing and constant traffic
streams on more permanent tracks. These
associated with such drill lines and access tracks
will reduce mud and keep tracks passable in
can lead to serious erosion and sediment problems
most weather. For guidelines on the design
if precautions are not taken to minimise their
of culverts, refer to Fact Sheet No.6;
impact. The construction and rehabilitation of access
roads is dealt with in Section 6.8 of AMIC (1990), – runoff should not be allowed to concentrate
while the following points provide guidelines for on tracks. Flow should be shed off the road
reducing the impact of tracks on surface water. as quickly as possible by using reasonable
crossfall (say 3%) side drains with regular
• Minimise the area of disturbance by reducing
take-offs and by allowing sheet runoff to
the number of tracks and using the same routes
flow uninterrupted across the track. Where
(even if the journey takes slightly longer). It is
road access cuts across steep hillsides, road
also very important that four wheel drive vehicles
stability may necessitate sloping the cross
remain on existing tracks whenever possible.
fall into the hill slope and into a side drain,
• When locating tracks: which then discharges via a constructed
– every effort should be made to minimise drain built at a low point under the road
clearing and other disturbance to vegetation, or across an armoured road crossing;
especially in well vegetated areas with – if it is necessary to cut roads greater than
easily eroded soils (eg. wet tropical areas). 2 m wide into the natural surface, then
Tracks should deviate around large trees; small v-type interception drains should be
where this is impractical, use the timber used to divert water from the batter slopes.
to stabilise edges and low points; Generally batter slopes should be no steeper
– avoid using gullies as convenient than 2H:1V (0.75H:1V in rock); and
locations for tracks; – any discharge points for culverts or table
– locate creek crossings in naturally drains must be protected against erosion.
rocky locations, or line sensitive or • Ensure all tracks to be used are located on
erodible crossings with rocks; field maps and that all personnel are instructed
– avoid permanently wet and boggy areas; to use only those marked tracks. This will
reduce people’s desire to create their own
– install silt fences or hay bales across
tracks and hence minimise disturbance.
watercourses where sediment from
exploration
7.1.3 EXPLORATION SITES • the downstream or lower side of any cleared

area should be arranged so as to intercept and
On any given project, the area physically
contain sediment washed down by surface
disturbed will be reasonably small and control
runoff or concentrated discharges. This is easily
of erosion, runoff and discharges from these
achieved by the use of interception drains
areas is relatively straight forward. Guidelines
and silt fences, hay bales, silt traps or filter
for minimising impacts on water include:
dams, as described in Fact Sheet No.8; and
• a buffer zone should be kept between the
• dams or diversions to watercourses should
exploration activities and environmentally
be thoroughly investigated to ensure any
sensitive areas. The width of this zone will
adverse effects are minimal. They should also
depend on the sensitivity of the area and may
be designed, constructed and maintained to
range from 10 m for a non-sensitive bank
ensure good water management (Fact Sheet
of a watercourse up to 3 000 m or greater
No.5). It is important to advise the relevant
for an environmental conservation zone;
Water Resources department in any State before
• as with access tracks, the area and degree of undertaking such works. Dams which retain
clearing should be kept to a minimum; large volumes or which could risk life and
• the discharge of wastes into watercourses property in the event of failure will often require
must be avoided. Various waste licensing and much stricter design standards.
can be handled as follows: Exploration within a watercourse or riparian
– fuel and oil storage tanks and dispensing areas zone has the potential to severely damage the
must be bunded and sealed. Oil absorbent surrounding environment and hence will require
booms should be used across storm water more rigorous control than described above.
drainage points away from these areas;
– sewage should be treated to recognised
levels using septic systems or commercially
available package treatment plants or
contained and removed from site;
– toxic and saline wastewater must be stored
in ponds either permanently or until
treated or degraded to safe levels; and
– sludges and silt resulting from drilling
or processing operations must pass
through sumps to settle or filter out
fines before the water is discharged;
8. Open Cut Mines
Management of surface and groundwater flows 8.1.1 FLOOD MITIGATION

around open cut mines is critical to safety and
There are numerous factors which dictate the
the operation of the mine. This is a specialist
type and extent of flood mitigation works best
topic and detailed design and engineering
suited to a particular site. Every mine will have a
should be undertaken by relevant experts.
different set of conditions; hence only the major
However, the environmental officer may issues will be covered in this handbook.
play an important role in tasks such as:
Type of Flooding
• providing the base data to determine
Before considering any mitigation works, the
the likelihood of an event;
extent of flooding likely to occur naturally
• routine monitoring to evaluate the should be estimated. This should include
performance of the control structures; and conservative estimates of the following:
• advice on the best means of • total volume of surface runoff entering
disposal of excess waters. the pit (Fact Sheet No.2);
Consequently, it is important that there is close • the peak rate of flow into this pit
consultation between the expert and the officer (Fact Sheet No.2); and
charged with site management responsibilities.
• the major drainage paths by
The following section provides some basic which water enters the pit.
information to assist the environmental
Safety
officer in understanding some of the specialist
hydrological engineering issues. This is the highest priority in mining and the
possibility of injury or death due directly or
indirectly to pit flooding will be the primary
8.1 Surface Water Runoff determinant of flood mitigation measures.
Economics
Flooding of open cut mines can be a very real
problem if a mine is located in a valley or in the path If safety is not a deciding factor, a cost/benefit
of a stream or a river with a significant upstream study should be carried out. For the proposed
catchment. Depending on how quickly it occurs schemes, the capital and annual maintenance
and how severe it is, flooding can cause a variety costs should be added to the residual costs due
of problems such as loss of life or injury, damage to annual flood damage (eg. the costs incurred
to machinery and infrastructure and, far more when the scheme fails). The scheme which gives
likely, loss of access to the pit due to water and silt the lowest total cost will then be the most effective
and subsequent loss of production. All of these solution. This approach is illustrated in Figure 8.1.
scenarios are highly undesirable to mine operators. It is rarely practical to eliminate totally the risk
of flooding and hence protection of the flood
open cut mines
mitigation works against overtopping habitat, it may be better to build an upstream

damage should also be considered. flood control reservoir than widen the channel.
Pit Location Maximising Waterway Capacity
The location of the pit in relation to the catchment The intent of this method is to optimise the ability of
will determine whether a particular scheme existing rivers, streams or drainage channels to carry
is feasible, ie. a pit at the bottom of a steep flood waters away from the pit. This can be done by:
valley will have fewer alternatives than a pit
• altering cross section - increasing the cross
located in a wide gently sloped flood plain.
section size will give a greater flow capacity
Appropriate Risk Note that, if the existing waterway is prone to
erosion, the channel should be made wider
The level of risk (of failure) associated with a
only. If the existing waterway is prone to silting
given flood mitigation scheme is linked to both
the channel should be made deeper only
the safety and economic issues. When deciding
(Take care that the existing system does not
at what level of risk to design a scheme, an
incorporate both erosion at high flows and
important consideration is that a very low level of
silting at low flows.) Impacts on downstream
risk (ie. failures are very rare) may lead to a lack
unaltered sections must also be assessed;
of contingency planning such that when a very
large flood occurs the results may be disastrous. • upstream erosion protection - a reduced sediment
load can prevent clogging problems in the
8.1.2 METHODS OF FLOOD MITIGATION
lower reaches of a waterway. This can be
There are many flood mitigation methods achieved by protecting steep sections (usually
available to the mining engineer. Each method the upper reaches) of a stream against erosion,
has different environmental impacts and these using methods such as drop structures,
should be addressed as part of the design criteria. check dams, bottom sills, vegetation and
For example, if the waterway is a valuable riverine channel armouring (Fact Sheet No.8); and
open cut mines
• coarse sediment traps - another method of Flood Control Reservoirs

reducing sediment load in flows is to create a
If the catchment upstream of the pit is steep and
coarse sediment trap upstream of the area to be
subject to short heavy storms, it is likely that
protected against flooding. This can consist of
flooding will be short in duration and have a high
a wide shallow pond or flood plain area which
peak flow (refer Fact Sheet No.2). In this situation
will allow the same flow to pass at a much lower
a useful method of flood control is to attenuate
velocity, hence allowing sediment to settle. It is
this peak flow (eg. temporarily hold back some of
important to note that sediment traps require
the flood water until the peak flow downstream
regular cleaning to maintain their performance.
has passed, and then release it at an acceptable
Dykes rate). The simplest method of achieving this is to
Constructed embankments either side of a build a dam or basin with an open outlet at the
natural waterway can give a large increase in flow base to gradually release the intercepted water.
capacity. The final capacity is determined by the Flood Diversion
height of the embankments and their distance
If it is feasible, the most effective way of flood
apart. Where space is available it is better to
mitigation is to divert water away from the
have low embankments spaced far apart. This
mine. Diversion channels can direct water
configuration will be cheaper, safer and result in
to a number of different points, such as:
less erosion. For a meandering stream the dyke
system should form a band which envelopes the • same waterway downstream;
stream (Figure 8.2). Upstream and downstream • adjacent flood plains; or
impacts of these structures must be assessed.
• nearby lakes or streams.
open cut mines
If a diversion method which returns flow to sized culverts should be installed (refer to
the same waterway further downstream is Fact Sheet No.6). Inexpensive and re-useable
used, it is important to assess any backwater corrugated steel pipes (Armco culverts) are
effects. For example, a sudden increase in flow suitable; however attention must be paid
downstream may cause the waterway to back up to installation and cover requirements.
and flood the pit from the downstream end. Sumps
8.1.3 IN-PIT DRAINAGE The size and configuration of sumps will vary
All open cut mines are likely to have water entering to suit individual conditions. However the
the pit and ponding at the lowest point. In most following guidelines should be followed:
cases this water will need to be removed from the pit • for safety and convenience locate
to avoid disruption to mining activity. The amount sumps away from trafficked areas;
of water to be dealt with will depend on the area
of the pit and access ramps (which will determine • incorporate the sump location at the mine
the amount of direct rainfall), the effectiveness planning stage to ensure floor slopes
of flood mitigation and pit interception drainage and seam slopes are accounted for;
schemes (refer to Sections 8.1.1 and 8.1.4) and • if pumping out is used, locate the sump to
management of groundwater inflow (Section 8.2). give a suitable route for the pipeline to the
required discharge point (Section 8.3.1);
The quality of water will, in part, depend on
the residence time in the pit. Water may be • locate the sump to give maximum life before
exposed to mineralised or acidic material and pit development dictates a new location;
become contaminated, or may contact spilled • due to typically high sediment loads in in-pit
hydrocarbons. In both cases treatment may runoff water, the sump should ideally have at
be necessary prior to release. Rapid disposal least two cells. The first cell will allow the silt to
of in-pit water will limit the problem. settle or be filtered out of suspension and should
Drains be easily cleaned by in-pit equipment; and
Design criteria will need to consider: • the size of the sump does not necessarily
need to cater for the total flow into the pit
• the main access ramp into the pit must be but rather should be located such that all
kept trafficable. Hence ramp side drains water eventually drains into it (ie. once the
should cater for high peak flows; dewatering system catches up with the inflow).
• drains on the pit floor must be kept away Dewatering Options
from main traffic routes. This saves the drains
from damage by large vehicles, keeps the Three commonly used methods to dewater mine pits
pit accessible by small service vehicles (eg. are pumping, shaft and tunnel, and slot drainage.
surveyors) and avoids mud on vehicles; If water discharging from the pit is not retained,
• where possible, drains should be maintained the impact of variable flows and water quality on
at a slope between 1% and 3% to avoid the downstream surface water or groundwater
silting and erosion problems; and bodies will need to be considered. Water disposed
of in these ways may need to be monitored
• drains which cross major traffic routes should
continuously as its quality will be affected by the
be hard lined “swayles” (wide shallow ‘v’
length of contact with mineralised zones in the pit.
drains). If large flows are expected then correctly
open cut mines
8.1.4 INTERCEPTION DRAINAGE AROUND PIT drain around the pit. If the pit is at the bottom
of a natural bowl this technique is ideal. It is
Where open cut mines do not have flooding
usual to design these drains for a 20 Year ARI or
problems there will usually be some runoff towards
an ARI to suit the acceptable risk for the open
the pit from the immediate surrounding areas
cut (refer to Fact Sheet No.3). For the design of
(Figure 8.3). If this water enters the pit it may
open channel drains refer to Fact Sheet No.4.
be exposed to acid generating rock not present
on the surface and will also necessitate larger pit Gully dams: simple contour drains will not be
pumps, generally causing inconvenience and effective if a number of gullies run towards the pit.
delays to in-pit operations. Therefore interception In this situation it is necessary to cut off the gullies
drainage should be installed around the pit. using dams (refer to Fact Sheet No.5). These dams
should be sized such that the overflow spillway is
Interception drains should be installed as close
high enough to direct flow into an adjacent gully
to the top of the pit as practicable. It is also good
which is not flowing into the pit, or into a high
practice to use these drains to separate clean water
level contour drain which can avoid the pit.
(ie. runoff from undisturbed catchment) from dirty
water (ie. runoff from disturbed catchment). This Flow detention basins: small scale versions of the
may require parallel drainage systems but will result flood control reservoirs discussed in Section 8.1.1
in much smaller sediment loads and in some cases can be used to detain and regulate flows as part
a reduction in treatment facilities (Figure 8.3). of an interception scheme. Where a number of
small catchments feed into a single collector drain,
Providing interception drainage can be difficult
detention basins can be used to delay flows from
if the mine is in rough terrain or located in a
some of the areas and hence reduce the peak flow
valley. There are many techniques that can be
in that drain. If pumping is necessary as part of
used to develop an interception scheme.
the interception scheme, detention basins can be
Runoff Interception Techniques effectively used to regulate flow to the pump. This
Contour drains: the simplest method is to use the will reduce the required pump size. As with the
natural topography and run an open channel flood control reservoirs, it is important that these
open cut mines
dams should self drain to ensure they are sediment from being eroded and transported.
empty when a storm occurs. The size and If this is not feasible, it is then necessary to
design of detention basins is dependant on contain the sediment in controlled locations
the area, steepness and ground cover of the where it can not cause these problems.
catchment as well as the design storm (Fact
Avoiding Erosion and Transport of Sediment
Sheet No.3) and degree of detention required.
Clearing control: the most effective way to prevent
In-pit systems: if the terrain is extremely difficult
soil erosion is to not disturb the natural (stable)
it may be too expensive to create an effective
ground. In open cut mining, clearing of vegetation
interception scheme. In such cases it may be possible
and stripping of topsoil and overburden is necessary
to use the benches of the pit as a drainage path. In
and must be carried out in advance of pit operations.
strip mines, where the pit is continually moving
Care must be taken not to strip this area too early,
forward, this is especially effective. If possible, the
and to minimise the area actually cleared.
back bench of the pit should be sloped towards
a deep gully where the water can be discharged Effective rehabilitation: rapid rehabilitation of
away from the pit. In some cases, however, the disturbed mine areas will stabilise soil, and so
only feasible direction to drain water is into the prevent erosion. It is advisable to direct runoff
pit. If this is necessary, careful thought should from rehabilitated areas into the dirty water system
still be given to doing it in a controlled manner so for some time after completion of the area, to
that drainage paths remain stable and pit pumps ensure that any sediment that is eroded can be
can cope with the inflows (Section 8.1.3). contained before flow is discharged offsite.
8.1.5 SEDIMENT CONTAINMENT Open channel erosion control: controlling erosion in

open channels is very important for effective flood
The containment and control of sediment in
control and interception drainage. Prevention of
and around open pits is important for efficient
scour in drains is achieved through good design and
mine operations and is vital for the protection
adequate protection (refer to Fact Sheet Nos 4 and 8).
of the environment surrounding the mine
(Note: for containment of sediment on and Increasing infiltration: erosion and transport of
around waste dumps refer to Section 11.2.4). sediment is caused by water flowing at high
Some of the adverse effects from uncontrolled velocities entraining soil particles. To prevent this
sediment transport and deposition are: it is necessary to reduce the amount of runoff and
to slow it down. On large disturbed slopes, such
• upstream erosion;
as stripped or recently rehabilitated areas, this can
• clogging of pump inlets and sumps; be achieved by ripping along contour lines using
• blockage of culverts; grader or dozer tines. This will increase infiltration
and inhibit overland flow. Important considerations
• reduction of drain capacities;
for ripping are covered in AMIC (1990).
• access problems for light vehicles;
In-pit sediment: an open pit is naturally a highly
• damage to vegetation; disturbed area. Therefore as a sediment management
• loss of habitat; and technique, it is best to have as much sediment
as possible in the pit where it does not have
• off-lease discharges exceeding license limits
to be controlled. Large and shallow sediment
for suspended solids and/or turbidity:
traps upstream of pit pump-out sumps are an
The best way to avoid these problems is to prevent effective way of achieving this (Section 8.1.3).
open cut mines
Removal of Suspended Sediment problems. They must be designed and constructed

from Flowing Water with care to ensure the correct level of water
and balance of vegetation are maintained.
The two techniques for removing suspended
sediment from flowing water are filtration
and settlement (refer to Fact Sheet No.8). 8.2 Groundwater
Filtration: by passing water through a fine media or by
causing it to percolate slowly through an obstruction, 8.2.1 GROUNDWATER INFLOW
silt will be removed. For overland flow this can best Groundwater inflow to open cut mine pits
be achieved using synthetic or hay bale silt fences is controlled by three primary factors:
for small to medium sized cleared areas, or strips of
• hydraulic gradient (the slope of the water
heavy vegetation where these have not been cleared.
table in an unconfined aquifer, or the
When planning for clearing of an area, vegetation
piezometric pressure in a confined aquifer);
should be left undisturbed wherever possible. For
channel flow it is best to use rock filter dams. • hydraulic conductivity (often referred to
as permeability) of the soil or rock; and
Settlement: allowing water to flow into a large wide
body of water will significantly reduce the flow • the area through which flow occurs.
velocity and will allow sediment to settle out of An idealised example of pit inflow in a homogeneous
suspension. These sediment ponds can be designed unconfined aquifer is shown in Figure 8.4.
to allow even the smallest sediment particles to settle.
Visual evidence of the flow through area is given
Shallow heavily vegetated wetlands are extremely by the existence of a “seepage face” on a pit wall.
efficient sediment traps as they both settle and This is characterised by a slick or wet appearance
filter suspended solids. They can also be effective of the soil or rock surface, and close examination
in the treatment of acid drainage and heavy metal of this region may reveal trickling flow.
open cut mines
Where a permeable fracture or a similar preferred • Grout curtains are formed by injecting grout
flow path exists (in a non-homogeneous aquifer), (which may be in a liquid, slurry or emulsion
the seepage face is often a discrete feature and form) under pressure via grids of staggered
may only show up as a long, thin line rather wells. Solidification of the grout then provides
than a plane, as shown in Figure 8.4. a barrier to groundwater flow; and
8.2.2 MANAGING GROUNDWATER INFLOW • Sheet piling is applied by driving sheets

of steel into the ground until contact is
Groundwater inflow may be accommodated in
made with bedrock. Improved hydraulic
the mine plan by restricting and/or containing
retardation is obtained by using interlocking
the flow, and routing it elsewhere (dewatering).
sheets to form a more continuous barrier.
Flow Restriction
Figure 8.5 shows, schematically, the effect
Groundwater flow may be restricted by reducing of placing a barrier to groundwater flow
the hydraulic conductivity and/or reducing the area
Containment and Re-routing of Flow
through which flow occurs. These may be achieved
by any of the following methods (Bedient et al, 1994): • Dewatering is commonly carried out to lower the
watertable by pumping water out of the aquifer
• Slurry walls may be constructed perpendicular
and away from the mine. A series of bores or
to the direction of groundwater flow. These are
spear points may be positioned in areas of
generally installed at sufficient depth to intersect
good hydraulic connectivity to allow pumping
bedrock so that the aquifer is “barricaded”;
at a sufficient rate to draw down the aquifer.
Drawdown of the watertable reduces the flow
open cut mines
through area of groundwater near the mine pits. A channel may be constructed to lower the
Ideally, the watertable should be drawn down water table and drain the water to downstream
below the floor of the pit so that groundwater catchments. However, lowering of the watertable
inflows are eliminated altogether. Figure 8.6 in this manner is generally less effective because
indicates the effect produced by dewatering. of the reliance on steady gravity drainage. Figure
8.7 shows the method of channel dewatering.
• Channel dewatering: groundwater may also be
intercepted outside the pit if the topography,
groundwater regime and mine plan allow this.
open cut mines
When groundwater flows are not highly • co-disposal with tailings water; and
significant, the water is often intercepted in the • treatment followed by disposal
pit, collected in a sump and pumped to a retention to receiving waters.
dam for treatment or storage as required.
The option decided upon will depend on the quantity
Each method of managing groundwater inflows and quality of the water needed to be disposed.
will have different environmental impacts. These
will need to be evaluated prior to implementing 8.3.2 ACID DRAINAGE
a control technology. Issues such as volume Acid drainage can occur within an open pit
of flows, water quality, effect on other users of when sulphide bearing minerals are exposed to
the groundwater, surface drainage systems and air and water. The resulting low pH water can
receiving water bodies should be addressed. readily dissolve heavy metals that are contained
in the orebody, overburden and waste rock.
8.3 Water Quality Additional detail outlining the chemistry and
conditions favourable to the formation of acid
drainage are provided in Fact Sheet No.7.
8.3.1 PIT WATER DISPOSAL
Acid water within an open pit is a problem if the
Water held at the base of an open mine pit may
water within the pit migrates to groundwater
be derived from direct rainfall, surface runoff from
via rock pores or fissures or if the water from
outside the pit and groundwater seepage. The
the pit is pumped to a storage area which
contaminants which can be present include:
may leach or overflow to receiving waters.
• oils and greases from light and heavy machinery; It may also be an operational problem; for
• dissolved and particulate metals resulting from example, corroding structures and pumps.
the dissolution of metalliferous minerals; Hutchinson and Ellison (1992) identified three
• nutrients from explosive residues; generally accepted approaches to the prevention
or abatement of acid generation and leachate
• acid drainage;
migration. These measures are applicable to acid
• suspended sediments; and drainage from open pits, waste rock dumps and
• salts. stockpiles and include, in order of preference:
If acid drainage is present from the oxidation of • control of the acid generation process;
sulphide minerals contained in the rock within • control of the migration of the leachate; and
the pit, then specific treatment and management
• collection and treatment of acid drainage.
strategies need to be considered. Options for
the prevention and alleviation of acid drainage A combination of these three measures can
problems are provided in Section 8.3.2. often be the most applicable solution.
Options available for the disposal of pit While considerable research is being undertaken
water include: on this topic, options for the prevention of acid
drainage at new mining operations and the control
• disposal to evaporation ponds;
and elimination of problems within existing.
• direct or indirect use as process plant water; open cut mines are generally limited to:
• irrigation of rehabilitated areas within • analyses of drill core samples for a wide
the minesite (eg. waste dumps); range of acid generation laboratory tests
prior to the commencement of mining;
open cut mines
• avoiding or restricting the exposure of sulphide In arid regions, evaporation ponds are the most
bearing rocks to the atmosphere. This may be common method for the disposal of saline or
achieved by selective mining of the orebody contaminated pit water. However care must
or modifying the overall mine plan; be taken to avoid discharge of the water, and
• ensuring long-term slope stability within disposal of potentially contaminated bottom
the open cut as deterioration can result in sludge must also be considered. Some mines
the long-term exposure of fresh rock to dispose of hypersaline water to natural salt lakes,
conditions which lead to acid generation; but this technique is not favoured by regulatory
authorities. Depending on the quality of the pit
• removal of the water as quickly as possible; and water, other techniques such as irrigation within
• incorporating acid neutralising rock (eg. the release area may also be considered. Potential
limestone) in flow channels within the mine pit. impacts on vegetation would need to be reviewed
A number of standard laboratory tests may be if irrigation is considered as an option. The
undertaken to determine the capacity of waste potential for deep well disposal may also exist.
rock or ore to generate acid and mobilise heavy In temperate and tropical regions, where rainfall
metals. Laboratory tests available include: can equal or exceed evaporation, alternate methods
• acid neutralising capacity (ANC) - the of disposal must be developed. Site specific
ability of a sample to neutralise acid techniques and management practices usually
generated from sulphide oxidation; need to be implemented within these areas.
• net acid producing potential (NAPP) - High flow conditions in surrounding rivers and
the difference between the maximum streams may also provide opportunities for discharge.
potential acidity (MPA) and ANC; and For example, in the Hunter Valley of New South
Wales saline mine waters are discharged to the Hunter
• net acid generation (NAG) - a direct evaluation
River during times of high or flood river flows when
without measuring the MPA and ANC separately.
the assimilative capacity of the river is high and the
Where these static tests indicate the potential for saline water can be quickly flushed to the ocean. This
acid drainage, it may be useful to perform kinetic (or practice is now regulated by the NSW Government
leach) testing. The data from both types of testing through the Hunter Salinity Trading Scheme.
can then be used to derive appropriate management
strategies to reduce the incidence or treat the
8.4 Pit Closure
outcome of acid drainage. Expert advice at the testing
and planning stage can reduce the need for costly and
long-term chemical treatment of polluted discharges. Pit closure strategies are formulated to ensure that
protection of the water environment, both within the
8.3.3 SALINITY site and downstream from the operation, is continued
Mine pits which contain highly saline waters following pit closure. Final pit geometry is dictated
require specific management strategies which by the balance of borrow and fill of earth, from the
allow dewatering of the pit with minimal mining operations to the rehabilitation operations.
environmental impact. The strategies implemented However, water management concerns should be
will be dependent on the geographical location addressed interactively during pit closure design.
of the mine and local climatic conditions.
open cut mines
Open cut mine closure leaves voids which may In some cases, flooding of the open pit may be
extend hundreds of metres below the water table. desirable, especially if sulphide rock is exposed to
Consequently groundwater is often a primary issue the atmosphere. In order to accelerate flooding,
in pit closure. An open void (see Figure 8.8) will adjacent streams may be diverted into the pit.
tend to fill with water from the adjacent groundwater Such pits can also provide reliable sources of
until a level of long-term equilibrium is attained. water for stock or irrigation. However, monitoring
of the water quality will be necessary to ensure
This will impact on the surrounding equilibrium
that it does not degrade due to, for example,
groundwater levels. Recharge areas such
acid generation from exposed sulphide rock.
as streams or rivers may be affected by
these equilibrating processes. Surface water
drainage into the open void and evaporative
losses will form part of these processes.
Pit closure strategies should be viewed as a water

balance exercise, assessing the regional significance
as well as the local significance of the presence of the
void. Hydrological, surface water and groundwater
issues should be addressed to quantify and minimise
environmental effects of the final void on the
hydrological cycle and vegetation of the region.
9. Underground Mines
A sudden and large flow of water into an Unplanned interception of adjacent flooded
underground mine can have disastrous results and workings, especially in coal mines, can have
minor quantities will also cause inconvenience to disastrous consequences on workers and machinery.
personnel and machinery accessing the shaft.
Blasting and drilling operations which tap into
The potential for this type of problem sources of water may result in a quick and widespread
and hence the level of preventative works impact of the inflow in connected working areas.
is dependant on the mine locality.
9.2.1 MANAGING GROUNDWATER INFLOW
Managing groundwater inflow in underground
9.1 Surface Drainage Away from mines can take many forms. Some techniques are:
Head Works
• preventative, using flow restriction, containment
and re-routing of flow (Section 8.2.2). Bore
The most cost-effective method to avoid water dewatering, in particular, provides an effective
entering a shaft or decline is to locate the shaft way of reducing the effects of groundwater
away from any watercourses or flood plains. inflow to the underground mine by removing
If the general topography or the geological formation a proportion of the groundwater resource;
of the ore body makes this impossible, it will be • contingent, allowing for the inflow of ground
necessary to undertake more pro-active flood water. The confined nature of underground
protection civil works. For a discussion of flood mines makes the design of adequate drainage
mitigation and interception drainage techniques into an adit or shaft used exclusively for
refer to Sections 8.1.1, 8.1.2 and 8.1.4. Due to collection of groundwater (ie. a sump) essential.
the importance of a mine’s access shaft, flood Drainage to an adit which passively discharges
protection and mitigation works must be designed to the environment may prove to be a long-term
to give a very low risk of failure. Where flooding problem if acid drainage is present. Control
is possible the level of risk must be very carefully and treatment of such drainage streams after
analysed. If flooding may be life threatening, it mine closure is difficult and expensive;
is advisable to cater for the probable maximum
• depressurisation at the interior surface of
flood (PMF) (refer to Fact Sheet No.2).
the underground working, which involves
progressively tapping into water bearing
9.2 Groundwater Inflow strata to “bleed” water and hydrostatic
pressure at several points; and
Groundwater inflows may originate from lateral • pumping to the surface from sumps or pumping
connections to local and regional groundwater to abandoned shafts from temporary sumps
resources at working faces, vertical seepage from may also be used to move volumes of water
roofs of underground pits and local seepage from from areas in which they are not wanted.
water bearing strata or “pockets” of groundwater.
underground mines
In wet areas, the plugging of old shafts and If acid drainage is present within the underground
surface exploration drill holes can reduce workings, then treatment of this water will
water inflows quite significantly be required, as outlined in Sections 8.3.2 and
11.4.1. In addition to the water extracted for
treatment, consideration should be given to
9.3 Water Quality
water that may potentially escape through mine
shafts, adits and bedrock cracks and fissures.
Water present within underground mines is
normally derived from direct infiltration of If at all possible, clean water flowing into a mine
rainfall and seepage of groundwater into the should be kept separate from dirty streams
excavation. Water extracted from underground and removed as quickly as possible. This will
mine workings may be contaminated with: prevent contamination of the water and reduce
the quantity which then has to be treated.
• increased dissolved and particulate metals
resulting from the abrasion and dissolution of
metalliferous minerals (eg. acid drainage);
• nutrients from explosive residues;
• high concentrations of suspended sediments; and
• oils and greases from underground machinery
9.3.1 TREATMENT AND DISPOSAL

OF UNDERGROUND MINE WATER
Water extracted from underground mine pits

should be pumped to a central holding facility
where suspended sediments can settle. If possible,
the settling facilities should be underground, so
that the sediment does not become a problem on
the surface. Appropriate treatment technologies
can then be implemented for the removal of any
hydrocarbons, heavy metals or acid drainage.
10. Heap Leach Processes
10.1 Introduction by process water, a proper understanding of the

underground flow conditions and water chemistry
will predict the extent and environmental significance
Management of a heap leaching operation is effectively
of any process water seepage and enable the
the management of flows: the flow of barren leach
rapid implementation of remedial actions.
solution to the leach pad and through the heap;
containment of the pregnant solution; removal of the Chemical parameters to be measured should
dissolved metals and recycling of the barren solution. include both the natural groundwater constituents,
In order to maximise the recovery of metal values process chemicals and any chemicals which might
and avoid environmental damage, catchments must be formed or liberated as a result of the process
be clearly separated and all drainage systems sized to chemicals interacting with the soils or rock.
contain the normal and abnormal flows. Inadequate 10.2.2 RAINFALL EVENTS, ACCEPTABLE
design means both a loss of the resource and RISK, CONTINGENCY PLANNING
contamination of stream flows by process solutions.
The collection system must be designed to
The design and management of a heap leach operation accommodate the solution from both the leaching
is a specialist skill. However, some traditional process and storm runoff without overflow or erosion
operations may decide to treat low-grade material occurring. The facility will need a water balance to
using the principles of heap leaching. In these cases properly manage the flows and containment ponds.
the design of the water and solution management
systems may fall to the site engineer. The following Climatic factors to be considered include high
sections are provided to assist site personnel in intensity rainfall and long-term wet or dry
obtaining useful site specific information for the periods. Local climatic data normally provide
design, operating management, decommissioning the most reliable data for predicting hydrological
and rehabilitation of a heap leach facility. events. Suggested minimum design event
frequencies are presented in Table 10.1.
10.2 Planning for Heap Leaching Design event frequencies should be determined
in conjunction with a risk analysis.
10.2.1 BASELINE EVALUATION Storm design parameters must consider the

critical duration of the design event, whereas
It is essential to define and isolate catchments, and
seasonal variability is important for the design
size drainage lines and ponds to ensure that clean and
of water supply and containment ponds
contaminated flows are separated and that the drains
sizes. The ponds will need to contain:
and containment ponds are not over-topped. The
groundwater system beneath the pads and process • minimum operating volumes to
ponds should be defined with regard to its hydrology enable the pumps to operate;
and chemistry. In the event of contamination
heap leach processes
TABLE 10.1: Suggested Minimum Design Event Criteria for Heap Leach Operation
Facility Type of Design Event
Access road, culverts and drainage ditches 10 year ARI to 50 year ARI flood peak
Drainage courses and ditches outside of leach pad

perimeter berm, pregnant pond and barren ponds 100 year ARI flood peak
Internal freeboard within leach pad, Maximum of:

pregnant and barren solution ponds
• average hydrological conditions plus a short-
term, 100 year ARI storm event; and
• a longer term equivalent 100 year ARI event
over a period of several months or years.
• heap drain down volume; The geochemistry of the process solution should be
• rinsing cycles; fully evaluated to determine the best indicators of
contamination. For example, with regard to a copper
• normal seasonal fluctuations in water volume heap leach operation, elevated sulphates in the
(based on average climatic conditions); groundwater may be identified in perimeter bore hole
• flood surge (based on the critical samples long before elevated copper concentrations.
design event); and
10.2.4 CLOSURE PLANNING
• extreme event discharge outlet or spillway.
The chemical characteristics of the spent leach
Contingency plans should be developed (and pile and the long-term leachate stream should
preferably tested) prior to an event resulting in the be determined during the design phase. The
release of process solution. Useful equipment to characteristics will depend on the nature of the
have on site or in daily operation may include: ore, the process solutions used and the degree of
• a continuous flow monitor on the receiving rinsing and/or chemical treatment of the heap once
creek to enable estimates of dilution; and active leaching has finished. It is important that
the process ponds are sized to contain the volume
• emergency chemicals and dosing
of solution generated during the rinsing process.
equipment to neutralise overflows.
Where heaps are constructed sequentially, experience
10.2.3 BASELINE GROUNDWATER MONITORING gained during the operation should provide the
Many materials are available to seal the heaps from information needed to establish closure criteria for
the underlying soil and for use as pond liners. water quality and heap stability. Revegetation of
These include PVC, asphalt and clay. It should be the heaps may be problematic due to slope angles,
assumed that all ponds and heaps will potentially chemistry and water retention of the spent ore.
leak, so a groundwater monitoring program should Ongoing treatment of the heap leachate may be
be implemented to determine if there is any loss required for some time after the last heap has ceased
of process solution and contamination of the active leaching and it is important that adequate
groundwater. Routine field monitoring should evaluate provisions are made to ensure containment of any
changes in the water table and the water chemistry. contaminated water during the closure phase.
heap leach processes
10.3 Solution Control During 10.4 Water Management on closure

Operations
10.4.1 CRITERIA FOR LONG-TERM
10.3.1 MAINTENANCE OF DRAIN AND LEACHATE QUALITY
POND CAPACITY
The leachate discharge criteria should be developed
Heaps should be designed to avoid slope failure and/ on the basis of the downstream beneficial uses
or erosion of the ore and subsequent blockage of of the surface and groundwater flows. State
the drains. Erosion and sedimentation within the regulations (and/or catchment or river specific
drains reduces the capacity for containment and environmental protection policies) and the
may result in overtopping of containment structures. ANZECC (1992) guidelines for receiving water
Testing should be undertaken on both saturated quality will provide a basis for determining the
and unsaturated heaps as the shear strength of the appropriate long-term leachate quality. These, in
material will vary with different pore water pressures. conjunction with the flows and chemistry of the
The effects of earthquakes should not be overlooked. leachate stream and of the receiving waterbody,
10.3.2 INTEGRITY OF THE PAD OR LINER will determine the final discharge quality, and
where applicable, the size of a mixing zone.
The pad should be protected from flood flows in
the natural drainage systems by appropriately sized 10.4.2 RESIDUES AND LONG-TERM
berms. These should also extend around the process CONTAMINATED SITE MANAGEMENT
solution ponds. It is recommended that the 100 year All heaps should be contained as safe, stable
ARI storm event be the minimum design standard. structures which will erode at an acceptable rate.
During construction of the pad care is required to This rate will need to be determined through
ensure the integrity of the liner. The strength of the project specific field trials as the slope angles,
liner should be commensurate with the hydraulic particle size and length of slope will influence
pressure to be applied and the chemicals to be used. the rate and extent of erosion. The use of
Multiple use of a pad increases the risk of tears in vegetation to control erosion may be subject to
the liner and subsequent seepage. Careful inspection both geochemical and physical limitations and
is required to ensure integrity of the liner prior to the early establishment of field trials should
the construction of the heap. A leachate collection provide the data needed to evaluate this option.
system should be constructed to collect seepage. Leachate and surface runoff from the heaps
10.3.3 INTEGRITY OF PIPING AND VALVES should not cause degradation of watercourses
downstream from the site through either siltation
All pipes containing process solution should or long- or short-term toxicity. The operation
be located within bunds which are sized to will need to implement a monitoring program
contain the amount of solution which would be to evaluate the success of its rehabilitation and
released should the pipe or valve fail plus any leachate management strategies. This will include
additional flows due to rainfall within the bund both surface and groundwater quality monitoring
catchment. Routine inspections and leak detection and should include contingency plans for the
equipment should be used to identify leakages implementation of alternative control strategies
and these should be repaired immediately to avoid should they be required. Relinquishment of the lease
contamination of the groundwater. Preventative can be expected once the operation has attained an
maintenance rather than the repair of leaks acceptable discharge quality and stable surfaces.
should be the underlying operating philosophy.
11. Waste Dumps
11.1 Waste Dump Construction • new waste dumps should be located

for Water Management within catchments serviced by dirty water
interception and treatment facilities;
Attention to waste dump construction with a • where possible, natural drainage paths should be
view to the final rehabilitation plan will minimise maintained, and room should be left around the
erosion potential and facilitate a drainage system base of the waste dump for interception drainage;
that reflects the final drainage network. Accordingly, • waste dumps should not be constructed
waste dump planning and construction should immediately adjacent to natural or
attend to the following critical matters. uncontaminated watercourses. Provision must
be made for intercepting runoff, leachate and
11.2 Surface Water seepage before it enters such watercourses;
• room should also be left for construction of
The information provided in this section should be retention ponds, or it must be possible to
read in conjunction with Section 6.1 of AMIC (1990). direct interception drains into existing ponds
for the removal of suspended materials and
The type of material to be stored in the waste dump
the treatment of chemical contaminants; and
will determine its design and ongoing construction.
The presence of acid or other undesirable leachate- • avoid locating road culverts immediately
producing waste may necessitate a capped waste downstream of waste dumps. The high sediment
dump which will generate high volumes of surface load in waste dump runoff can easily cause
runoff. Alternatively, if the material is inert it may blockages. Where this is not possible, ensure
be desirable to encourage infiltration. The types of that sediment retention dams are located
contaminants to be expected are discussed in Section upstream of the culverts. Culvert inlets should
11.4. To ensure this contamination is minimised be carefully designed to maximise velocities
and contained there are many critical design issues into the culvert and outlets designed to ensure
for waste dumps. These are discussed below. that sediment is removed from the outfall.
11.2.1 LOCATION OF WASTE DUMPS 11.2.2 EROSION ON WASTE DUMPS
The location of waste dumps should be planned well Severe rilling on waste dump batters and the
in advance to cater for the expected waste volumes, problems associated with high sediment loads
the final and intermediate design profiles, visual in waste dump runoff can be reduced by proper
and noise screening of mine operations and the design and construction of the waste dump. This
interaction with groundwater. The following surface should include close attention to batter slopes,
water issues should also be considered in the plan: benching, armouring and drains. Apart from these
waste dumps
‘geometric’ design guidelines, the following • introducing storm water retention

points should be considered. basins into the final profile to reduce
the magnitude of peak flows.
Capped Waste Dumps
11.2.3 INTERCEPTION DRAINAGE
Where acid drainage and other leachate formation
AROUND WASTE DUMPS
is to be minimised by capping the waste dump
with impervious clay or rock, there will be Contaminated runoff or leachate derived from waste
very high volumes of runoff. It is important to dumps must be intercepted and directed towards
incorporate erosion control when constructing ‘dirty water’ treatment ponds. The degree of treatment
the capping layer. This will include properly required to match the quality of natural watercourses
designed drains, spillways, drop structures, in the area can vary from none at all, to removal of
armoured batters and immediate topsoil and nearly all suspended solids and treatment for acid,
grassing. It is also very important to ensure the salinity, and heavy metals. Typical techniques for
impervious material selected is not excessively runoff interception are discussed in Section 8.1.3
dispersive (clays) or soluble (weak limestone). which, along with the following guidelines, will
ensure that the interception system works effectively.
Encouraging Infiltration
Separation of Water Streams
If seepage of water into the waste dump will
not cause structural instability or contaminated To avoid excessive volumes of water entering the dirty
leachate and groundwater seepage, it can be very water treatment systems, runoff from undisturbed
beneficial to encourage infiltration. This will catchments around the waste dump should be
greatly reduce runoff volumes and hence reduce kept separate from dump runoff and associated
erosion. Increased infiltration can be achieved by disturbed areas. If large quantities of dust from the
contour ripping of the surface, “moonscaping” waste dump settles on nearby areas, then these areas
(refer to AMIC, 1990), creation of small detention should be included in the dirty water system.
ponds or sink holes on top of the stockpile. Vegetation Filters
Erosion Control The retention of natural vegetation between the
Erosion control can be achieved through: waste dump and the interception drains can be
highly effective for removing sediment from runoff
• effective and early revegetation of completed
and reducing contaminants in the leachate.
waste dumps or even of completed sections of
active waste dumps. This will require thorough Drainage Design
advance planning of final dump profiles, but in If sediment cannot be retained on the waste
so doing may prevent double handling of waste; dump then it must be kept in suspension until
• armouring or effective slope reduction it reaches a designated location for sediment
which will reduce scour. Planning of removal (ie. a sediment pond). Drainage
open channels to achieve stable profiles velocities must be sufficient to keep sediment
and slopes (ie. 0.5% - 1.0%) is also suspended but not too fast so as to cause scour.
important (refer to Fact Sheet No.4);
• reduction of slope lengths by construction of
contour banks and/or drainage benches; and
waste dumps
11.2.4 SEDIMENT CONTAINMENT or percolates through this zone. Similarly, the

AROUND WASTE DUMPS migration of contaminants is strongly vertical.
Containment of sediment on the stockpile is Flow in the capillary zone is complicated by

the ideal solution and can be maximised using the strong and variable presence of air in the
silt fences, hay bales, silt traps, filter dams, soil matrix. This results in a variable hydraulic
retention basins and any other method which conductivity of the soil, which, in turn, results in
will temporarily reduce runoff water velocities to variable groundwater infiltration characteristics
allow suspended solids to settle. A description of between ground level and the top of the aquifer.
these techniques is given in Fact Sheet No.8.
The main factors influencing
When de-silting ponds, sediment should be groundwater contamination are:
dumped in a location where it will be exposed to
• travel time of contaminated water from
minimal surface runoff. Methods of containing the
the ground surface to the water table;
sediment either on the waste dump or in a dirty
water system are dealt with in detail in Fact Sheet • the fraction of contaminant that
No.8. If wetlands are used, they should only be reaches the water table; and
used to remove very fine sediment particles and a • the rate at which the contaminant enters
pre-settling pond should be constructed upstream. the aquifer from the capillary zone.
Characteristic behaviour of contaminants include:
11.3 Groundwater • soluble contaminants collect near the
water table in a floating lens and are
11.3.1 INFILTRATION TO GROUNDWATER then transported across the water table
Between ground level and the top of the aquifer, where horizontal dispersion occurs;
the level of saturation in the soil may vary from • solvents which are denser than water
zero (dry) to fully saturated (Figure 11.1). migrate downwards to the bottom of the
This zone, referred to as the capillary zone, aquifer and are then transported by a
contains water which is held under negative process of advection and diffusion; and
(suction) pressures within the soil matrix.
• residual (free phase) chemical contamination
Flow in the capillary zone is strongly vertical and in the soil matrix above the water table has the
only weakly horizontal. Therefore water infiltrates potential to generate long-term problems.
waste dumps
Control of infiltration may be achieved through: and the piezometers should extend into the
subsurface groundwater regime. Monitoring and
• liners or impervious layers placed between
sampling should be carried out both upstream and
the waste dump and the soil matrix
downstream of the prevailing groundwater flow
(eg. polyethylene, PVC, non-reactive
direction near the waste dump (Figure 11.2).
clays or soil-bentonite mixtures);
• surface capping to insulate against the Monitoring and sampling should include:
infiltration, percolation and contaminant • groundwater levels or piezometric heads;
migration via rainfall through the waste dump.
• pH and salinity; and
Surface capping materials may be impermeable
materials such as clay, concrete or liners; and • chemical and/or biological
analyses as appropriate.
• adequate waste dump drainage to confine
runoff to the surface, where it may be more When sampling for chemical or biological
easily contained and treated if required. analysis, standard sampling procedures
should be used (Section 5.4).
Attenuation of groundwater contamination
may be achieved by isolating the Contaminants may react within the soil
groundwater near waste dumps using: matrix, so that groundwater monitored at the
periphery of waste dumps may not directly
• slurry walls (Section 8.2.2);
reflect some characteristics of the primary
• grout curtains (Section 8.2.2); and contaminant infiltrating from waste dumps.
• sheet piling (Section 8.2.2).
In addition, groundwater control methods 11.4 Water Quality
such as dewatering bores and capture trenches
(Section 8.2.2) may be used to collect water Waste rock dumps may be a source of contaminants
for pumping to treatment facilities. However, to local streams and receiving waters. The range of
these methods should only be employed problems that occur from these structures include:
after source control methods have failed.
• acid drainage;
11.3.2 MONITORING
• saline runoff;
Groundwater should be monitored as close as • suspended solids runoff; and
practical to the perimeter of the waste dump
• heavy metals in runoff and leachate.
waste dumps
11.4.1 ACID DRAINAGE • gas sampling within the partially

saturated zone; and
Acid drainage from waste rock dumps is normally
a more significant problem than that from within • sampling and analysis of soluble acid
open cut or underground mines. This is primarily a drainage products in the waste rock
result of increased surface area of exposed reactive and underlying geologic formation.
sulphides, higher porosity and infiltration within Specialised sampling techniques are required
waste rock dumps and the difficulty in containing when monitoring for acid drainage and
and/or treating leachate. The extent of the acid the reader is referred to Hutchinson and
drainage and subsequent metal solubility problems Ellison (1992) for further information.
within a waste rock pile will depend on the following
physical, chemical and biological conditions: A wide range of prevention and remedial strategies
are available for acid drainage problems from waste
• physical size and geological rock dumps. These are shown in Table 11.1
characteristics of the waste rock;
11.4.2 SALINITY
• the presence and type of sulphide
bearing minerals; Saline runoff from waste dumps can be a common
problem at mines located within arid regions
• the extent of rainfall infiltration;
and regions with specific high salinity geological
• the permeability of the waste rock formations, for example, much of the Hunter and
dump to air and water; Bowen Basin coalfields. Overburden and waste rock
• the presence of acid neutralising rocks that originated from within saline parent material
within the waste rock dump; and can have high concentrations of dissolved and
precipitated salts. Once this material is removed and
• the level of microbiological activity,
placed on waste rock dumps, rainfall infiltration
including the presence of bacteria.
can result in highly saline runoff and leachate.
Monitoring techniques that can be used to identify
Runoff and leachate from saline waste
acid generation within a waste dump include:
rock dumps should be intercepted and
• the presence of “hot spots” on the waste directed to storage ponds for:
surface that are warm to the touch;
• evaporation;
• the appearance of steam from sections of
• recycling if suitable;
the dump, particularly after rain events;
• dilution with low saline water if
• red and brown coloured water around the
available and subsequent use;
base of the dump, red or brown colouring on
stream bottoms and banks, or the presence • treatment if feasible; or
of colloidal yellow precipitate in the water; • controlled discharge, for example under
• the use of remote imaging techniques, such flood flows where natural dilution occurs.
as thermal infra-red, to identify higher than The chosen option will depend largely on
ambient temperatures in the dump; the water’s suitability for use on site and the
• in-situ temperature sensing; characteristics of the receiving waterbody.
waste dumps
TABLE 11.1: Prevention and Remedial Strategies for Acid Drainage

Control of Acid Generation
• pre-treatment to remove or exclude sulphide minerals
• use of an impermeable cover to exclude rainfall infiltration and oxygen
• waste segregation and blending to control pH
• use of bactericides to control bacterial oxidation of sulphide minerals
• avoid exposing reactive minerals to atmospheric conditions by modifying
the mine plan or avoid mining sections of the deposit
Control of Acid Migration

• use of covers and seals to exclude infiltration
• controlled placement of waste to minimise infiltration
• interception and diversion of surface and groundwater
Collection and Treatment of Acid Drainage

• use of a physical and/or chemical treatment system
• use of biological treatment systems such as wetlands
Modified from Hutchinson and Ellison (1992)
11.4.3 SUSPENDED SOLIDS • heavy metals which may be dissolved

by acid forming processes; and
Common techniques used to control sediment
runoff from waste dumps have been outlined • acid and alkaline waste streams from
in Sections 11.2.2 and 11.2.4. Further naturally forming inorganic acids and
techniques applicable to erosion control and the natural carbonates or alkaline silicates.
rehabilitation of waste rock dumps are provided Specific treatment of these waste streams may
in Fact Sheet No.8 and AMIC (1990). be required, and special disposal techniques
11.4.4 LEACHATE AND OTHER CONSTITUENTS may be needed for sediment derived from these
materials and deposited in sedimentation dams.
Additional contaminants that may emanate
from waste rock dumps include:
• asbestos fibres from naturally occurring minerals;

• soluble cations and anions such as
chlorides, sulphates and carbonates;
12. Tailings Water Management
All tailings disposal systems require management of • co-disposal of tailings which is the combined
the water component in the tailings. Management disposal of coarse rejects material and fine
strategies are closely linked with the method of tailings usually by combined slurry pumping.
disposal, design of containment facilities and the The mixture produces a stable landform at
potential for impacts both on and off the site. the point of disposal with major advantages
for rehabilitation. Significantly larger volumes
of water are required than for conventional
12.1 Disposal Methods
tailings disposal. The advantages of co-disposal
are the stable ongoing and end landform, the
Tailings disposal methods can be
reduction in area for waste disposal, the potential
separated into four major categories:
for recycling most of the discharge water and
• saturated tailings management, where the fewer environmental impacts. The technique
tailings are transported and discharged as does require large volumes of water, and there
a slurry. The saturated tailings are held in a are greater potential seepage losses and large
dedicated containment area where gravity recycling pumps are required to return the
separation isolates a percentage of the water water for the ongoing co-disposal process.
from the tailings solids. As deposition of Co-disposal techniques are being used at coal
the tailings is in a wet slurry, tailings beach mines but are also applicable to metalliferous
slopes are flat and, consequently, large mines where there is a rejects component that,
containment areas required. To minimise storage when combined with tailings will produce
requirements, the separated water should a well graded stable in-situ landform.
always be recycled as much as possible; In all these processes, the effectiveness of the
• semi dry or thickened tailings management, dewatering processes is a function of local
which involves discharging the tailings to a conditions, the type of waste solids, size distribution,
containment area at higher solids content statutory requirements and economics.
than the saturated tailings management.
It is critical for the rehabilitation of tailings facilities
Depending upon the stacking characteristics
that the disposal and decommissioning methods
of the particles in the tailings, higher beaching
are compatible and decided upon in the planning
slopes are possible, with resulting smaller
stage. For example, if a tailings storage facility is
containment areas for tailings and decant water;
planned to be decommissioned by drying out the
• dry stacking, which permits the extraction surface and covering it with waste rock or other
of most of the water before deposition. This material to encourage revegetation, disposal of the
allows the solids to be transported into a tailings under water (sub-aqueous disposal) could
solids rejects dump from where they can be lead to poor settlement and ineffective drying of
taken to waste dump areas for contouring, the surface. Conversely, a facility which will be
topsoiling and revegetating; and decommissioned using a wet cover, typically used
tailings water management
to inhibit acid drainage, should not be • diversion of drainage from surrounding

operated with dry beaches where oxidation catchment areas in order to reduce
of the sulphides can take place. inflow as much as possible;
• the need for separate reservoirs for water
12.2 Characteristics and to be recycled eg. in co-disposal;
Management of Tailings Water • recycling of tailings decant water should
be encouraged as much as possible;
12.2.1 NATURE OF THE WATER
• tailings pipelines should be bunded and
The water used to transport tailings and co-disposal have collection sumps to contain spills
tailings or extracted during thickening of the waste from leaking or ruptured pipes;
becomes contaminated during the process. In some
• infiltration monitoring systems are
cases, such as in the goldfields of Western Australia,
required around the containment
the water itself is a risk to the environment because
site to detect contaminants escaping
of its hypersaline nature. Tailings water can be acid
from the impoundment; and
or alkaline, have elevated concentrations of heavy
metals or contain concentrations of cyanide which • discharge monitoring for disposal
can have considerable environmental impacts if it systems with continuous discharge
is released to the environment. It is important to of tailings liquor and/or solids.
characterise the tailings water through a monitoring
program and manage the water accordingly. 12.3 Seepage Management
In some cases, it may be necessary to treat the
water before disposal to the tailings storage Seepage can occur through the walls and through
facility. Denaturing or recovery of cyanide from the floor of a tailings storage facility (Figure 12.1).
gold process liquors is frequently practiced Infiltration through the floor of the tailings storage
in order to reduce costs and also to reduce facility usually decreases with time as tailings
the potential environmental impacts. are deposited in successive layers and form a
12.2.2 MANAGEMENT retardant to vertical flow. In the long-term, the
majority of tailings water seepage occurs through
The following are the key elements that need to
the dam wall and via infiltration through the
be considered in tailings water management:
ground surface on which the wall is built.
• the sensitivity of the containment area to
12.3.1 SEEPAGE CONTROL
infiltration and hence the requirements for
lining the storage area need to be evaluated; Seepage may be controlled to some extent by
constructing the tailings facility using permeable (for
• the ability of the storage area to contain
filter dam segments) and impermeable soils where
stormwater inflows should be assessed. The
applicable. In addition, geofabric liners may be used
potential impact of discharges from the tailings
to increase the insulation against seepage flow.
storage during storm events must be assessed.
This will necessitate a risk assessment (see Under-drains may be installed in the floor of the
Fact Sheet Nos 2 and 3) with a resulting facility before deposition of tailings in order to
design storm event for containment; collect and channel water to a collection system.
Similarly, interception drains and trenches may be
tailings water management
installed around the facility to collect seepage before as well as evaporation rates, are critical to
it can escape into the environment. In extreme cases, forming a water balance management scheme.
impervious slurry walls and interception systems
12.3.3 WATER CONTROL
have been installed in the preferred seepage paths to
prevent escape of potentially contaminated water into Tailings water control may be implemented
sensitive environments downstream of the facility. using containment measures such as:
12.3.2 MONITORING • sizing the TSF sufficiently to hold large volumes;
Monitoring of seepage flow through the wall • constructing filter dams to allow selective seepage
of a tailings storage facility (TSF) is readily of water into retention ponds or evaporation
accomplished using piezometers to determine ponds. Water extracted in this way may be more
the geometry of the phreatic surface (Figure acceptable for recycling in processing plants;
12.1). This may be translated to seepage flow • staging of containment wall construction to
rates using standard groundwater flow theory. facilitate drainage from the co-disposal area;
It is also common practice to install piezometers • sizing and locating outlet structures
around the base of the impoundment wall in order to hydraulically control discharges
to detect seepage escape into shallow aquifers under from the storage; and
the facility. Such piezometers should be installed • sizing evaporation ponds to reduce
in appropriate locations so as to be able to detect a water levels at sufficiently high rates.
contamination front moving from the impoundment
early enough to take remedial action. Indicator The re-use of tailings water is often limited
elements should be determined from a knowledge because of specific water quality requirements
of the chemical composition of the tailings water. of the process. In general, the characteristics
of tailings water is process-specific, as is the
Water balance monitoring of TSFs enhances the acceptability of tailings water for re-use.
overall understanding of the site water circuit.
Monitoring should be carried out within the tailings
pond, in the dam wall and in any downstream
evaporation ponds. Adequate knowledge of
tailings settlement and water retention in voids,
13. Mine Infrastructure
Water is essential for many aspects of a mining 13.1.1 CHARACTERISTICS

operation. As well as the core function of extracting
The process plant and associated ore stockpile area
the ore, virtually every other part of the mining
can be a source of the following contaminants:
infrastructure uses water in some way. After coming
in contact with the operations, this water can pick up • suspended sediment;
contamination. It is important to be aware that this • oils and greases;
contamination can exist, and of ways to minimise it.
• process reagents;
Water used in these support functions needs to be
managed in the same way as other water on the site. • increased dissolved and particulate
metals resulting from the dissolution
This section examines three main areas of an
of metalliferous minerals;
operation where good water management
is essential. It is important to ensure that all • strong mineral acids and bases such
operators are aware of the potential environmental as sulphuric acid and lime; and
impacts from failure to follow procedures, • nutrients from residual nitrates from blasting.
and that they are adequately trained in the
13.1.2 CONTAINMENT AND
operation of all pollution control systems.
TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
Remedial measures and technologies available

13.1 Process Plant for the containment and treatment of
contaminants from the process plant include:
Water used in a process plant is normally
confined within its designated piping and storage • improved housekeeping strategies to identify
facilities. It is only through washdown, pipe the locations of spillage (eg. conveyor
ruptures, spillages and overflows from process transfer points) and the implementation
water tanks and dams that significant volumes of appropriate remedial measures;
of process water can enter receiving waters. • bunding of all process chemical storage
areas and the interception and treatment of
The quality of surface runoff from the process
all stormwater from within these areas;
plant is dependent on the type of ore being
processed and the metallurgical process adopted, • drainage of all process plant runoff
eg. flotation, beneficiation, cyanide leaching. to a central treatment facility (eg.
sedimentation or evaporation pond);
A risk analysis and the associated contingency
plans should be undertaken at the planning • provision of quiescent conditions in retention
stage. Engineering solutions should be ponds to enable settlement of fine grained
commensurate with the level of acceptable sediment. More rapid settling can be
risk, safety hazards and environmental harm achieved using a flocculent such as alum;
which could result from an event.
mine infrastructure
• pH correction using lime dosing or other • construction of the facilities to collect and
suitable material may be necessary if the contain minor spillages outside the bunded
retention pond water is acidic or incompatible area during refuelling operations; and
with receiving water quality; and • diversion of oil contaminated bund water
• interception and treatment of stormwater collected during rain events through oil
runoff containing hydrocarbons through a interception or separation facilities.
oil-water separation facility or alternatively, Workshop and Truck Washdown Areas
materials contaminated with hydrocarbons
may well be suited to treatment using General principles of design and
Bioremediation Technology (Fact Sheet No.9). operation of these areas include:
The treatment of soluble contaminants is • better control of hydrocarbons, eg.

dependent on the volume and quality of the waste central bulk storage and reticulation
stream. Wastewater or contaminated runoff can throughout the workshop rather than
be diverted to a retention pond, tailings storage the use of 20 or 200 L drums;
facility or evaporation pond. Some waste streams • design of dispensing facilities to
may require more advanced forms of treatment prevent drips and spillage;
such as activated carbon or ion exchange.
• covering of the working area to prevent
storm water picking up contaminants;
13.2 Industrial and Workshop Areas • installing a drainage system to separate clean
and contaminated water streams from within
The industrial area and its associated workshops and surrounding all workshop areas;
can be a frequent source of contaminants such
• diversion of oil contaminated water to a
as lubrication oils, greases, solvents, surfactants
separation system, which can range from simple
(water and solvent based products), suspended
concrete sumps through to more sophisticated
solids from vehicles, atmospheric sources, spillage,
mechanical systems such as coalescing plate
and metal shavings from lathes. Stormwater runoff
separators, skimmers and centrifugal separators;
is the major transport route of these pollutants
to local watercourses and receiving waters. • use of dry cleaning methods such as industrial
vacuum cleaners and absorbents rather than
13.2.1 CONTAINMENT AND
water to clean floors and other surfaces;
TREATMENT TECHNOLOGIES
• phasing out of solvents for cleaning applications
Fuel Storage Areas
in favour of new generation water-based
General principles for the design and detergents, suitable for the cleaning of
operation of storage areas include: hydrocarbons soiled equipment (solvents are
more difficult to treat and remove in wash
• bunding to the appropriate Australian
water than heavy lubricating oils); and
Standards in order to contain spillages;
• more effective dispensing, mixing and
• frequent inspection of storage tanks
use of detergents by operators, which
and piping for corrosion and any above
can also reduce consumption.
ground and underground leaks;
mine infrastructure
13.3 Haul Roads course layer. This will minimise the potential
for saturation of this layer (Figure 13.1).
Controlled drainage from haul roads is essential
It is preferable to direct drains off the
for the maintenance of the road integrity for
haul road at cut and fill interfaces or
haul truck usage. The drainage systems have
otherwise down batter slopes at designated
environmental impacts in terms of both the
locations via erosion protected chutes;
structures adopted and the quality of the drainage
waters collected for disposal. Both surface and • if the grade of the road exceeds 2-3%, erosion
groundwater drainage issues should be addressed. protection along side drains may be required to
prevent undercutting of the pavement layers.
13.3.1 ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
The erosion protection may be in the form of
Haul roads are potentially a source of contamination lining (rocks, concrete, synthetic materials)
in water, notably from suspended particulate or barriers for inducing flatter slopes; and
matter. Any spillage of mined material onto the • haul road drainage crossings should be through
road surface is a source of these particulates culverts, with attention given to upstream and
and, depending on its nature, also a source of downstream erosion protection. Appropriate
chemical contamination. Any pyrite present in slopes and surface level designs are necessary
the ore or waste could oxidise, leading to acid to facilitate sediment movement without
drainage and mobilisation of heavy metals. deposition and consequent culvert blockages.
It is important to ensure that, wherever possible, 13.3.3 GROUNDWATER DRAINAGE
haul roads are constructed of material which will
Groundwater investigations will reveal the necessity
not lead to further environmental impacts.
for any groundwater drainage systems. The primary
There are recorded instances where materials purpose of groundwater drainage systems associated
used in the construction of haul roads with haul roads is to minimise the potential for
have led to environmental contamination saturation of the haul road sections and possible
along the entire length of a road. failure. The environmental consequences of such
13.3.2 SURFACE WATER DRAINAGE failures can extend to washouts of the road with
excessive sediment loads and destruction of the
The important elements in surface water
integrity of the surface water drainage systems.
drainage on haul roads include:
Typical groundwater protection mechanisms include:
• water must be cleared from the pavement or
wearing surface quickly to avoid excessive • slotted pipes in gravel beds;
soaking of the surface base course layer and • rock fill “pipes”;
without creating deeply incised scour paths.
• rock fill blankets to facilitate both the
Generally; maximum cross fall slopes of 3%
construction and haul road operation;
will facilitate both these criteria (Figure 13.1);
• synthetic geotextile materials to separate
• side drains are required to catch surface water
layers and provide strength; and
from the pavement and runoff from cut bank
slopes. The side drains should be sized such • dewatering by mechanical means
that the design flow depth is no higher than the (pumps) in extreme cases.
underside of the pavement top course or base
mine infrastructure
References
AMEEF (1996). Environmental Management in the DME (nd). Groundwater Quality and Water
Australian Minerals and Energy Industries. Well Maintenance. Information Sheet No. 10,
Ed. David Mulligan. Department of Mines & Energy, South Australia.
AMIC (1990) Mine Rehabilitation Handbook. Minerals EPA (1995). Environmental Monitoring and
Council of Australia, Canberra (under revision 1997). Performance. One Module in a series on
Best Practice Environmental Management in
Anderson, M.P. & Woessner, W.W. (1992). Applied
Mining. Environment Australia, Canberra.
Groundwater Modelling; Simulation of Flow and Advective
Transport. 381pp, Academic Press, New York. EPA (1997) Managing Sulphidic Mine Wastes
and Acid Drainage. One module in a series of
ANZECC (1992). Australian Water Quality
Best Practice Environmental Management in
Guidelines for Fresh and Marine Waters. Australian
Mining. Environment Australia, Canberra.
& New Zealand Environment & Conservation
Council (under revision 1997-98). Faust, S.D. & Aly, O.M. (1983). Chemistry of Water
Treatment. 723 pp, Butterworths, Boston USA.
APHA (1994). Standard Methods for the Examination of
Water and Wastewater. 18th Edition. Washington, USA. Fetter, C.W. (1994). Applied Hydrology. 3rd. Ed.
MacMillan College Publishing Co., New York.
AWRC (1992). Draft Guidelines for Groundwater
Protection. Australian Water Resources Council. Haan, C.T. (1994). Design Hydrology and Sedimentology
for Small Catchments. Academic Press, USA.
Bedient, P.B., Rifai, H.S. & Newell C.J. (1994).
Groundwater Contamination; Transport and Hart, B.T. (1974). A Compilation of Australian Water
Remediation. 541pp, Prentice Hall, New Jersey. Quality Criteria. AWRC Technical Paper No.7,
Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra.
Bureau of Meteorology (1994). The Estimation of
Probable Maximum Precipitation in Australia: Generalised Hart, B.T. (1982). Australian Water Criteria for Heavy
Short Duration Method. Bulletin 53, December 1994. Metals. AWRC Technical Paper No. 77, Australian
Australian Government Publishing Service, Canberra. Government Publishing Service, Canberra.
Chow, VT. (1973). Open Channel Hydraulics. Hutchinson, I. & Ellison, R. (1992). Mine
Intl. Student Ed. McGraw-Hill, Tokyo, Japan. Waste Management: A Resource for Mining
Industry Professionals, Regulators and Consulting
DEH (1995). Water Quality Sampling
Engineers. Lewis Publishers, USA.
Manual- For Use in Testing Compliance with the
Environmental Protection Act 1994. Department
of Environment & Heritage, Queensland.
DME (1995). Technical Guidelines for the Environmental

Management of Exploration and Mining in Queensland.
Department of Minerals & Energy, Queensland.
references
International Organisation for Standardisation Shaus, E.M. (1994). Hydrology in Practice.

(1994). ISO Standards Compendium (Environment 3rd Edition. Chapman Hall.
- Water Quality): Volume 1 - General; Volume 2-
Smith, A. & Mudder, T. (1991). The Chemistry
Chemical Methods; Volume 3 - Physical, biological and
and Treatment of Cyanidation Wastes. Mining
microbiological methods. First Edition. Switzerland.
Journal Books Limited, London.
Kinori, B.Z. & Mevorach, J. (1984) Manual
Vick, S.G. (1983). Planning, Design and
of Surface Drainage Engineering, Vol II.
Analysis of Tailings Dams. Wiley
Stream Flow Engineering and Flood Protection.
Elsevier, Amsterdam The Netherlands. Williams, R.E., Winter, G.V., Bloomsburg, G.L.
& Ralston, D.R. (1986). Mine Hydrology. 169pp,
Nelson, K. D. (1991). Design and Construction of
Society of Mining Engineers, Colorado.
Small Earth Dams. Inkata Press, Melbourne.
NH&MRC (1994). Draft - Australian

Drinking Water Guidelines. National Health
& Medical Research Council, Canberra.
Pilgrim & Cordery (eds) (1987). Australian

Rainfall and Runoff. Institution of Engineers,
Australia. (This document is revised regularly)
Glossary
Advection The process by which solutes are transported by the motion of flowing groundwater.
Anisotropy The condition under which one or more of the hydraulic properties of an aquifer vary
according to the direction of flow.
Antecedent conditions The moisture conditions existing in a catchment at the onset of a storm.
Aquifer Rock or sediment in a formation, group of formations, or part of a formation that is

saturated and sufficiently permeable to transmit economic quantities of water to wells
and springs.
Aquifer, confined An aquifer that is overlain by a confining bed. The confining bed has a significantly
lower hydraulic conductivity than the aquifer.
Aquifer, perched A region in the unsaturated zone where the soil may be locally saturated because it
overlies a low-permeability unit.
Aquifer, unconfined An aquifer in which there are no confining beds between the zone of saturation and
the surface. There will be a water table in an unconfined aquifer. Watertable aquifer is
a synonym.
ARI - (Average The average or expected value of the period between exceedances of a given event
Recurrence Interval) (eg. rainfall, discharge etc.).
This period is a randomly distributed variable.
Bailer A device used to withdraw a water sample from a small diameter well or piezometer.
A bailer typically is a piece of pipe attached to a wire and having a check valve in
the bottom.
Basecourse A layer of granular fill material constituting the uppermost structural element of a
road pavement immediately below the wearing course.
Capillary zone The zone immediately above the water table, where water is drawn upward by
capillary attraction.
Capture trench A trench which extends below the water table and into which the
groundwater drains.
Catchment The area which drains into a given stream or dam by way of natural ground slopes or
constructed drainage systems.
Clean water Surface runoff which has not picked up any solid or dissolved pollutants through
contact with disturbed or contaminated surfaces.
glossary
Co-disposal The combined disposal of tailings and coarse reject material.
d/s Down stream (eg. d/s of a dam).
Dewatering The process of removing water from a given source (eg. pit dewatering,
aquifer dewatering).
Diffusion The process by which both ionic and molecular species dissolved in water move from
areas of higher concentration to areas of lower concentration.
Dirty water Surface runoff which has picked up solid or dissolved pollutants through contact
with disturbed or polluted surfaces.
Drawdown A lowering of the water table of an unconfined aquifer or the potentiometric surface
of a confined aquifer caused by pumping of groundwater from wells.
Finite-difference model A digital computer model based upon a rectangular grid that sets the boundaries of
the model and the nodes where the model will be solved.
Finite-element model A digital ground-water-flow model where the aquifer is divided into a mesh formed
of a number of polygonal cells.
Gabion A flexible wire basket filled with stones and used to retain earth and sediment or to
control scour.
(Typical size: 1m wide x 1m high x 2m long)
Geotextile, geofabric, Any permeable synthetic textile material, fabric or net used with earth, soil, rock or
geosynthetic material foundations as an integral part of an engineering structure. Mainly used to improve
structural and/or hydraulic properties of soil, to reinforce or stabilise embankments,
as a filter layer in drainage applications or for erosion control.
Groundwater The water contained in interconnected pores located below the water table in an
unconfined aquifer or located in a confined aquifer.
Groundwater, confined The water contained in a confined aquifer. Pore water pressure is greater than
atmospheric at the top of the confined aquifer.
Groundwater, perched The water in an isolated, saturated zone located in the zone of aeration. It is the result
of the presence of a layer of material of low hydraulic conductivity, called a perching
bed. Perched groundwater will have a perched water table.
Groundwater, The water in an aquifer where there is a water table.

unconfined
Grout curtain An underground wall designed to stop ground waterflow; can be created by injecting
grout into the ground, which subsequently hardens to become impermeable.
Heterogeneous Pertaining to a substance having different characteristics in different locations.

A synonym is non-uniform.
glossary
Homogeneous Pertaining to a substance having identical characteristics everywhere.

A synonym is uniform.
Hydraulic conductivity A coefficient of proportionality describing the rate at which water can move through
a permeable medium. The density and kinematic viscosity of the water must be
considered in determining hydraulic conductivity.
Hydraulic gradient The change in total head with a change in distance in a given direction.
The direction is that which yields a maximum rate of decrease in head.
Hydraulic radius A measure of waterway geometry used in hydraulic calculations. The cross sectional
area of flow in a drain or pipe divided by the wetted perimeter (ie. length of wetted
surface) perpendicular to the direction of flow.
Hydrogeology The study of the interrelationships of geologic materials and processes with water,
especially groundwater.
Hydrologic cycle The circulation of water from the oceans and other waterbodies through the
atmosphere to the land and ultimately back to the ocean.
Hydrology The study of the occurrence, distribution and chemistry of all waters of the earth.
Infiltration The flow of water downward from the land surface into and through the upper
soil layers.
Isotropy The condition in which hydraulic properties of the aquifer are equal in all directions.
Laminar flow That type of flow in which the fluid particles follow paths that are smooth, straight,
and parallel to the channel walls. In laminar flow, the viscosity of the fluid damps out
turbulent motion. Contrast with turbulent flow.
Manning's coefficient (n) A dimensionless value defining the roughness of a surface (eg. pipe wall or sides
of a drain) with regards to water running across that surface. Used in hydraulic
calculations such as Mannings equation.
Manning’s equation A formula used for calculating the flow in a given waterway (eg. pipe or open
channel drain).
Model calibration The process by which the independent variables of a digital computer model are
varied in order to calibrate a dependent variable (eg. head) against a known value (eg.
water table).
Model verification The process by which a digital computer model that has been calibrated against a
steady-state condition is tested to see if it can generate a transient response, such as
the decline in the water table with pumping, that matches the known history of
the aquifer.
Numerical model A model of groundwater flow in which the aquifer is described by numerical
equations with specified values for boundary conditions that are solved on a
digital computer.
glossary
Phreatic surface “Free” surface of groundwater; pressures are equal to atmospheric along this surface.
Piezometer A non pumping well, generally of small diameter, that is used to measure the
elevation of the water table or potentiometric surface. A piezometer generally has a
short well screen through which water can enter.
Piezometric head Pressure head experienced by a given body of water, comprising both static levels and
inertial forces.
Piping failure Failure of an earth dam wall caused by excessive seepage of water through the
embankment.
PMF - (Probable The flood caused by runoff water from the probable maximum precipitation.
maximum flood)
PMP - (Probable The greatest depth of precipitation for a given duration meteorologically possible for
maximum precipitation) a given size storm area at a particular location at a particular time of year.
Porosity The ratio of the volume of void spaces in a rock or sediment to the total volume of
the rock or sediment.
Recharge The process of replenishment of a water resource (recharging of aquifer, recharge

of dam).
Rational method A procedure for calculating the peak discharge from a small to medium sized
catchment, resulting from a storm of a given ARI and duration.
Reno mattress A low profile flexible wire basket filled with stones and used to control scour.
(Typical size: 2 m wide x 6 m long x 0.3 m deep)
Revetment mattress A hard surface armouring formed by using pocketed pervious fabric filled with
concrete. Used to control scour.
Rip Rap Irregular rocks of medium to large size, used for the lining of embankments, drainage
channels, dam spillways etc. for prevention of erosion.
Runoff The total amount of water flowing in a stream. It includes overland flow, return flow,
interflow and baseflow.
Sediment barriers Structures placed in a drainage channel to promote settling out of sediment until a
stable flow slope is achieved between each barrier. Used for erosion prevention.
Sediment fence / A low fence of woven geotextile designed to filter suspended solids from overland
silt fence flow, (sheetflow). Used for containment of sediment in disturbed areas.
Seepage Common term for groundwater flow, encompassing the characteristic “slow flow”
processes (see laminar flow).
Sheet piling Physical barrier applied by driving solid sheets of impermeable material into
the ground.
glossary
Slurry wall An underground wall designed to stop groundwater flow; constructed by digging a
trench and backfilling it with a slurry rich in bentonite clay.
Soil matrix Skeletal structure of soil, within which “honeycombs” of pores exist.
... % Standard An earthworks term used to specify the amount of compaction effort required (or
compaction compaction achieved) in engineered earthworks.
Surface water Water found in ponds, lakes, inland seas, streams and rivers.
Time of concentration The time required for rain falling at the farthest point of the catchment to flow to the
point at which the discharge is being calculated. Used in hydrology calculations such
as the Rational Method.
u/s Up stream (eg. u/s of a dam).
Water table The surface in an unconfined aquifer or confining bed at which the pore water
pressure is atmospheric. It can be measured by installing shallow wells extending a
few feet into the zone of saturation and then measuring the water level in those wells.
Wetlands Areas where water is over or near the ground surface for long enough each year to
maintain saturated soil conditions along with related vegetation (eg. marshes,
bogs, swamps etc.).
FA C T S H E E T N O . 1
Field Record Data Sheets
Example of Sampling Report Form for Marine Waters

Site Site Code
Date Time
Latitude Longitude
Site Description
HYDROGRAPHIC CONDITIONS
Tidal Currents: Direction Approx. velocity
Time of high water Time of low water
WEATHER CONDITIONS
Wind Direction Force
Cloud cover State of sea
Depth Temperature Salinity Dissolved Oxygen Sample

(m) (ºC) (% sat.)
Number Time
Sampling method
Analysis profiles
Remarks
Sampler Signature Date
MODIFIED FROM IS0 STD 5667-9:1992 (E)
Example of Sampling Report Form for Groundwaters

Site Site Code
Date Time
PUMPING DETAILS
Height of riser/bore pipe above ground level (m)
Water level within aquifer (before pumping) (m)
Water level within aquifer (after pumping) (m)
Pumping Time
Volume Extracted (estimated)
SAMPLING DETAILS
Time: Start End of sampling
Depth of sampling
Sampling method
Sample appearance
Details of preservation techniques employed
Details of sample storage method employed/required
Remarks
Example of Sampling Report Form for Surface Waters

(LAKES, STREAMS, WATER STORAGES AND TAILINGS DAMS)
Site Site Code
Date Time
Site Description
Water Depth Volume

Time: Start End of sampling
Sampling method
DEPTH-INTEGRATED SAMPLE
Withdrawal between and m
OBSERVATIONS AT THE SAMPLING POINT

Turbidity, caused by sediment particles /plankton
Colour Odour
Water plants
Estimation of the discharge of the streams/river: (high/medium/low)
LOCAL WEATHER CONDITIONS

Air temperature
Wind force
Direction of wind
Cloudiness (%)
Remarks
Example of Sampling Report Form for Domestic and Industrial Wastewater

Site Site Code
Date Time
Sample method: Grab
Composite-time dependent
Equipment Used
Interval of flow between samples min or m3

Volume of grab samples mL
Sampling started Sampling ended
Preservation method
FIELD MEASUREMENTS
Test Result Unit Time
Remarks

Estimation of Surface Runoff
This fact sheet examines surface runoff processes overlying an impervious or rock layer, or where the
and techniques used to estimate total catchment groundwater level is very near the surface (eg. at
runoff and peak flows generated by runoff for valley bottoms or near streams) it will not take long to
small to medium sized ‘non urbanised’ catchments saturate the surface soil. Once this occurs, infiltration
(< 250 km2). Accurate estimation of these quantities ceases and water will flow over the surface as
depends on a large number of site characteristics. saturated overland flow. Alternatively in sandy areas,
Hence it is not within the scope of this handbook or areas of deep permeable soil overlying impervious
to give precise techniques for every region in layers, water can rapidly flow downslope through the
Australia. Instead, the general principles will soil and percolate out of the soil when it intercepts
be discussed and references provided to locate a saturated zone. This is known as interflow and is
the information specific to a given region. differentiated from groundwater flow by the speed
with which it reports to watercourses. The efficiency
of these runoff processes is again dependant on soil
Runoff Processes
types, as well as rainfall intensity, the geology of the
area, catchment slopes and groundwater levels.
Losses: When rain falls on a catchment surface,
a portion of it will be held back as ‘losses’ before Design losses: When estimating total or peak
the remaining ‘excess rainfall’ reports to streams runoff values it is necessary to estimate the losses,
or drainage channels as surface runoff. The losses as it is only the rainfall excess which contributes
combine a number of rainfall and interception to the runoff. With losses depending on so many
mechanisms. In the early stages of a storm, much site specific variables it is almost impossible to
of the rain is intercepted by trees, grass and other realistically model the processes. Even within a
plants and stored on leaves and branches etc. as Single small catchment there will be a large number
interception storage. When these stores are full, of sub areas responding differently due to varying
water will reach the ground surface and commence physical characteristics. To simplify matters, a
filling small depressions. As these fill and overflow, number of methods have been developed for
large depressions begin to fill until this depression applying general losses across a whole catchment.
storage is full and overland flow commences. A full discussion of these methods, along with
There are continuing losses through infiltration typical loss values for regions throughout Australia
into the soil which starts at a high rate if the soil can be found in Chapter 6 of Australian Rainfall and
is initially dry and then rapidly decreases until Runoff 1987 (AR&R). The simplest and most popular
approaching a steady rate known as the infiltration of these methods are (refer to Figure FS 2.1):
capacity of the soil. Evaporation from the vegetation
(i) Constant fraction (proportional losses/
and ground surfaces will also contribute to the
runoff coefficients): Loss is assumed
losses. From this discussion it can be seen that
to be a constant fraction of the rainfall.
losses (and hence rainfall excess) are affected by
This can be viewed in two ways:
vegetation type and density, soil type and degree
of disturbance, catchment slope and the number a) A runoff coefficient (ie. 0.7) is applied to
and efficiency of watercourses in the catchment. the rainfall. If a catchment large distinct
areas (ie. undisturbed, stockpiles, sealed
Runoff types: Once losses have been absorbed
areas etc.) then a different coefficient
there are two major runoff routes by which water
can be applied to sub areas; and
reaches watercourses. In areas where soil is thinly
b) If a predictable proportion of the catchment

is known to become saturated during rain
then this area can be viewed as the proportion
of the catchment contributing runoff.
(ii) Constant loss rate: If a catchment has
minimal interception or depression storage
and the infiltration into the soil is fairly
constant (ie. if the catchment is already
wet from previous antecedent rain) then a
constant loss rate matching the infiltration
capacity of the soil is a valid approach.
(iii) Initial loss - constant loss rate: In line with
the above discussion of interception losses
through vegetation and depression storage,
followed by ongoing losses due to soil
infiltration and evaporation, is the concept
of having no runoff until an initial loss is
satisfied and then having a constant loss rate
for the remaining duration of the rain.
As well as AR&R there are many other sources of
information for loss values applicable to an area:
• Consulting engineers/hydrologists;
• State government water resources departments;
• State government mining departments;
• State government agriculture/primary
industries/forestry etc. departments;
• Local Landcare groups; and
• Local government engineers.
To obtain accurate estimates of losses it is important
to note that there is no substitute for site measured
data. A historical record of rainfall and streamflow
(or dam levels, releases and overflows) will enable
a hydrologist or engineer to develop much more
accurate versions of the above loss models.
Estimating Total Runoff Detailed discussions of estimation procedures can be

found in AR&R. For typical mine catchments,
the best method to obtain a quick estimate is
The total volume of runoff (saturated overland flow
the rational method which is of the form:
and interflow) from a catchment is important when
examining overall site water balances or storage QY = 0.278. CY. Itc, Y . A (Eqn 5.1 AR&R)
capacities required for water supply dams etc. The where
general procedure is to simply apply rainfall from
the period of interest (eg. a single storm, a typical • QY = Peak flow rate (m3/s) of average
year or a long sequence of wet or dry years) to recurrence interval (ARl) of Y years
the catchment, subtract the appropriate losses as • CY = Runoff coefficient (dimensionless)
discussed previously and assume the excess rainfall for ARI of Y years
reports as runoff to a stream, dam or pond. (The • A = Area of catchment (km2)
long-term processes of evaporation and seepage
losses from a storage area must also be taken into • Itc, Y = Average rainfall intensity (mm/h) for the
account for long-period water balances.) The rainfall design duration of tc hours and ARI of Y years.
data required is discussed in Fact Sheet No. 10: The way to use the rational method is as follows:
Hydrological Data for Design Purposes. Computer
• first decide on the appropriate risk level, hence
programs are available for applying long-term
selecting the average recurrence interval of
daily rainfall records to a catchment, varying the
storm to be used (refer to Fact Sheet No.3);
loss values to suit historical stream flows or dam
levels. These can be used for projecting catchment • the duration of storm to give the worst flood
yields into the future to examine water storage and is then selected. The principle here is that
recycling opportunities. One such model gaining the shorter the storm the higher the intensity
popularity in Australia is the AWBM model. will be for a given ARI. However, if too short
a time is used then runoff from far reaches
of the catchment will not have had a chance
Estimating Peak Flows to contribute to the flow. Hence the critical
duration, known as the time of concentration
As discussed throughout this handbook, tc, is selected as the time required for the
interception drainage, erosion protection, settling most remote part of the catchment to begin
ponds and essential drainage infrastructure (eg. contributing to runoff at the point of interest.
culverts, spillways etc.) must all be carefully Different methods for calculating tc are
designed to suit the expected peak flow presented in AR&R for various regions in
they are expected to experience. A confident Australia. Most of these depend on stream
estimate of this flow is essential to: lengths and typical catchment slopes;
a) prevent under designing drainage • determine the average rainfall intensity
infrastructure, which may result in damage (mm/hour) associated with the selected ARI
and hence disruptions to mine operations and and tc. Intensity; duration, and frequency
ongoing repair and upgrade works; and rainfall curves for the specific minesite will
b) avoid over designing, which is be required. These can be developed using
of course uneconomical. guidelines in AR&R or can be obtained
through the Bureau of Meteorology.
They will simply need the longitude and latitude Before it is possible to calculate peak flows, it is
of the minesite (refer to Fact Sheet No. 10); necessary to determine the probable maximum
• calculate the runoff coefficient for the site using precipitation for the given area. For small
the methods defined in AR&R for each region areas and short-duration storms the Bureau of
within Australia, or if available using values Meteorology has published an upgraded method
developed for your specific area and type of land of calculating PMP in Bulletin 53 (December 1994)
use. (Neighbouring mines, land care groups, The Estimation of Probable Maximum Precipitation
soil conservation departments or universities in Australia: Generalised Short Duration Method.
involved in runoff management in your area may For larger areas or long storms, the Bureau will
have previously developed such coefficients); and provide estimates of PMP for a set charge.
• measure the plan area (km2) of the catchment Once the PMP is determined, small losses are applied
feeding into the point of interest, taking into to determine the rainfall excess. The losses will
account pits, diversion drains, ridges etc. be small due to the high likelihood of antecedent
rainfall. It is suggested that values of zero or slightly
Having obtained all the above information, it can be
below the lowest specified loss values for the area
used in the previous equation to give the peak flow.
can be used. Having determined the rainfall excess,
it is then a matter of using methods as described
Probable Maximum Flows (PMF) above, or more complex flood routing techniques
(depending on catchment size and complexity)
When designing spillways on large dams or to determine the probable maximum flow (PMF).
examining major flood mitigation works where Section 13.4 of AR&R gives basic descriptions
lives may be at risk, it is usually wise to use the of the techniques used in such calculations.
maximum possible flow rate. This will ensure that
the given element is unlikely to ever fail. Due to
the importance of such calculations, experienced
engineers or hydrologists should be consulted
before using these flows for design purposes.
Understanding Event Probability
Water management is not an exact science as The AEP is often used for the probability expressions
rainfall is an integral part of the hydrological, and associated with large and extreme events and
therefore the water management, cycle. Just as some flood estimation methods. The AEP is
it is impossible to accurately predict quantities generally expressed as a fraction or percentage.
of rainfall, it is impossible to provide definitive
answers to most water management questions.
However, it is possible to define probabilities
Probability (P) of Exceedance in L Years
and risks of occurrence of particular events.
Probability of exceedance in L years is a descriptive
Care should be taken when communicating and
risk term that relates the event exceedance probability
interpreting probabilities and risks, and rigorous
to the design or useful life of the resource or
terminology should always be used. Probabilities
structure. In probability terms it can be expressed as:
and risks which are based on historical data carry an
implicit assumption that history will repeat itself. P = l-exp(–L/T
The following are more common risk terminologies where T is the ARI.
used in water management practices. More detailed
descriptions and understandings can be found in Probable Maximum Precipitation (PMP)
Australian Rainfall and Runoff 1987 (AR&R).
The probable maximum precipitation refers to the

Average Recurrence Interval (ARI) greatest depth of precipitation for a given duration
that is meteorologically possible for a given size
The average recurrence interval is the average storm area at a particular location at a particular
interval between exceedances of that value or event time of year. The Probable Maximum Flood (PMF)
when viewed in the long (ideally infinite) term. has a similar definition and is related directly
to the PMP (Also refer to Fact Sheet No.2.)
All data above an arbitrary base value are used
when ranking event values for determining the ARI. Due to the variable nature of the hydrological cycle,
The ARI is usually expressed in years. It should be the use of risk analyses and probabilities should
noted that, a rainfall (or flood) ARI of 100 years be encouraged in water management strategies.
does not imply the event will only occur every Where historical data are used to determine
100 years; it is also feasible that the event will these risks, care must be taken to include as
occur five times in five successive years and not much relevant historical data as are possible. This
occur for another 495 years. The terms “100 year reduces the element of skewing in risk analyses.
return interval” and “the one-in-hundred-year In this way, although absolute answers are rarely
storm” falsely advocate the former interpretation. available, water management strategies may be
assessed a logical and justifiable manner.
Annual Exceedance Probability (AEP) Because water management involves expressions
of risk, the impacts of failure must always be
The annual exceedance probability is the assessed. Where appropriate, contingency
probability of exceedance of a given event within failure strategies should be established and
a period of one year. It is based on data that uses regularly audited and monitored.
only the highest event in each year of record.
Understanding Event Probability
Sensitivity analyses provide means of assigning Where hydrological analyses are used in a water
boundaries or limits to water management scenarios management study, it should be clearly understood
by asking “what if...?” type questions. Sensitivity that a large proportion of the quantitative analyses
analyses should be carried out on parameters which is probabilistic only. The broad assumptions and
are thought to be important or on those which the extent to which historical data play a part are
are not very well understood, such as hydraulic documented in the industry standard AR&R. This
conductivity of soil, process plant water use etc. document should be referred to when a more detailed
understanding of event probability is required.
Open Channel Drains
The basic principles behind locating and sizing an Manning’s Equation:

open channel drain for normal depth flows are:
Q = A.R2/3S1/2
n
• determine the size of the catchment feeding
into the base of the proposed section of
where:
drain. On reasonable size catchments, it is
often worthwhile to separate the proposed Q = Flow (m3/s)
drain into sections. By doing this it may be A = Cross sectional area of flow (m2)
possible to have a smaller cross section in R = Hydraulic Radius (= A/WP)
the upper section of the drain which only
WP = Wetted perimeter; length in m of wetted
services the upper reaches of the catchment;
contact between water and the channel measured
• for a suitable ARI (commonly 5 to 20 yrs) at right angles to the direction of flow
calculate the peak flow in each section of
S = Slope of channel section (m/m)
the drain as described in Fact Sheet No.2;
n = Manning’s roughness coefficient.
• calculate the slope of the drain. If it is not
possible to achieve a uniform slope along the Typical values of Manning’s n are:
length of the drain it should again be separated Smooth concrete lining 0.014 - 0.018
into sections of similar average slope. (Note:
Smooth graded earth 0.025 - 0.03
Wherever possible the slope of the drain should
be in the range of 0.5% to 1.0% or to suit local Grass cover 0.04 - 0.06
soil conditions. This will drastically reduce the Rock lining 0.04 - 0.06
cost of erosion control measures. It is preferable
In uniform section open channels, regard for
to ‘snake’ drains down steep slopes rather than
flow and hydraulic radius should be considered
taking the shortest possible route;) and
for Manning’s n (refer Chow, 1973).
• having established the flows and slopes for
the proposed section of drain, a cross section
size can be calculated using the Manning’s
equation (shown below) with suitable roughness
coefficients. (Note: Roughness coefficients are
determined by the type of lining there is in the
drain, ie. a smooth bare earth channel will have a
low roughness coefficient while a channel lined with
large unevenly placed rocks or dense vegetation will
have a high roughness coefficient.) A freeboard
of between 100 and 300 mm is added to the
flow depth to give the design drain depth.
Open Channel Drains
The best method for using this equation is to trial

different drain cross sections and flow depths
until sufficient flow capacity is achieved.
• As an iterative procedure with the previous

step, the type of erosion protection to be
used in the drain should be decided at this
stage. As described in Fact Sheet No.8, a
different level of protection is required as the
flow velocities increase; however the erosion
protection method will also affect the flow
velocity (Q/A) hence the need for iteration.
• The following tips should be followed
for selecting a drain cross section:
– steep side slopes should be avoided
(2-3 H to 1 V recommended);
– the cross fall of the natural ground
will affect the actual slopes used;
– v-shape drains are recommended for minor
drains while trapezoidal shapes should be
used for large drains. The base width of a
trapezoidal drain should be sized to suit
earth moving equipment to be used;
– a contour drain should be cut into the
cross slope sufficiently to provide a
balance of cut to embankment fill; and
– embankments should be compacted to a
minimum 90% Standard Compaction.
Note: where large channels are required, expert
advice should be sought due to the potential
for backwater and downstream effects.
Construction of Small Earth Embankment Dams
The intent of this fact sheet is to allow the mine valley must remain stable when saturated
operator to build small earth dams (“farm dams”) to avoid land slips into the dam;
for minor or temporary water supply or to form • the foundations for the dam must be
part of a diversion drainage scheme. If the dam is sufficiently strong to support the embankment
an important water supply or flood mitigation tool without excessive settlement and must
then input from civil engineers and hydrologists be impervious to seepage. Stiff inorganic
is vital. The calculation of expected catchment clay is ideal while sedimentary rock can be
yields and flood flows are covered elsewhere in acceptable. Fractured igneous rock or deep
this handbook; hence this fact sheet will cover layers of sand and gravel should be avoided;
the selection of a dam site, dam design and
dam construction. The information in this fact • the availability of suitable material nearby
sheet is collated from the text Nelson (1991). is vital. Available quantities will determine the
type of embankment used as illustrated in the
attached table (Figure FS 5.1). Impervious
Selecting a Dam Site material for embankment construction should
contain 20%-30% clay with sand, silt and some
The easiest and most efficient dams involve gravel. No rocks greater than 75 mm size should
constructing an earth embankment across a small be present. As a safety factor, two to three times
valley. These are commonly known as gully dams and the expected quantities should be available; and
will be the focus here. Other types of small dams,
• a subsurface geotechnical investigation should
including hillside dams, turkeys nest ponds and
be carried out on favoured sites to assess the
excavated tanks, are feasible alternatives if a suitable
above factors as well as groundwater levels,
gully is not available, and involve many of the same
cutoff trench depths and borrow pit boundaries.
principles to be discussed. The important points to
The investigation should include excavated pits
consider when selecting a dam site are as follows:
along the dam centreline, spillway and in borrow
• minesite licence conditions should be checked areas followed by geotechnical testing of samples.
or local water resources authorities contacted to
ensure a dam is allowable under environmental, Dam Design
water use and dam safety restrictions;
• the storage volume should be selected Good design of the dam and spillway is vital to ensure
to suit the expected catchment runoff a stable embankment and to prevent failure due to
volumes. This will prevent excessive erosion or excessive seepage leading to piping failure.
earthworks or an eroded spillway; Piping failure results from seepage water transporting
• unless the dam is for sediment capture purposes, material out of the embankment causing a ‘pipe’
the upstream (u/s) catchment should not be which rapidly expands leading to massive failure. The
excessively disturbed. If this is unavoidable, basic geometric design principles for a stable dam
an u/s silt trap will have to be installed and are illustrated in Figure FS 5.1. The following points
constantly maintained (ie. emptied); should also be accounted for in the dam design.
• an ideal site is on a flat gradient watercourse • Cutoff excavations are used to prevent
in a wide flat-bottomed valley immediately seepage under the embankment by providing a
upstream of a narrow gorge. Sides of the impervious barrier linking the embankment to
impervious foundation material. It must be connected Dam Construction

directly to the impervious embankment material
and must be keyed into suitable foundation material
Good control of construction methods and
as shown in the table below. If a cutoff trench is
material condition is vital to achieve a water
impractical due to excessive depths, an effective
tight dam. The following construction phases
alternative where foundations are moderately
and guidelines should be adopted:
pervious is to use a clay blanket 0.6 m thick (approx.)
extended 35 m (approx.) u/s from the embankment. • prior to commencing construction of the
dam a surveyor should identify the extent of
Suitable foundation Required penetration Width of cutoff Batter slopes for

material (SFM) depth into SFM trench at base excavated trench
Clay 0.6 m 2.5 m minimum 1 :1
Rock 0.3 m 0.3 m vertical
inundation, the embankment centre line and

• Spillway flows must be diverted away from the
batter toe lines, the spillway and borrow pits;
downstream (d/s) toe of the embankment to
avoid erosion. A small return wall at the spillway • ensure the proper equipment is available.
may be required, as shown in the figure. If This should include scrapers and dozers for
continuous small flows are expected over the small embankments while larger projects will
spillway it is advisable to install a trickle pipe also require graders, rollers and water carts;
or a small flow channel just below the main • if the dam is located in a gully or stream
spillway level. This will prevent scour erosion. which flows regularly it will be necessary
• Outlet pipes are sometimes necessary to create to dewater the site. This is best achieved
a gravity supply, supply a pump, drain water using an upstream weir and a gravity drain
for dam maintenance, satisfy legal requirements which bypasses the dam. Groundwater in
or to allow the dam to be used as a flood flow trenches will need to be pumped out;
detention storage. If these requirements are • a reliable water supply is important if
not applicable it is best to avoid outlet pipes. the material used in the embankment
• Freeboard is required on dams to allow needs conditioning (ie. addition of
for uncertainties in flood flow estimation, water to allow proper compaction);
inaccuracies in construction and wave action. • the area to be inundated by the dam water
The heights shown on the figure assume must generally be cleared and grubbed. This
a maximum 500 mm flow depth over the includes removing all trees, shrubs, rocks and
spillway. If an alternative spillway arrangement any debris. This can be modified if aquatic
is used, the freeboard must be altered to suit. habitat is to be an ancillary function of the
storage. This should be burnt or pushed
downstream of the embankment. At the same
time the area under the embankment should
be cleared and have all topsoil stripped
(100 mm minimum) and stockpiled;
• the cutoff excavation should then be carried • outlet pipes, if required:

out and impervious material placed and – must only be placed in a trench cut into
compacted to bring the level back up to that of natural ground or compacted embankment.
the stripped foundation. The whole foundation The trench should be at least 100 mm
area is then lightly scarified (50 mm deep) in deeper than the pipe diameter;
preparation for construction of the embankment; – between three and six cutoff collars (1.2m x
• borrow pits should ideally be within the area 1.2m) shall be evenly spaced along the pipe
covered by the stored water. They should to prevent seepage of water along the pipe;
have side slopes of 3H:1V and should be – do not place pipes at the very base of the
positioned a minimum of 6 m away from the dam if sediment is likely to be a problem;
upstream toe of the dam embankment;
– it is advisable to include a trash
• embankment construction requires control of: rack at the inlet to the pipe;
– the moisture content of the embankment
material when placed must generally be within – valves should be placed at the
the range 3% dry to 2% wet of optimum discharge end or in a pit on the d/s
moisture content. This is the moisture content slope of the embankment; and
which allows the maximum density to be • topsoil to a depth of 100 to 150 mm
achieved by the compaction equipment used; minimum and good holding grass such
– the loose thickness of layers placed as kikuyu or couch should be placed over
should not exceed 100 mm if dozers the entire embankment (u/s and d/s) and
and scrapers are used for compaction spillway. This should be fertilised and
or 200 mm for sheepsfoot rollers; irrigated if necessary to ensure rapid growth
and hence immediate erosion prevention.
– the degree of compaction achieved should be
95% Standard Compaction or 90% Modified
Compaction. This will usually require between
four and eight passes with a sheepsfoot roller;
– batter slopes should be controlled using
a template (timber triangle with the
required horizontal and vertical length
ratios ie. 3H:1V) and spirit level;
• the spillway must be constructed absolutely
level to ensure there are no preferential
flow paths which will erode. When
cutting is complete the surface should be
topsoiled, grassed and compacted;
FIGURE FS 5.1
GEOMETRIC DESIGN CRITERIA

Dam Element Homogenous Zoned Dam Diaphragm Dam
HEIGHT OF DAM (m) 0-3 3-6 6-9 0-3 3-6 6-9 0-3 3-6 6-9
CREST WIDTH (m) 2.8 3.5 4 2.8 3.5 4 2.8 3.5 4
UPSTREAM BATTER SLOPE (H : V) 3:1 3:1 3.5:1 2:1 2.5:1 3:1 3:1 3:1 3.5:1
DOWNSTREAM BATTER SLOPE (H : V) 2.5:1 3:1 3:1 2:1 2.5:1 3:1 2.5:1 3:1 3:1
DIAPHRAGM THICKNESS ‘D’ (m) 0.6 0.85 1.1
(Perpendicular to dam face)
FREEBOARD (m) : FETCH < 1000 m 1.0 m - Assuming 0.5 m maximum spillover depth
FETCH > 1000 m 1.5 m - Assuming 0.5 m maximum spillover depth
SETTLEMENT ALLOWANCE (mm) 150 300 500 150 300 500 150 300 500
(Construction level above required
crest level)
SPILLWAY DESIGN
FLOOD FLOW MINIMUM MINIMUM OUTLET WIDTH (m)
INLET WIDTH (Various Return Slopes.)
(m3/s) (m) <5% 5-10% 10-15% 15-20% 20-25%
3 5.5 6.5 10 15 18 20
6 11 13 21 30 35 40
9 16.5 19 31 44 53 60
12 22 26 41 59 70 80
15 27.5 33 52 74 87 100
CONSTRUCTION MATERIAL
(in order of preference)
CODE DESCRIPTION
GC Clayey gravels
SC Clayey sands
CL Inorganic clays (Low liquid limit)
CH Inorganic clays (High liquid limit.)
GW Well graded gravels.
GP Poorly graded gravels
SW Well graded sands
SP Poorly graded sands
Culvert Crossings
Culverts are commonly used to provide road • headwater: the greater the level of water at the
crossings over drains or small creeks, and there is inlet to a culvert compared to the outlet, the
a wide variety of culvert shapes and materials that greater flow it will pass. It is generally acceptable
can be selected to best suit a particular application. to design culverts to flow with water up to a
The correct design and installation of these culvert level just below overtopping of the road (ie.
crossings will prevent blocked or eroded drainage 300 mm to 1.0 m), for the design peak flow;
channels as well as costly road repairs. There are • downstream depth: in contrast to the upstream
a number of areas that need to be addressed. depth, the normal depth of flow immediately
downstream from the culvert should be kept as
Flow Capacity low as possible to maximise the efficiency of the
culvert. To achieve this a deep or wide channel
The first and perhaps most obvious concern is to is advisable downstream of the culvert; and
construct a culvert which is large enough to pass • inlet design: the design of the inlet can greatly
the design flow without overtopping the road or affect the flow capacity of a culvert flowing under
embankment. It is not practical to design culverts inlet control. Greater flow can be achieved be
to take all possible flows; hence the designer must shaping the approach to the culvert to funnel
decide what risk level is acceptable for overtopping flow into the culvert. If the water entering
of the road and calculate a design flow of a suitable the culvert has a high suspended solids load,
ARI (refer to Fact Sheet Nos 2 and 3). A culvert it is important to keep this water moving
installation must then be sized to pass this flow. The through the culvert. Any ponding at the inlet
hydraulics of culverts are surprisingly complex and will inevitably result in the culvert becoming
rely greatly on the site conditions (ie. downstream blocked. To avoid this, drops or chutes can be
flow depths, culvert sizes, shapes, lengths and utilised to accelerate flow into the culvert.
slopes). It is not feasible to cover all possibilities
in this handbook; however suppliers of culverts, Inlet/Outlet Protection
State government roads departments, and many
open channel hydraulics text books provide charts
Flows forced through culverts with a high head
for determining the flow through various culverts.
water will accelerate into the pipe and can discharge
The basic controlling factors are as follows:
at a high velocity. High levels of turbulence will also
• inlet/outlet control: a culvert which is able result from water spreading out into basic channel
to pass water at a greater rate than is being flow again. To ensure that this high energy flow
supplied is said to be flowing with inlet control. does not cause massive erosion at the inlet and
If the culvert inlet geometry, flow resistance outlet and under scour of the pipe it is important to
or depth of water in the downstream channel provide erosion protection. This is usually achieved
result in water being supplied at a greater with headwalls and aprons of reinforced concrete,
rate than it can flow through the culvert, it a concrete revetment mattress or grouted rock. At
is said to be under outlet control. When using the downstream end, rock Rip Rap is also advisable
design charts it is important to examine both for a further distance downstream from the apron.
control cases and adopt the worst case value The level of protection required will depend on the
(ie. the highest headwater or least flow); outlet velocity, as described in Fact Sheet N0. 8.
Culvert Crossings
This will normally form part of the rely on the strength of the fill around them and
above hydraulic calculations. hence require very good compaction in the side
zones. Numerous Australian Standards, as well as
material supplied by manufacturers, give excellent
Installation
advice on correct installation. One important factor
to note is that many mine vehicle axle loadings
Correct selection of culverts and supervised
will exceed standard highway values and hence
installation is vital to ensure that heavy vehicles
special care must be taken when selecting the
passing over will not damage the culvert. Depending
class of culvert (ie. wall thickness) required.
on the culvert material and shape selected, there
will be varying requirements for cover (fill depth)
over the culvert and compaction requirements
around the culvert. Concrete culverts rely on their
own strength and require good foundations and
substantial cover, while corrugated steel culverts
Acid Drainage
Acid drainage occurs when sulphides (usually • treatment of acid drainage:

iron sulphides) are oxidised according to the – lime or alkali treatment of the drainage; blend
following, highly simplified, equation: solids with alkaline material eg. limestone;
FeS2 + xO2 + yH2O –> Fe(OH)3 + 2H2SO4. – use bacteria for sulphide precipitation;
The process is bacterially mediated and temperature – use plants to uptake and store
and moisture all affect the rate and expression of metals, eg. wetlands; and
the problem. However, the neutralising capacity – use concentration/recovery
of the gangue is probably the most significant process, eg. cementation.
factor in reducing or preventing the formation
Considerable work has been undertaken around the
of acid drainage. The geochemical reactions
world and the status and outlook for key control
and indicators of sulphide oxidation and acid
technologies are summarised in Table FS 7.1.
generation are shown in Figure FS 7.1.
In high rainfall environments, the volumes of
In addition to the generation of acid, the
contaminated water that are generated can be
low pH of these waters can mobilise trace
extremely difficult and costly to contain and/or treat.
and heavy metals, resulting in the potential
This potentially ongoing, long-term cost should
for widespread contamination.
be factored in to any development decision.
There are many techniques available to foresee if
acid drainage is likely to be a problem, including:
• chemical prediction/materials characterisation

(NAPP, ANC, NAG, solution indicators);
• models (eg. for location of acid generating
material in a model of the orebody and
waste, rates of acid generation, timing of
appearance in mining schedule, predictions
and schedule of cost of treatment); and
• predictions of ecological impacts.
Once acid drainage is present, opportunities
to manage it are limited to:
• prevention of the generation of acid:

– separate the acid producers
(for sale or entombing);
– cut off oxygen (wet or dry covers);
– pacify the mineral surface;
– solidify the waste rock or waste rock mass; and
– minimise water movement (generation
and transport of acid); and/or
Acid Drainage
Note 1: Non ferrous metal sulphides such as CuS, PbS, NiS, ZnS are acid neutral. Sulphides such as Cu2S are acid consuming.
Note 2: Siderite (FeCO3) is not included since it has nil net neutralising capacity in an oxidising environment.
Note 3: pH of site drainage may initially increase in response to sulphide oxidation and acid neutralization reactions.
Note 4: Other precipitates such as CuCO3, MnO2, CuSO4 can also be observed over a wide pH range.
Note 5: Jarosite iron oxide/hydroxide equilibria is a strong pH buffer and can maintain the pH as 3 even after all pyrite has
been oxidised. Jarosite and iron oxides coat soil mineral surfaces and dominate the mineral solution chemistry.
ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMISTRY INTERNATIONAL PTY LTD
Acid Drainage
TABLE FS 7.1: Status and Outlook for Key Control Technologies

Technology Applicable Current status Research outlook Major limits
Chemical prediction All Inexact Good Costly
Prediction models All Incomplete Good Complex
Pre-treatment Some Beginning Good Site specific
Dry covers Many Field demonstration Very good Cost
Wet covers Many Laboratory/Field Very good Site specific
Fixation Selected Laboratory Fair Cost
Lime neutralisation All In practice Excellent Perpetual

Sludge disposal All Emerging Good Volume/
Containment
Bio-treatment Partial Laboratory/Pilot Fair Capability/
Efficiency
Metal recovery Selected Laboratory/Pilot Poor Economics
Erosion Control and Sediment Containment
Minimising erosion and capturing sediment Erosion Control Methods

contained in surface runoff is a major environmental
issue on minesites. Site discharge licences will
The prevention of erosion is achieved by protecting
normally specify a suspended solids limit for
soils from the erosive forces of water and/or by
discharge offsite from a storm of a given risk level
controlling the flow of water to reduce erosive forces.
(eg. a 5 year Average Recurrence Interval).
Large areas subject to sheet runoff
There are four main control options and an effective
should be protected as follows.
site program will need to incorporate all of these.
• Contour ripping: Bare or newly revegetated
• Minimising disturbance and rapid
areas should be cross contoured to
revegetation of disturbed areas:
slow down flows. This will also prevent
Mining by its very nature involves disruption
concentrated flow paths from forming.
of natural vegetation and soils. This results
An added benefit of this technique is the
in a huge increase in erosion potential
retention of water stored in the furrows
and sediment transport. The impact of
which will aid the growth of new vegetation
such areas can be minimised by better
and will reduce total quantities of runoff.
planning of clearing and rehabilitation to
ensure that the minimum possible area • Grassing as described above is the most
of soil is left unprotected at any time. effective large-scale method. If moderate
slopes and suitable topsoil are provided
• Drainage control: Water erosion is increased
such that good growth occurs, this will
when concentrated flows pass over unprotected
effectively protect soils against sheet runoff
or steep sloping ground. A properly designed
from very heavy and intense storms.
and maintained drainage system will avoid
this occurring. The most important principles • Surface covers: Steep slopes such as creek banks
are to divert uncontaminated drainage or cut and fill batters are hard to revegetate
away from erosion prone areas, and to due to the difficulties in keeping topsoil and
control flows by using properly constructed seeds etc. in place. Layers of jute, geosynthetics
drains at gentle grades as discussed in the or mulch are very effective in protecting these
fact sheet concerning drainage design. layers until the root system of the grass has
developed. These layers must be securely
• Erosion control: The best method for controlling
fastened with pegs and the upslope layer must
erosion is to prevent its occurrence. Methods
overlap the top edge of the downslope layer.
for preventing erosion are discussed below.
Drains or gullies subject to concentrated flows
• Sediment containment: In areas where erosion
can be protected using the following techniques.
prevention is not feasible it is necessary to trap
the suspended sediment before the water passes • Grassing: (reference Chow 1973) Having grass
offsite. In-stream sediment traps can be used lining in a channel will significantly retard the
along the drainage path to remove the bulk flow and hence reduce the velocity and erosion
of the solids, however, constructed sediment potential. Grass will also stablise the channel
retention ponds may be necessary to ‘polish’ consolidate the soil and check the movement of
the water immediately prior to discharge. sediment along the channel bed. The selection
Containment methods are discussed below.
of grass should be “fine and uniformly distributed – batter slopes steeper than 2.5 H to 1.0 V will
sod-forming grasses” where the main flow occurs. not reliably support rip rap;
The use of bunch grasses should be avoided in – a layer of medium-weight geofabric should
drains because they will channelise the flow creating be placed under all rip rap to prevent scour
scour lines. Grassing can also be used successfully of the soil. (Due to the rough nature of rip
in combination with rock fill to provide a very rap which retards the flow, there will be
stable and well interlocked matrix. In establishing much turbulence around the rocks which
a grass cover in drains it is important to: can easily result in under scour beneath
– ensure there is a mixture of fast and the rocks making them unstable)
slow germinating varieties to ensure – a uniform grading of rock size (ie. a good
immediate and long-term protection; range from small to big rocks) is vital to
– irrigation should be provided as necessary create a good interlocking mattress;
to ensure good germination if the seed is – if rip rap is used on steep drops it must
planted outside the wet season (usually be carried a short distance into the flatter
the ideal time to build drains); sections preceding and following the drop.
– provide adequate protection for the seed • Reno mattresses/gabions: Reno mattress or
if flow is likely in the drain immediately gabion lining is a form of rock lining where a
after construction. (This can be achieved low-profile wire cage is used to hold the rock in
using degradable natural fibre type covers place. This enables the use of smaller diameter
which stabilise the surface and allow the rocks but requires more careful placement.
grass to grow up through the fabric); and Mattresses are available in thicknesses of
– when laying topsoil on drain batters prior approximately 170 mm, 250 mm, 300 mm and
to seeding, tyne the batters parallel to the 500 mm. This type of protection can be used
direction of flow in the drain. This will where very high velocities or extremely turbulent
result in long furrows along the drain which conditions are expected. This may occur on
will both retain water and help to prevent very steep slopes (when very large rip rap is not
scour paths down the batter slopes. available or not preferred), at culvert outlets, or
at the base of drops. Reno mattresses are also
• Rip rap lining: Rip rap simply refers to a lining
aesthetically pleasing and may provide a good
of large rock placed in the drain to armour the
alternative to rip rap in highly visible areas.
natural ground against erosion. The rock is
sized to ensure its stability during the peak flow • Concrete filled ‘revetment’ mattress:
conditions. Size of the rock is based on the flow Revetment is also a form of hard armouring,
depth and velocity. Rip rap should be carefully utilising a pocketed pervious fabric with
machine placed to ensure that a uniform concrete pumped through it. This creates a
‘mattress’ of interlocking rock is achieved. This solid layer moulded to the shape of the natural
is very important to ensure that the rock does ground below. Small penetrations between
not get displaced during early flows before silt the pockets allow for drainage of subsurface
and grass fill the spaces between rocks thereby water preventing any lifting pressures. As
locking them in position. The following points with Reno mattresses this type of protection
should be noted when installing rip rap: can be used where very high velocities or
extremely turbulent conditions are expected.
This may occur on very steep slopes (when very steel chutes will eventually rust out and are
large rip rap is not available or not preferred), therefore suitable only for medium term projects.
at retention dam inlets and spillways, at culvert
outlets, or at the base of drops. With good In-stream Sediment Containment
preparation of the base, revetment will provide
a very neat and durable protective layer.
Fast flowing surface runoff with a heavy load
• Bottom sills: In small steep drains where of suspended solids can cause major problems
continuous minor erosion is likely, bottom downstream by clogging culverts, blocking inlets or
sills can effectively prevent the propagation of causing short-circuiting through sediment retention
deep scour gullies. Concrete or gabion barriers ponds etc. The solution is to have a number of
are set into the base of the drain such that in-stream sediment traps along the drainage path.
scouring will only occur until a stable slope
• Sediment barriers/filter dams placed across
is formed between sills (see Figure FS 8.l).
the drainage channel with rock protection
• Corrugated steel chutes: In situations where an downstream will trap heavy suspended solids
intercept drain or a gully at the top of a cutting as well as providing effective scour protection.
must drop down a very steep slope into a drain The important feature of these barriers is that
below running in a perpendicular direction it is they should be semi-impermeable to water.
advisable to create a lined chute down the slope. This will cause water to pond behind them
This will prevent large scour gullies forming. A and hence silt will settle out of suspension and
simple method of lining such chutes is to use build up behind the barriers such that steps
half round corrugated steel pipes. These should are formed in the channel floor. These barriers
be lapped at the ends of each pipe section with are positioned so that the final slope between
the upstream section on top. The pipe sections the toe of one step and the top of the next is
can be held in place by either using ‘tent peg’ approximately 0.5%–1%. The rock downstream
style posts or by providing a small concrete protects the channel from scour at the base of
beam down each edge. It should be noted that
the drops while the flow velocity between the • Silt fences: In areas where flow is not
drops is reduced enough to prevent erosion. These channelised but carries a high sediment
structures are effective and economical at drain load it is possible to filter out the suspended
slopes up to 3%-4% and can be formed from either solids using a silt or sediment fence. This
timber, gabions, or graded rock (see Figure FS 8.2). may be desirable during the construction
of roads, at the base of stockpiles, or along
Points to keep in mind are:
the length of natural watercourses which
– as well as being required downstream,
receive sheet flow off disturbed areas. There
rock protection is required upstream of
are many proprietary brand sediment fences
the barriers for a short distance. This is
available today which only require posts to be
to prevent scour around the edge of the
supplied and have their own ties and support
barriers which may occur from the highly
bands (usually marketed by suppliers of civil
turbulent water spilling over the drop;
products or geotextiles) (see Figure FS 8.3).
– rock protection is also required up the
• Vegetation strips: An alternative to silt fences
batter slopes in the vicinity of the barrier.
for capturing silt in sheet flow is to pass the
This will prevent side scour as the water
water through heavily grassed strips. These can
spills over; fabric must be placed under
ideally be placed adjacent to catch drains or
the downstream rock to ensure the
road edge drains. An advantage of a vegetation
underlying soil is not washed out;
strip is that as the sediment builds up the grass
– the downstream rock must be cut in, such grows up through it. Detailed information
that the top of the rock is level with the on the design and effectiveness of vegetative
natural drain surface, to ensure that another filter strips can be found in Haan (1994).
step is not induced at the end of the rock
apron; and the lowest section of the barrier
crest should be over the drain centre line
such that low flows are preferentially
directed away from the drain edges.
Sediment Removal Ponds the bulk of the coarse sediment. The second
cell is then a polishing and treatment pond
for sediment and other quality parameters.
Surface runoff with levels of suspended solids
Ideally the second pond should also be
higher than licence levels will need to be
drained in a controlled manner after each
intercepted and treated prior to discharge offsite.
runoff event, however it can be left full as a
• Sediment settling ponds: These are the water storage facility. The draining should
most common method for settling out solids. preferentially take water from the surface
Usually positioned immediately upstream of the pond near the outlet end or should
of a monitored discharge point they also slowly discharge water through slotted
provide a useful location for controlling riser pipes or rock/sand filters; and
other water pollution problems such as pH,
– a volume over and above that required
BOD etc. and may also be used as a storage
for efficient pond operation must be
for recycling water. For optimum removal
incorporated for storage of sediment.
of sediment these pond systems should
address the following design issues: A mechanism for completely draining the pond, and
– the length to width ratio should access into and around the pond must be provided
be approximately 3:1; for periodic removal of captured sediment.
– the inlet and discharge point shall be There are many methods for designing sediment
positioned to ensure the maximum flow ponds. A good rule of thumb is the CALM
length between them. Baffles should be used method as developed by the NSW Department
if necessary to prevent short circuiting. It is of Conservation and Land Management.
beneficial to have two successive cells. The
first cell can then be free draining and hence
provide flood detention as well as capturing
• Wetlands for sediment removal: The use – supply of water to plants, especially when
of artificial wetlands to improve storm water young. Wetland plants rely on a saturated
quality is becoming increasingly popular. base but must not be drowned (short periods
The sediment removal efficiency of wetlands of total inundation are tolerable); and
is known to be high; however in a mining – spread of plants. The plants most effective
environment care must be taken that excessive for use in wetlands are typically invasive
sediment loads are not imposed on the wetland species that will take over existing wetland
plants and that water is always available. The areas if given the opportunity. Deep water
design of artificial wetlands requires much care should be used to keep open ponds
and consideration in the following areas: clear of the plants, and great care must
– the hydraulics of flow through be taken to prevent spreading if fragile
dense vegetation; wetland ecosystems exist in the area.
– the selection of plants. The common
approach is to use emergent macrophytes
such as reeds or bulrushes that are common
to the area. These plants are fast growing
and tolerant of high pollution loads and
some fluctuation of water levels;
Bioremediation Technology
Bioremediation is a process which relies on This procedure involves the use of soil micro
micro-organisms to break down and detoxify organisms, water or effluent application, nutrients
organic chemicals such as hydrocarbons, and (usually fertiliser) and oxygen (air). This technique
some organo-chlorines. Carbon dioxide and is highly suited to minesites in arid regions,
water are the final degradation products for due to the higher degradation rates that can be
hydrocarbon wastes using this process. achieved with high air and soil temperatures.
Bioremediation has a number of applications Prior to commitment to this technology, the soil
within the mining industry; including the and effluent stream need to be assessed by a
treatment of the following types of wastes: suitably qualified laboratory for the following:
• oily sludges; • soil type (particle size analysis,

• hydrocarbon contaminated effluent (eg. organic content, etc.);
heavy equipment washdown pads); • the level of activity of hydrocarbon degrading
• hydrocarbon contaminated soils; microbes (ie. C17: pristane ratio);
• specific low volume oil spillages; and • the nutrient status of the material to be degraded;
• workshop and power station liquid wastes. • the moisture content; and
Within Australia, bioremediation is being used • concentration of specific hydrocarbon fractions.

as a cost-effective alternative for the treatment In the event that insufficient numbers or
of wastewater effluent and hydrocarbon incorrect species are present, then the waste
contaminated soils. Most applications involve stream can be inoculated with microbes that
the construction of a ‘bioremediation pad’, and are grown within an on-site bioreactor.
implementing the process known as landfarming.
Landfarming involves the spreading of wastes
(usually about 30 cm thick) over the ground
to enhance the natural degradation process.
FA C T S H E E T N O . 1 0
Hydrological Data for Design Purposes
There are various formats for hydrological data

to suit both design and reporting outputs. The
reporting formats may be tabulated or graphed
with time frames to suit the receiver of the report.
Design formats will depend upon the design
process for which the data is to be utilised.
The following table presents the various

data formats and the principal design
processes for which they may be utilised.
Design Process Peak Hydro- Water Water Pollutant Tailings Wetlands Waste-
Flows graph Balance Storage Dispersion Storage water
Hydrological Data Format Analysis Disposal
Rainfall
• Intensity Frequency-
Duration curves (IFD Curves)
(see Figure FS 10.1) ✓ ✓ ✓
• Rainfall patterns
(Hyetographs) ✓
• Daily Rainfall ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
• Monthly and Seasonal
Rainfall ✓ ✓
• Annual Rainfall ✓ ✓
• Continuous Rainfall
(minutes) ✓
Streamflow
• Continuous Flow ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
• Daily Flow ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
• Monthly and Seasonal Flow ✓ ✓
• Annual Flow ✓ ✓
Evaporation
• Daily ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
• Monthly ✓ ✓
• Annual ✓ ✓
Hydrological Data for Design Purposes
Groundwater
Groundwater is the generic term identifying water Most aquifers are interconnected, and it is
resources which are resident in soil or rock pores very rare that a single aquifer will exist in
and matrices. By far the major proportion of isolation. Connections between aquifers may
groundwater resides under positive pore pressures be weak or strong depending on the porous
within aquifers, but some water lies in the interstices media and the geological stratification.
between ground surface and the aquifer within
The single intrinsic soil or rock parameter that
the capillary zone. Aquifers are generally fully
determines the characteristics of groundwater flow
saturated, whereas the capillary zone contains a
is the hydraulic conductivity. This is often (and
significant proportion of air as well as water.
strictly incorrectly) referred to as the permeability.
Aquifers may be confined (pressurised between layers The hydraulic conductivity is a quantitative
of relatively impermeable ground or aquicludes), or measure of the velocity of seepage flow of water
unconfined (a water table aquifer with a phreatic reached whilst being generated by a unit pressure
or ‘free’ surface). In both cases, the flow dynamics gradient. Hydraulic conductivity may vary in space
are similar in that flow is generated by differences in (heterogeneous porous media) as well as in the
pressure from one point to another. A perched water direction of flow (anisotropic porous media).
table is a special type of unconfined aquifer which A homogeneous and isotropic groundwater regime
may exist within another unconfined aquifer, and is is an ideal saturation that rarely occurs in nature.
‘perched’ on a thin impermeable lens such as clay.
Groundwater, while recognised as a separate entity
Flow in aquifers is generally laminar, or seepage in the hydrologic cycle, is nevertheless strongly
flow. In some cases where preferential flow paths interactive with other components of the hydrologic
may exist (eg. permeable faults and fractures in rock), cycle such as rain, rivers, lakes and oceans. Although
turbulent flow may be generated. Flow in aquifers the time scale of processes in groundwater is
is always from a region of higher pressure or higher long because of the laminar nature of flow, its
potential energy to a region of lower potential energy. interaction with surface water components of the
hydrologic cycle should always be considered.
Numerical Modelling
Numerical modelling is the process of solving the The process of ‘calibration’ and verification is an
equations describing a physical process using a integral part of numerical modelling. Because
step-wise approximation. Solutions are obtained a numerical model may operate using several
by performing iterations (successively improved parameters describing the physical processes (eg.
approximations) at each step until the numerical frictional stresses, soil-water conductivity) a historical
answer satisfies all the equations being used. event for which cause-and-effect data exists should
The approximation is improved by decreasing always be simulated. This allows the modeller to
the size of the steps, much like drawing a curve ‘tune’ the parameters against an observed event.
using a series of short, straight lines. Decreasing
The complexity of the model chosen should
step size, however, increases the amount of labour.
realistically reflect the extent to which the relevant
With the rapid advances in computer processing
parameters may be measured or inferred with
speed, this is becoming less of a concern.
accuracy, as well as required accuracy of modelled
The advantage of numerical modelling is that, answers in a particular project. The sensitivity of
once the model is set up and established, a range the model to prime parameters should always be
of scenarios may be investigated with relatively investigated and quantified. The use of models as
little effort, and complex problems may be solved decision making tools often have greater value in
using numerical models. Nevertheless, numerical sensitivity analysis than in absolute predictions.
models should be viewed with caution as their
The applicability of simpler (one dimensional)
complexity and their ‘black box’ appearance may
models should be investigated first before adopting
promote errors of judgement in their application.
complex (eg. three dimensional) models under
Numerical models were developed in the early the philosophy that complicated models have a
1960s and are now well established tools. Finite greater opportunity for errors, both judgemental
difference (FD) and finite element (FE) models are and numerical. Finally, the limitations of the
currently popular. These subdivide the physical model should always be clearly understood.
area of interest into small fragments which are
each treated in a simplified manner. FE models
are more adaptable to complicated boundaries,
but the methods of solution are slightly more
complex than FD models. Other models which have
limited use are boundary integral and method-of-
characteristics formulations, but these presently lack
the practical applicability of FD and FE methods.
Numerical models may be applied to a wide

range of problems in hydrology, flood flow and
groundwater flow. In recent times, advances in the
understanding of contaminant transport, sediment
transport and complex boundary conditions have
resulted in a generation of problem-specific models.
Before choosing a model, its applicability to a
specific problem must be questioned in depth.

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3.2 THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE AND MINESITE WATER BALANCE 11

3.3 SITE DESCRIPTION 12

3.4 SITE PLAN 13

3.5 MONITORING AND DATA MANAGEMENT 14

4.1.13 Anions and Cations 24

4.2 BIOLOGICAL ASPECTS OF WATERS 30

4.3 NATURE OF WATERS 33

5. Water Sampling and Flow Measurement 34

5.2 PRINCIPLES AND PURPOSE OF MONITORING 34

5.3 COMPLIANCE MONITORING 35

5.4 DATA COLLECTION - QUALITY 36

5.5 DATA COLLECTION - QUANTITY 40

5.7 REVIEW OF MONITORING DATA 46

8. Open Cut Mines 56

8.3 WATER QUALITY 65

8.4 PIT CLOSURE 66

9.2 GROUNDWATER INFLOW 68

9.3 WATER QUALITY 69

10. Heap Leach Processes 70

10.2 PLANNING FOR HEAP LEACHING 70

10.3 SOLUTION CONTROL DURING OPERATIONS 72

10.4 WATER MANAGEMENT ON CLOSURE 72

11. Waste Dumps 73

11.2 SURFACE WATER 73

11.4 WATER QUALITY 76

12. Tailings Water Management 79

12.2 CHARACTERISTICS AND MANAGEMENT OF TAILINGS WATER 80

12.3 SEEPAGE MANAGEMENT 80

13. Mine Infrastructure 82

13.2 INDUSTRIAL AND WORKSHOP AREAS 83

13.3 HAUL ROADS 84

Environmental management of mining and Typical State and Commonwealth environmental

TABLE 2.1: Typical State and Commonwealth Legislation

• Environmental Protection/Marine • Seas and Submerged Lands Act 1973

• World Heritage Properties Conservation

Most operations involving water, either supply or

As a minimum, every operation should ensure

3.1 Introduction 3.2 The Hydrologic Cycle and

• determining the appropriate timestep for the

The results obtained from the water balance

Basic information about a site is necessary so that 3.3.4 CATCHMENT CHARACTERISTICS

A site plan showing the geographic setting, contours

3.3.7 AQUATIC ECOLOGY changes to the water budget may be accommodated.

3.3.10 MONITORING • implementing recycling schemes to re-

Mine water management is a long-term Models should include:

4.1 Chemistry of Natural Waters • units in which the parameter is commonly

4.1.1 INTRODUCTION • sources (what activity can contribute to

The definition of “dissolved” using a 0.45 Carbonate Waters

nitrates. Because of the inverse solubility of Units of Measurement

Definition and Alternative Names

1 Systéme lnternationale = International System of Units

4.1.10 SOLIDS Total solids and its constituent parts are

4.1.12 OXYGEN DEMAND Units of Measurement