Unit 2

VII SEMESTER
EC2401 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
DHANALAKSHMI SRINIVASAN COLLEGE OF

ENGINEERING
(An ISO 9001:2008 Certified Institution)
Coimbatore-641 105
B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION
VII Semester
Electronics and Communication

Engineering
EC 2401 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION
QUESTION & ANSWER BANK
2014-15
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VII SEMESTER
UNIT 2
PART A
1. State the difference between Narrowband and wideband systems.
2. Distinguish between narrow band and wide band systems.
3. List out any two properties of wide band channel.
[Nov/Dec 2013]
[Nov/Dec 2012]
[Nov/Dec 2011]
Narrowband
In radio, narrowband communication happens in a frequency range where the frequency
response of the channel is flat (where gain is constant for all the frequencies in the range).
Therefore, the band should be smaller than the coherence bandwidth (maximum range of
frequencies where channel response is flat), and relatively smaller than broadband range (or
wideband) where channel response is not necessarily flat. When the data communication (or
internet connections) is concerned, narrowband refers to the amount of data being transferred
within a second (or bits per second). Dial-up internet connection (where data rate is less than 56
kbps) belongs to the narrowband internet category. In dial up connections, computers are
connected to internet through a modem and telephone cables. Narrowband communications use a
smaller frequency range (bandwidth) compared to wideband communications. In internet access,
wideband technologies provide much higher data rate (more than 50Mbps), whereas narrowband
connections provide a slower data rate such as 56 kbps. In radio communications, bandwidth is
smaller than the coherence bandwidth of the channel for narrowband, and wider for wideband.
Wideband
In radio, wideband communication happens in a wider frequency range compared to narrowband.
Wideband range exceeds the coherence bandwidth, and therefore, doesnt exhibit a flat
frequency response. Wideband is a relative term, and the size of the band may be in kHz, MHz
or GHz depending on the application. For internet connections, the term wideband describes
the data rate of the connection. Wideband offers a higher data rate than broadband technologies.
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Wideband internet can facilitate a bandwidth higher than 50Mbps. They provides a good quality
of video streaming and better interactivity.
4. Find the far-field distance for an antenna with maximum dimension of 1m and
operating frequency of 900 MHz.
[Nov/Dec 2013]
Maximum dimension of antenna=1m

Operating frequency fc=900MHz
c=c/fc=3X 108 m/s)(90X106 Hz)=0.33m
Far-field distance rf=2L2/ c = 2 X (1)2/ 0.33 = 6m
5. State the differences between small scale and large scale fading.
small scale fading
small-scale fading it is changed over
small distances
small-scale fading it is changed over

small distances
[May/June 2013]
large scale fading

large-scale fading the fading
characteristic changes over large
distances
as large distance scale fading concern

with large fluctuation.
6. Define Snells law.
[May/June 2013]
Snell's law (also known as the SnellDescartes law and the law of refraction) is a formula
used to describe the relationship between the angles of incidence and refraction, when
referring to light or other waves passing through a boundary between two different isotropic
media, such as water, glass and air.
Snell's law states that the ratio of the sines of the angles of incidence and refraction is
equivalent to the ratio of phase velocities in the two media, or equivalent to the reciprocal of
the ratio of the indices of refraction:
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with each
as the angle measured from the normal of the boundary,
as the velocity of light
in the respective medium (SI units are meters per second, or m/s) and
as the refractive
index (which is unitless) of the respective medium.

7. What is link budget calculation?
[Nov/Dec 2012]
A link budget is the clearest and most intuitive way of computing the required TX power. It
tabulates all equations that connect the TX power to the received SNR. As most factors
influencing the SNR enter in a multiplicative way, it is convenient to write all the equations
in a logarithmic form specifically, in dB. It has to be noted, however, that the link budget
gives only an approximation (often a worst case estimate) for the total SNR, because some
interactions between different effects are not taken into account.
8. List the different types of wireless channels.
Non stationary
Stationary
Wide sense stationary uncorrelated
Coherence time
Coherence bandwidth
9. What is the frequency selective fading? How to avoid fading?
[May/June 2012]
[May/June 2012]
If the channel possesses a constant-gain and linear phase response over a bandwidth that
is smaller than the bandwidth of transmitted signal, then the channel creates frequency
selective fading
10. Compute Rayleigh distance of the square antenna with 20dB gain. [Nov/Dec 2011]
The effective area,

Rayleigh distance
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PART B
11. (a) (i) Briefly explain the factors that influence small scale fading.
(8 mark) [Nov/Dec 2013]
15. (b)(i) Compare coherence bandwidth and coherence time.
(8) [Nov/Dec 2011]
Multipath in the radio channel creates small-scale fading effects. The three most important
effects are:
Rapid changes in signal strength over a small travel distance or time interval
Random frequency modulation due to varying Doppler shifts on different multipath signals
Time dispersion (echoes) caused by multipath propagation delays.
In built-up urban areas, fading occurs because the height of the mobile antennas are well below
the height of surrounding structures, so there is no single line-of-sight path to the base station.
Even when a line-of-sight exists, multipath still occurs due to reflections from the ground and
surrounding structures. The incoming radio waves arrive from different directions with different
propagation delays. The signal received by the mobile at any point in space may consist of a
large number of plane waves having randomly distributed amplitudes, phases, and angles of
arrival. These multipath components combine vector ally at the receiver antenna, and can cause
the signal received by the mobile to distort or fade. Even when a mobile receiver is stationary,
the received signal may fade due to movement of surrounding objects in the radio channel. If
objects in the radio channel are static, and motion is considered to be only due to that of the
mobile, then fading is purely a spatial phenomenon. The spatial variations of the resulting signal
are seen as temporal variations by the receiver as it moves through the multipath field. Due to the
constructive and destructive effects of multipath waves summing at various points in space, a
receiver moving at high speed can pass through several fades in a small period of time. In a
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mores erious case, a receiver may stop at a particular location at which the received signal is in a
deep fade. Maintaining good communications can then become very difficult, although passing
vehicles or people walking in the vicinity of the mobile can often disturb the field pattern,
thereby diminishing the likelihood of the received signal remaining in a deep null for a long
period of time. Antenna space diversity can prevent deep fading nulls. Due to the relative motion
between the mobile and the base station, each multipath wave experiences anapparent shift
infrequency. The shift in received signal frequency due to motion is called the Doppler shift, and
is directly proportional to the velocity and direction of motion of the mobile with respect to the
the direction of arrival of the received multipath wave.
Factors Influencing Small-Scale Fading:
Many physical factors in the radio propagation channel influence small scale fading. These
include the following:
Multipath propagation:
The presence of reflecting objects and scatters in the channel creates a constantly changing
environment that dissipates the signal energy in amplitude, phase, and time. These effects result
in multiple versions of the transmitted signal that arrive at the receiving antenna, displaced with
respect to one another in time and spatial orientation. The random phase and amplitudes of the
different multipath components cause fluctuations in signal strength, there by inducing smallscale fading, signal distortion, or both. Multipath propagation often lengthens the time required
for the baseband portion of the signal to reach the receiver which can cause signal smearing due
to inter-symbol interference.
Speed of the mobile:
The relative motion between the mobile results in random frequency modulation due to
different Doppler shifts on each of the multipath components. Doppler shift will be positive or
negative depending on whether the mobile receiver is moving toward or away from the base
station.
Speed of surrounding objects:
If objects in the radio channel are in motion, they induce a time varying Doppler shift on
multipath components. If the surrounding objects move at a greater rate than the mobile, then
this effect dominates the small-scale fading. Otherwise, motion of surrounding objects may be
ignored, and only the speed of the mobile need be considered. The transmission bandwidth of the
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signal If the transmitted radio signal bandwidth is greater than the "bandwidth" of the
multipath channel, the received signal will be distorted, but the received signal strength will not
fade much over a local area (i.e., the small-scale signal fading will not be significant). The
bandwidth of the channel can be quantified by the coherence bandwidth which is related to the
specific multipath structure of the channel. The coherence bandwidth is a measure of the
maximum frequency difference for which signals are still strongly correlated in amplitude. If the
transmitted signal has a narrow bandwidth as compared to the channel, the amplitude of the
signal will change rapidly, but the signal will not be distorted in time. Thus, the statistics of
small-scale signal strength and the likelihood of signal smearing appearing over small-scale
distances are very much related to the specific amplitudes and delays of the multipath channel, as
well as the bandwidth of the transmitted signal.
Doppler Shift :
Consider a mobile moving at a constant velocity v, along a path segment having length d
between points X and Y, while it receives signals from a remote source S, as illustrated in Figure
1. The difference in path lengths traveled by the wave from source S to the mobile at points X
and Y is l= dcos = vtcos. where t is the time required for the mobile to travel from X to
Y, and is assumed to be the same at points X and Y since the source is assumed to be very far
away. The phase change in the received signal due to the difference in path lengths is therefore
Figure 1. Equation (2) relates the Doppler shift to the mobile velocity and the spatial angle
between the direction of motion of the mobile and the direction of arrival of the wave. It can be
seen from equation (2) that if the mobile is moving toward the direction of arrival of the wave,
the Doppler shift is positive (i.e. the apparent received frequency is increased), and if the mobile
is moving away from the direction of arrival of the wave, the Doppler shift is negative (i.e. the
apparent received frequency is decreased).Multipath components from a CW signal which arrive
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from different directions contribute to Doppler spreading of the received signal, thus increasing
the signal bandwidth.

Coherence Bandwidth
The delay spread is a natural phenomenon caused by reflected and scattered propagation paths in
the radio channel, the coherence bandwidth Bc, is a defined relation derived from the rms delay
spread. Coherence bandwidth is a statistical measure of the range of frequencies over which the
channel can be considered "flat" (i.e., a channel which passes all spectral component with
approximately equal gain and linear phase); In other words, coherence bandwidth is the range of
frequencies over which two frequency components have a strong potential for amplitude
correlation. Two sinusoids with frequency separation greater than are affected quite differently
by the channel. If the coherence bandwidth is defined as the bandwidth over which the frequency
correlation function is above 0.9, then the coherence bandwidth is approximately
Bc = (1 /50 ) ----------------------- (1)
If the definition is relaxed so that the frequency correlation function is above 0.5. then the
coherence bandwidth is approximately
Bc = (1 /50 )-----------------------------(2)It is important to note that an exact relationship
between coherence bandwidth and rms delay spread does not exist, and equations (1) and (2) are
"ball park estimates".
Doppler Spread and Coherence Time
Delay spread and coherence bandwidth are parameters which describe the time dispersive nature
of the channel in a local area. However, they do not offer information about the time varying
nature of the channel caused by either relative motion between the mobile and base parameters
which describe the time varying nature of the channel in a small-scale region. Doppler spread
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BD is a measure of the spectral broadening caused by the time rate of change of the mobile radio
channel and is defined as the range of frequencies over which the received Doppler spectrum is
essentially non-zero. When a pure sinusoidal tone of frequency is transmitted, the received signal
spectrum, called the Doppler spectrum, will have components in the range fc fd to fc + fd
where fd is the Doppler shift. The amount of spectral broadening depends on which is a function
of the relative velocity of the mobile, and the angle between the direction of motion of the
mobile and direction of arrival of the scattered waves. If the baseband signal bandwidth is much
greater than BD, the effects of Doppler spread are negligible at the receiver. This is a slow fading
channel.
Coherence time Tc:
Coherence time Tc, is the time domain dual of Doppler spread and is used to characterize the
time varying nature of the frequency depressiveness of the channel in the time domain. The
Doppler spread and coherence time are inversely proportional to one another. That is,Tc = ( 1/
fm) ------------------(3)Coherence time is actually a statistical measure of the time duration over
which the channel impulse response is essentially invariant, and quantifies the similarity of the
channel response atdifferent times. In other words, coherence time is the time duration over
which two received signals have a strong potential for amplitude correlation. If the reciprocal
bandwidth of the baseband signal is greater than the coherence time of the channel, then the
channel will change during the transmission of the baseband message, thus causing distortion at
the receiver. If the coherence time is defined as the time over which the time correlation function
is above 0.5, then the coherence time is approximately
Tc = ( / 16 fm) ------------------(4)where fm is the maximum Doppler shift given by fm = v/ .
Types of Small-Scale Fading:
The type of fading experienced by a signal propagating through a mobile radio channel depends
on the nature of the transmitted signal with respect to the characteristics of the channel.
Depending on the relation between the signal parameters (such as bandwidth, symbol period,etc.)
and the channel parameters (such as rms delay spread and Doppler spread), different transmitted
signals will undergo different types of fading. The time dispersion and frequency dispersion
mechanisms in a mobile radio channel lead to four possible distinct effects, which are manifested
depending on the nature of the transmitted signal, the channel, and the velocity. While multipath
delay spread leads to time dispersion and frequency selective fading, Doppler spread leads to
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frequency dispersion and time selective fading. The two propagation mechanisms are
independent
of
one
another.
Types of Small-Scale Fading:

1.
Multipath delay spread leads to time dispersion and frequency selective fading.
2.
Doppler spread leads to frequency dispersion and time selective fading.
3.
Multipath delay spread and Doppler spread are independent of one another.
Flat Fading
If the channel has a constant gain and linear phase response over a bandwidth which is greater
than the bandwidth of the transmitted signal, the received signal will undergo flat fading.
The received signal strength changes with time due to fluctuations in the gain for the channel
caused by multipath.
The received signal varies in gain but the spectrum of the transmission is preserved.
Flat fading channel is also called amplitude varying channel.
Also called narrow band channel: bandwidth of the applied signal is narrow as compared to the
channel bandwidth.
Time varying statistics: Rayleigh flat fading.
A signal undergoes flat fading if
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Bs<<Bc
Ts>>
Bs= bandwidth of the transmitted signal
Bc= coherent bandwidth
Ts= reciprocal bandwidth (symbol period)
= rms delay spread
Frequency Selective Fading:
If the channel possesses a constant-gain and linear phase response over a bandwidth that is
smaller than the bandwidth of transmitted signal, then the channel creates frequency selective
fading.
Frequency selective fading is due to time dispersion of the transmitted symbols within the
channel.
Induces inter symbol interference
Frequency selective fading channels are much more difficult to model than flat fading channels.
Statistic impulse response model
2-ray Rayleigh fading model
computer generated
1.
measured impulse response
1.
For frequency selective fading

Bs>Bc
Ts>
2.
Frequency selective fading channel characteristic
11.(a) (ii) If a transmitter produces 50 W of power, express the transmit power in units of
dBM and dBW. If 50 W is applied to a unity gain antenna with a 900 MHz carrier
frequency, find the received power in dBM at a free space distance of 100 m from the
antenna. What is (10 km)? Assume unity gain for the receiver antenna.
Solution:
Given:
Carrier frequency=90MHz
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Channel bandwidth=25 kHz2 simplex channels=50 kHz/duplex channel

Total available channels = 33000/50 = 660 channels.
A 1 MHz spectrum for control channels implies that there are 1000/50 = 20 control channels out
of the 660 channels available.
In practice, only the 640 voice channels would be allocated since the control channels are
allocated separately as 1 per cell.
Here, the 640 voice channels must be equitable distributed to each cell within the cluster.
For N = 4 , we can have 5 control channels and 160 voice channels per cell. In practice, however,
each cell only needs a single control channel (the controls have a greater reuse distance than the
voice channels). Thus, one control channel and 160 voice channels would be assigned to each
cell.
For N=7, each cell have one control channel, four cells would have 91 voice channels, and three
cells would have 92 voice channels. (491+392=640)
For N=12, each cell would have one control channel, 8 cells would have 53 voice channels, and,
4 cells would have 54 voice channels. (853+454=640)
Or
11.(b)(i) Briefly explain the three basic propagation mechanisms which impact
propagation in a mobile communication system.
13.(b) (ii) Explain the three basic propagation mechanism in a mobile communication
system.
(8)[Nov/Dec 2012]
15.(a)(i) Describe any two methods of diffraction by multiple screens.(8) [Nov/Dec 2011]
The Three Basic Propagation Mechanisms:
Reflection, diffraction, and scattering are the three basic propagation mechanisms which impact
propagation in a mobile communication system. These mechanisms are briefly explained in this
section, and propagation models which describe these mechanisms are discussed. Received
power (or its reciprocal, path loss) is generally the most important parameter predicted by largescale propagation models based on the physics of reflection, scattering, and diffraction. Smallscale fading and multipath propagation nay also be described by the physics of these three basic
propagation mechanisms.
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Reflection occurs when a propagating electromagnetic wave impinges upon an object which has
very large dimensions when compared to the wavelength of the propagating wave. Reflection
occur from the surface of the earth and from buildings and walls.
Diffraction occurs when the radio path between the transmitter and receiver is obstructed by a
surface that has sharp irregularities (edges). The secondary waves resulting from the obstructing
surface are present throughout the space and even behind the obstacle, giving rise to a bending of
waves around the obstacle, even when a line-of-sight path does not exist between transmitter and
receiver. At high frequencies, diffraction, like reflection, depends on the geometry of the object,
as well as the amplitude, phase, and polarization of the incident wave at the point of diffraction.
Scattering occurs when the medium through which the wave travels consists of objects with
dimensions that are small compared to the wavelength, and where the number of obstacles per
unit volume is large. Scattered waves are produced by rough surfaces, small objects, or by other
irregularities in the channel. In practice, foliage, street signs, and lamp posts induce scattering in
a mobile communications system.
Reflection:
When a radio wave propagating in one medium impinges upon another medium having different
electrical properties, the wave is partially reflected and partially transmitted. If the plane wave is
incident on a perfect dielectric, part of the energy is transmitted into the second medium and part
of the energy is reflected back into the first medium, and there is no loss of energy in absorption.
If the second medium is a perfect conductor, then all incident energy is reflected back into the
first medium without loss of energy. The electric field intensity of the reflected and transmitted
waves may be related to the incident wave in the medium of origin through the Fresnel reflection
coefficient ( ). The reflection coefficient is a function of' the material properties, and generally
depends on the wave polarization, angle of incidence, and the frequency of the propagating
wave.
Diffraction by a single screen is a problem that has been widely studied, because it is amenable
to closed-form mathematical treatment, and forms the basis for the treatment of more complex
problems. However, in practice, we usually encounter situations where multiple IOs are located
between TX and RX. Such a situation occurs, e.g., for propagation over the rooftops of an urban
environment. (See figure 1) Such a situation can be well approximated by diffraction by multiple
screens. Unfortunately, diffraction by multiple screens is an extremely challenging mathematical
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problem, and except for a few special cases no exact solutions are available.
11.(b)((ii) What is Brewster angle? Calculate the Brewster angle for a wave impinging on
ground havng a permittivity of Er = 4.
Brewster angle is the angle at which no reflection occurs in the medium, of origin. it occurs
when the incident angle
is such that reflection coefficient is equal to zero
When the first medium is frree space and second medium has the relative premittivity
Solution
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12.(a)(i) Explain the time variant two path model of a wireless propagation channel.
(8 mark) [May/ June 2013]
12.(a) (ii) Describe in detail two ray model propagation mechanism.(8) [May/June 2012]
14. (a)(ii) Describe in detail two ray model propagation mechanism. (8) [May/June 2012]
The two-ray model is used when a single ground reflection dominates the multipath effect, as
illustrated in Figure. The received signal consists of two components: the LOS component or ray,
which is just the transmitted signal propagating through free space, and a reflected component or
ray, which is the transmitted signal reflected off the ground.Height of the transmitter and hr is the
height of the recever.If E0 is the free space E-field at reference distance d0 from the transmitter,
then for d>d0.the free space propagating E-field is given by
E (d,t) =
E0 d0
d
cos ( c
t- c ) --------------------(1)
If two propagating waves arrives at receiver: the direct wave that travels a distance d: and the
reflected wave that travels a distance d.The E-field due to the line of sight component at the
receiver can be expressed as
E LOS d' , t =
E0 d0
d'
d'
cos ( c
t- c )
And E-field for the ground reflected wave,which has a propagation distance of d,can be
expressed as
Eg (d", t)=
E0 d0
d"
cos ( c
t-
d"
c
According to laws of reflection in dielectrics given by
and
i=0
Eg= Ei
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Et = (1 + )Ei
is the reflection coefficient for ground. For small values of i, the reflected wave is equal in
magnitude and 1800 out of phase with the incident waves
| TOT| = | ELOS + Eg|
ETOT=
=d"-d'=
E0 d0
cos ( c
d'
ht+hr 2+d2
t-
d'
E0 d0
) + 1
cos ( c
c
d"
t-
d"
)
c
ht - hr 2+d2
2ht hr
2
c
=
=
d= =
c 2fc
E0 d0
E0 d0
E0 d0
d
d'
d"
= "
If the receiver E-field is evaluated at some time say at t=d/c. The phasor sum is
ETOT =
=
=
E0 d0
d'
E0 d0
d
E0 d0
cos ( c
d'
d" - d'
E0 d0
) cos 0
c
d"
E0 d0
d"
[ -1]
The received power at a distance d from the transmitter for the two ray ground bounce model can
be expressed as
=
2 2
4
12.(a). (ii) Brief about the properties of Rayleigh distribution. (8 mark) [May/ June 2013]
Rayleigh Fading Distribution
The sum of two quadrature Gaussian noise signals
Probability density function (pdf) of Rayleigh distribution
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: rms value of the received signal before envelop detection

2: time - average power of the received signal before envelop detection
Cumulative distribution function (CDF)
The mean value of the Rayleigh distribution is given by
The variance of the Rayleigh distribution is given by
12.(a)(ii) Derive the Okumura path loss model in a fading environment

(8)[May/ June 2013]
Okumura path loss model:
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One of the most common models for signal prediction in large urban macrocells is the
Okumura model. This model is applicable over distances of 1-100 Km and frequency ranges
of 150-1500 MHz.
Okumura used extensive measurements of base station-to-mobile signal attenuation
throughout Tokyo to develop a set of curves giving median attenuation relative to free space
of signal propagation in irregular terrain.
The base station heights for these measurements were 30-100 m, the upper end of which is
higher than typical base stations today.
The empirical path loss formula of Okumura at distance d parameterized by the carrier
frequency fc is given by
PL(d) dB = L(fc, d) + Amu(fc, d) G(ht) G(hr) GAREA ------(1)
where L(fc, d) is free space path loss at distance d and carrier frequency fc, Amu(fc, d) is the
median attenuation in addition to free space path loss across all environments
G(ht) is the base station antenna height gain factor
G(hr) is the mobile antenna height gain factor
GAREA is the gain due to the type of environment.
The values of Amu(fc, d) and GAREA are obtained from Okumuras empirical plots
.Okumura derived empirical formulas for G(ht) and G(hr) as
G(ht) = 20log10(ht/200), 30m < ht < 1000m
G(hr) =10 log10(hr/3) hr 3m
G(hr) = 20 log10(hr/3) 3m < hr < 10m
Correction factors related to terrain are also developed in that improve the model accuracy.
Okumuras model has a 10-14 dB empirical standard deviation between the path loss
predicted by the model and the path loss associated with one of the measurements used to
develop the model.
Or
12.(b) (i) Explain narrowband modeling methods for short scale fading and long scale
fading.
(10 mark) [May/ June 2013]
15.(b)(ii) Discuss the mathematical formulation for narrowband and wideband system with
relevant figures.
(8) [Nov/Dec 2011]

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Large scale propagation occurs due to path loss of signal as the mobile moves through a distance
of the order of cell size and shadowing caused by large objects such as buildings, hills, etc. It is
frequency independent typically. Large scale propagation is generally classified into
deterministic and non-deterministic categories. Both deterministic and non-deterministic or
stochastic approaches can be used to describe a time-varying channel.
Deterministic Approach
(a) Free Space Propagation Model
The received signal power decays as a function of the transmitter-receiver distance when a clear,
unobstructed line-of-sight path exists. Typically, satellite communication systems and
microwave radio links experience free space propagation. In this case, the free space signal
power Pr(d), received by a receiver antenna at a distance d meters from the radiating transmitter,
is given by Friis free space equation where Pt is the transmitted signal power, Gt and Gr are the
transmitter and receiver antenna gains, respectively, L (1) is the system loss factor not related to
propagation. in meters is the wavelength. df is the far-field distance or Fraunhofer distance and
d0 is the received-power reference distance. The gain of the antenna is related to its effective
aperture, Ae as The effective aperture is related to antennas physical size, and is related to
carrier frequency f. Far field distance df is represented by as D is the largest physical linear
dimension of the antenna. The free-space received signal power at a distance d > d0 can be
represented as
(b) Long-Distance path loss Model
Regardless of being an indoor or outdoor radio channel, the propagation models indicate that the
average received power decrease logarithmically with transmitter and receiver distance. which
where n the path loss exponent shows the relationship between path loss and distance. The path
loss exponent n is environment specific
Stochastic Approach
(a) Lognormal Shadowing Model
The phenomenon that describes the random shadowing effects occurring over a large number of
locations with the same T-R separation with different environmental clutter on the propagation
path is termed as lognormal shadowing. Experimental results show that at any value of d, the
path loss PL(d) is random at a particular location. Lognormal shadowing model states
that the path loss PL(d) at a particular location is log normally (normal in dB) distributed about
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the mean distance-dependent value. This model is given by where X (dB) is a zero-mean
Gaussian distributed random variable with a standard deviation in dB.In addition to the general
large-scale propagation models described above, there are some outdoor and indoor
environments specific models also. These channel models are developed based on the particular
area profile. Some outdoor propagation models include the LongleyRicemodel , Okumura
Model, Hata Model and Durkins model .Few indoor models are the Ericsson multiple
breakpoint model [ and the attenuation factor model .Ray tracing and site-specific modeling
techniques are also used for both outdoor and indoor environments .
Small Scale Propagation Models
Small-scale fading describes rapid fluctuations in the amplitudes and phases of the signal over as
hort distance that is typically 5 to 40, being the wavelength of the signal. In this case, the
instantaneous received signal fluctuates rapidly and results in small-scale fading. Fading occurs
when two or more versions of the transmitted signals arrive at slightly different time after having
traversed different paths. These waves, generally called multipath waves, add at the receiver to
give a resultant signal which may vary in amplitude and phase. Different small-scale propagation
models are described below
Mobile Multipath channels Parameters
A multipath channel can be characterized using some useful parameters like delay spread and
coherence bandwidth that describe the time-dispersive nature of the channel. Where as, Doppler
spread and coherence bandwidth explain the time-varying nature of the channel in a small-scale
location
(a) Fading
Fading or small-scale fading result when two or more attenuated versions of the transmitted
signal arriving at the receiver interference in such a way that these signals are added
destructively. Time dispersion due to multipath causes the signals to undergo the fading
phenomenon. The speed of the mobile and the transmission bandwidth of the signal play avital
role in fading.
(b) Doppler Shift
The apparent variation in the transmitted signal frequency due to the relative motion of the
mobile is termed as the Doppler shift. When a mobile moves with velocity v, and is the spatial
angle between the direction of motion of the mobile and the direction of arrival of the wave with
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VII SEMESTER
(c) Power Delay Profile c()

The average output signal power of the channel as a function of excess time delay is termed as
power delay profile c(). It is usually measured by transmitting narrow pulses and cross
correlating the received signal with its delayed version. c() is also referred as delay power
spectrum and multipath intensity profile. It is termed as delay power spectrum because of its
frequency domain component, which gives the power spectrum density. Power delay profile can
used to determine multipath channel parameters such as mean excess delay, root mean
squared(rms) delay spread, and excess delay spread (XdB). The mean excess delay (mean) is
the first moment of the power delay profile. The rms delay spread () is the square root of the
second central moment of the power delay profile, and the maximum excess delay (XdB) is
termed as the time delay during which multipath energy falls to X dB below the maximum value.
mean and
(d) Excess Delay
The relative delay of the jth multipath signal component from the first arriving component is
termed as excess delay j.
(e) Delay Spread (Tm)
Delay spread or multipath spread of the channel is the range of values of excess time delay
,over which power delay profile c() is not zero.
(f) Coherence Bandwidth (BWc)
Coherence bandwidth is a measure of range of frequencies over which the channel may be
considered flat. That is it is a frequency band in which all the spectral components of the
transmitted signal pass with equal gain and linear phase through a channel. The channel remains
invariant over this bandwidth. Coherence Bandwidth BWc can be expressed in terms of rms
delayspread.
(g) Doppler Spread (BD)
Doppler spread is a measure of spectral spreading caused due to time rate of change of a mobile
radio channel. It is the range of frequencies over which the Doppler spectrum received in
nonzero. With the transmitted a pure sinusoidal signal with frequency fc, the resultant Doppler
spectrum will contain the components in the range between ( fc fm) and ( fc + fm), where fm
isthe maximum Doppler frequency shift.
(h) Coherent Time (Tc)
21
VII SEMESTER
It is the time domain dual of Doppler spread. Coherence time is a statistical measure of the time
duration during with the channels impulse response remains invariant. Tc is inversely
proportional to the Doppler spread, and with the maximum Doppler frequency shift, fm.
Types of Small-Scale Fading
Small-scale fading effects are divided into two broad categories based on the Doppler spread and
time delay spread. These effects are manifested depending upon the nature of transmitted signal
,the channel and the velocity of mobile. The Doppler spread based class is categorized as fast and
slow fading, whereas the time delay spread based class is divided into flat fading and frequency
selective fading. Fast and slow fading is independent of propagation path loss models and deal
with the time rate of change of the channel and the transmitted signal relationship.
(a) Flat Fading
Flat fading is experienced in a mobile radio environment, if the channel response remains
constant gain with linear phase over a bandwidth that is greater than the transmitted signals
bandwidth. In flat fading the transmitted signals symbol period is (at least 10 times) greater than
the channels delay spread. The bandwidth of the transmitted signal is smaller than the bandwidth
of the channel. The Flat fading channels cause deep fades, and therefore may require 20 to 30 dB
additional transmitter power to achieve better bit error rates (BERs) during the deep fades period.
(b) Frequency-Selective Fading
Frequency selective fading is experienced of the bandwidth of the transmitted signal is greater
than the bandwidth over which. The transmitted signals symbol period is (at least 10
times)smaller than the delay spread of the channel. The frequency-selective fading channels are
also known as wideband channels, since the bandwidth of the transmitted signal is more than the
channel
bandwidth.
Frequency-selective
channel
cause
inter
symbol
interference
(ISI).Characterizing frequency-selective channels is tougher than the flat-fading channels is

difficult since each multipath signal has to be modeled individually.
(c) Fast Fading
Fast fading is a result of rapidly changing channel impulse response within the symbol duration
in a mobile radio environment. The symbol period of the transmitted signal is greater than the
coherence time of the channel, also termed as time-selective fading. Transmitted signal
bandwidth is smaller than the Doppler spread. In fast-flat fading channels the amplitude of the
22
VII SEMESTER
received signal varies faster than the transmitted baseband signals rate of change. However, in
fast-frequency-selective channels the amplitudes, phases, and time delays of the multipath
c components vary faster than the transmitted signals rate of change.
(d) Slow Fading
Slow fading is experienced by the received signal in the mobile radio environment when the
channel impulse response is varying slowly, within the symbol duration. Transmitted signals
symbol period is smaller than the channels coherence time. The channel can be considered as
static over one or more symbol durations. The transmitted signal is greater than the Doppler
spread.
Statistical Models of Small-Scale Propagation Channel
The mobile wireless fading channels can be modeled statistically in a variety of ways. The
mostcommon statistical models are the Rayleigh, Ricean, and Nakagami fading channel models,
(a) Rayleigh Fading Channel
Rayleigh distribution is generally used to describe the statistical time varying nature of the flat
fading signals received envelope. When the channel impulse response C(, t) is modeled as a
zero-mean complex Gaussian process at a time instant t and delay , the envelope |C(, t)| at that
time instant t is known as Rayleigh distributed. In this scenario, the channel is termed as a
Rayleigh fading channel. Envelope of the sum of two quadrature Gaussian noise follow Rayeigh
distribution. The Rayleigh distribution has the probability density function (PDF) given by.
where r is the rms value of the received signal envelope and 2 is the time average power of the
received signal before envelope detection.
(b) Ricean Fading Channel
If the mobile wireless channel has reflectors or fixed scatterers along with the randomly moving
catterers, the channel impulse response C(, t) can not be modeled as a zero-mean complex
Gaussian process. In this scenario the envelope has a Ricean distribution. Such a channel is
termed as a Ricean fading channel. In Ricean fading, a dominant non-fading signal component is
present such as line of sight propagation path. The random multipath components arriving at
different angles superimposed on the stationary dominant signal. The Ricean distribution has the
PDF.parameter A denotes the peak amplitude of the dominant received signal arriving at the
receiver either through a line of sight path or from a fixed scatterer. I0() is the modified Bessel
function f first kind and zero-order. Ricean factor K is sometimes used to describe Ricean
23
VII SEMESTER
distribution, which is defined as the ratio between the dominant signal power and the variance of
the scattered power as K A2 2 2 . If A approaches 0, the amplitude of the dominant path
decreases, theRicean fading converts to Rayleigh fading channel.
(c) Nakagami Fading Channel
Long-distance rapid fading channels are characterizes as Nakagami fading channels .Nakagami
distribution is used for fading channel characterization since it is closer to the experimental
results of channel modeling as compared to the Rayleigh or Ricean. The Ricean distribution
contains a Bessel function, while he Nakagami distribution does not therefore the Nakagami
distribution often leads to convenient closed form expressions.
Statistical Models for Multipath Fading Channels
Many statistical channel models have been proposed to describe the observed statistical nature of
the terrestrial and satellite channel environments. Examples include Clarkes model the Saleh
and Valenzuela model [54], and the two-ray fading channel model. In this section we will
discuss only the two-ray fading channel model since it gives a clear idea about the channels
fading effect. Besides, we will discuss some recently researched channel models, which are
based on different types of fading channel environments.
(a) Two Ray Model
This model considers both direct path and ground reflected propagation path between the
transmitter and the receiver. This model is quite accurate for predicting large scale signal
strength over longer distances for a mobile communication system. The received power at the
distance d from transmitter the two ray ground reflected model can be represented as.
Where, ht and hr are the transmitter and receiver antenna heights. Once the the distance d in
much larger the received power degrades at the rate of 40 dB/decade [44]. The two-ray models
path loss
(dB) can be represented as.
40log (10log 10log 10log 10log ) t r t r PL dB d G G h h (2.17)
(b) Markov Channel Modeling
Finite State Markov Channel model and Hidden Markov Model which falls under this category
are explained below:(i) Finite State Markov Channel
24
VII SEMESTER
Wang and Moayeri proposed the modeling of a Rayleigh fading narrowband channel using
aMarkov process with a finite number of states referred to as the Finite State Markov Channel
(FSMC) model. The FSMC model originated as an extension of a simpler model proposed
earlier, and known as the Gilbert-Elliot channel. In the FSMC, the fading process is related to the
received signal to noise ratio (SNR). Such models are applicable primarily to flat fading
channels.
(ii) Hidden Markov Models
The application of FSMC is adequate under very slowly fading applications, that is, for short
durations of time. Whenever there is a need to include the effect of very long channel memory
the FSMC model is no longer appropriate. This is for example in the case of the study of fade
duration distributions in fading channels .Here, there is a need for Markov chains with larger
memory, however since the number of states grows exponentially with the process memory, the
approach is no longer practical . In such cases other methods such as those that use hidden
Markov models can be used.
12.(b) (ii) Brief about the properties of Nakagami distribution.
(6 ) [May/ June 2013]
The Nakagami distribution or the Nakagami-m distribution is a probability distribution

related to the gamma distribution. It has two parameters: a shape parameter
parameter controlling spread,
and a second
. The Nakagami fading model was initially proposed because it
matched empirical results for short wave ionospheric propagation. In current wireless
communication, the main role of the Nakagami model can be summarized as follows
It describes the amplitude of received signal after maximum ratio diversity combining.
The sum of multiple independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.) Rayleigh-fading

signals have a Nakagami distributed signal amplitude. This is particularly relevant to
model interference from multiple sources.
The Nakagami distribution matches some empirical data better than other models
The Rician and the Nakagami model behave approximately equivalently near their mean
value. This observation has been used in many recent papers to advocate the Nakagami
model as an approximation for situations where a Rician model would be more
appropriate.
25
VII SEMESTER
For Nakagami fading, the instantaneous power has the gamma pdf
where G(m) is the gamma function, with G(m + 1) = m! for integer shape factors m. The
mean value is
. In the special case that m = 1, Rayleigh fading is recovered,
while for larger m the spread of the signal strength is less, and the pdf converges to a
delta function for increasing m.
Characterization
Its probability density function (pdf) is[1]
Its cumulative distribution function is[1]
where P is the incomplete gamma function (regularized).
Differential equation
Parameter estimation
The parameters
and
are[2]
26
VII SEMESTER
and
An alternative way of fitting the distribution is to re-parametrize
and m as = /m and m.[3]
Then, by taking the derivative of log likelihood with respect to each of the new parameters, the
following equations are obtained and these can be solved using the Newton-Raphson method:
and
It is reported by authors[who?] that modelling data with Nakagami distribution and estimating
parameters by above mention method results in better performance for low data regime
compared to moments based methods.
Generation
The Nakagami distribution is related to the gamma distribution. In particular, given a random
variable
it
, by setting
is
possible
,
to
obtain
random
variable
, and taking the square root of
.
The Nakagami distribution
parameter
set to
can be generated from the chi distribution with
and then following it by a scaling transformation of random variables.
That is, a Nakagami random variable

Chi-distributed random variable
is generated by a simple scaling transformation on a

as below:
27
VII SEMESTER
13 (a) (i) how the received signal strength is predicted using the free space propagation
model? Explain.
(10)[Nov/Dec 2012]
14. (a) (i) Explain the free space path loss and derive the gain expression.
(8) [May/June 2012]
Consider a signal transmitted through free space to a receiver located at distance d from the
transmitter. Assume there are no obstructions between the transmitter and receiver and the signal
propagates along a straight line between the two.
The channel model associated with this transmission is called a line-of-sight (LOS) channel, and
the corresponding received signal is called the LOS signal or ray.
Free-space path loss introduces a complex scale factor resulting in the received signal.
() 2 -------------------------(1)
where Gl is the product of the transmit and receive antenna field radiation patterns in
the LOS direction.
The phase shift ej2d/ is due to the distance d the wave travels. The power in the transmitted
signal s(t) is Pt, so the ratio of received to transmitted power from (1) is
--------------------------- (2)
These received signal power falls off inversely proportional to the square of the distance d
between the transmit and receive antenna.For other signal propagation models, the received
signal power falls off more quickly relative to this distance.
The received signal power is also proportional to the square of the signal wavelength, so as the
carrier frequency increases, the received power decreases.
This dependence of received power on the signal wavelength is due to the effective area of the
receive antenna. However, directional antennas can be designed so that receive power is an
increasing function of frequency for highly directional links.
The received power can be expressed in dBm as
28
VII SEMESTER
Pr dBm = Pt dBm + 10log10(Gl) + 20log10() 20 log10(4) 20 log10(d) -------- (3)

Free-space path loss is defined as the path loss of the free-space model:
PL dB = 10log10(Pt/Pr) = 10 log10(Gl2/(4d)2
--------------------(4)
The free-space path gain is

PG = PL = 10log10 Gl2/(4d)2
13.(a).(ii) Find the far field distance for an antenna with maximum dimension of 1 m and
operating frequency of 900 MHz.
(6)[Nov/Dec 2012]
Solution: Since the operating frequency f = 900 Mhz, the

Wavelength =3108m/s/900106Hz m
Thus, with the largest dimension of the antenna, D=1m, the far field distance is
df=2D2/=2(1)2 /0.33=6m
Or
13.(b) (i) With system theoretic description explain the characteristics of time dispersive
channels.
(8)[Nov/Dec 2012]
Multipath propagation and time dispersion

The presence of multiple scatterers (buildings, vehicles, hills, etc.) causes a transmitted radio
wave to propagate along several different paths that terminate at the receiver. Hence ,the receive
antenna picks up a superposition of multiple attenuated copies of the transmit signal. This
phenomenon is referred to as multipath propagation. Due to different lengths of the propagation
paths, the individual multipath components experience different delays(time shifts). The receiver
thus observes a temporally smeared-out version of the transmit signal. Even though the medium
itself is not physically dispersive (in the sense that different frequencies propagate with different
velocities), such channels are termed time-dispersive
Multipath propagation is not the only source of time dispersion. Further potential sources are
transmitter and receiver imperfections, such as transmit/receive pulses not satisfying the Nyquist
criterion, imperfect timing recovery, or sampling jitter. In the following example, we consider an
equivalent discrete-time baseband representation that includes pulse amplitude modulation
(PAM),
analog-to-digital
and
digital-to-analog
conversion,
and
demodulation.
29
VII SEMESTER
Although
multipath
propagation has traditionally been viewed as a transmission impairment, nowadays there is a

tendency to consider it as beneficial since it provides additional degrees of freedom that are
known as delay diversity or frequency diversity and that can be exploited to realize diversity
gains or, in the context of multi antenna systems, even multiplexing gains
Or
14. (b)(i) Define the following, auto correlation, cross co relation and power spectral density
for narrow band fading model.
(8) [May/June 2012] \
Auto Correlation, Cross Co Relation

The autocorrelation and cross correlation of the in-phase and quadrature received signal
Components rI(t)andrQ(t). Our derivations are based on some key assumptions which generally
apply to propagation models without a dominant LOS component. Thus, these formulas are not
typically valid when a dominant LOS component exists. We assume throughout this section that
the amplitude n(t), multipath delay n(t) and Doppler frequency fDn(t) are changing slowly
enough
such
that
theyare
constant
over
the
time
intervals
of
interest
n(t)n,n(n,andfDn(t)fDn. This willbe true when each of the resolvable multipath

components is associated with a single reflector. Withthis assumption the Doppler phase shift
is3Dn(t)=Rt2fDndt=2fDnt and the phase of then the multipath component becomes
n(t)=2fcn2fDnt0
30
VII SEMESTER
We now make a key assumption: we assume that for then th multipath component the term
fcninn(t) changes rapidly relative to all other phase terms in this expression. This is a
reasonable assumptions incefcis large and hence the term fcncan go through a 360 degree
rotation for a small change in multipath delayn Under this assumption n(t) is uniformly
distributed on [,]. ThusE[rI(t)] = E[Xnncosn()] =XnE[n]E[cosn(t)] = 0where the second
equality follows from the independence of nandnand the last equality follows from the
uniform distribution onn. Similarly we can show that E[rQ(t)] = 0. Thus, the received signal
also has E[r(t)] = 0, i.e. it is a zero-mean Gaussian process. When there is a dominant LOS
component in
31
VII SEMESTER
Power Spectral Density

The power spectral densities (PSDs) of and denoted by SrI(f)and SrQ(f), respectively, are
obtained by taking the Fourier transform of their respective autocorrelation functions relative to
the delay parameter. Since these autocorrelation functions are equal, so are the PSDs. Thus
The PSD Sri(f) goes to infinity a f=fand, consequently, the PSDSr(f) goes to infinity
atffcFd. .This will not be true in practice, since the uniform scattering model is just an
approximation, but for similar environments the PSD will generally be maximized at
frequencies close to the maximum Doppler frequency. The intuition for this behavior comes
32
VII SEMESTER
from the nature of the cosine function and the fact that the PSD corresponds to the pdf of the
random
Doppler
frequency
fD().
To
see
this,
on
the
leftin
Figure
3.7
we
plotfD()=fDcos(),fD=2v/along with a dotted line straight-line segment approximation

fD()tofD(). On the right in this figure we plot PSDSri(f) along with a dotted line straight line
segment approximation to itSrif). We see that cos()
1 for a relatively large range of values. Thus, multipath components with angles of arrival in
this range of values have Doppler frequency fD()fD, so the power associated with all of these
multipath components will add together in thePSD atff. This is shown in our approximation by
the fact that the segments where fD()=fDon the left lead to delta functions atfDin the pdf
approximation Sri(f) on the right. The segments where() has uniform slope onthe left lead to the
flat part ofSri(f) on the right, since there is one multipath component contributing power at each
angular increment. Formulas for the autocorrelation and PSD in non uniform scattering,
14. (b)(ii) What is the need for link calculation? Explain with suitable example .
(8) [ May/June 2012]
A link budget is the clearest and most intuitive way of computing the required TX power. It
tabulates all equations that connect the TX power to the received SNR. As most factors
influencing the SNR enter in a multiplicative way, it is convenient to write all the equations in
logarithmic form specifically, in dB. It has to be noted, however, that the link budget gives
only an approximation (often a worst case estimate) for the total SNR, because some interactions
between different effects are not taken into account. Before showing some examples, the
following points should be stressed: The attenuation due to propagation effects, between TX
and RX. For the purpose we use a simple model, the so-called breakpoint model. For distances
d < dbreak, the received power is proportional to d2, according to Eq. (3.1). Beyond that point,
the power is proportional to dn, where n typically lies between 3.5 and 4.5. The
received power is thus
-------------------(1)
Wireless systems, especially mobile systems, suffer from temporal and spatial variations of the
transmission channel (fading). In other words, even if the distance is approximately constant, the
received power can change significantly with small movements of the TX and/or RX. The power
computed from Eq. (1) is only a mean value; the ratio of the transmit power to this mean
received power is also known as the path loss (inverse of the path gain). If the mean received
33
VII SEMESTER
power is used as the basis for the link budget, then the transmission quality will be above the
threshold only in approximately 50% of the times and locations. is completely unacceptable
quality of service. Therefore, we have to add a fading margin, which makes sure that the
minimum received power is exceeded in at least, e.g., 90% of all cases(see Figure 1). The value
of the fading margin depends on the amplitude statistics of the fading Uplink (MS to BS) and
downlink (BS to MS) are reciprocal, in the sense that the voltage and currents at the antenna
ports are reciprocal (as long as uplink and downlink use the same carrier frequency). However,
the noise figures of BSs and MSs are typically quite different. As MSs have to be produced in
quantity, it is desirable to use low-cost components, which typically have higher noise figures.
Furthermore, battery lifetime considerations dictate that BSs can emit more power than MSs.
Finally, BSs and MSs differ with respect to antenna diversity, how close they are to interferers,
etc. Thus, the link budgets of uplinks and downlinks are different.
Consider the downlink of a GSM system .The carrier frequency is 950MHz and the
RXsensitivity is (according to GSM specifications) 102 dBm. The output power of the
TXamplifier is 30 W. The antenna gain of the TX antenna is 10 dB and the aggregate attenuation
of connectors, combiners, etc. is 5 dB. The fading margin is 12 dB and the breakpoint dbreak is
at a distance of 100 m. What distance can be covered?
TX side:
TX power PTX 30W 45 dBm
Antenna gain GTX 10 10 dB
Losses (combiner, connector, etc.) Lf 5dB
EIRP (Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power) 50 dBm
_________
RX side:
RX sensitivity Pmin 102 dBm
Fading margin 12 dB
Minimum RX power (mean) 90 dBm
Admissible path loss (difference EIRP and min. RX power) 140 dB
Path loss at dbreak = 100m [/(4d)]2 72 dB
Path loss beyond breakpoint dn 68 dB
Depending on the path loss exponent,
34
VII SEMESTER
n = 1.5 . . . 2.5 (line-of-sight)3

n = 3.5 . . . 4.5 (non-line-of-sight)
we obtain the coverage distance,
dcov = 100 1068/(10n)m (3.9)
If, e.g., n = 3.5, then the coverage distance is 8.8 km. This example was particularly easy,
because RX sensitivity was prescribed by the system specifications.
15.(a)(ii) Discuss about ultra wide band channels.
(8) [Nov/Dec 2011]
Wide band Model

Tapped Delay Line Models
The most commonly used wideband model is an N-tap Rayleigh-fading model. This is a fairly
generic structure, and is basically just the tapped delay line structure with the added restriction
that the amplitudes of all taps are subject to Rayleigh fading. Adding an LOS component does
not pose any difficulties; the impulse response then just becomes where the LOS component a0
does not vary with time, while the ci (t ) are zero-mean complex Gaussian random processes,
whose autocorrelation function is determined by their associated Doppler spectra (e.g., Jakes
spectra). In most cases, 0 = 1, so the amplitude distribution of the first tap is Rician. The
model is further simplified when the number of taps is limited to N = 2,and no LOS component
is allowed. This is the simplest stochastic fading channel exhibiting delay dispersion ,and thus
very popular for theoretical analysis. It is alternatively called the two path channel, two delay
channel, or two-spike channel. Another popular channel model consists of a purely deterministic
LOS component plus one fading tap (N = 1) whose delay 0 can differ from 1. This model is
widely used for satellite channels in these channels, there is almost always an LOS connection,
and the reflections from buildings near the RX give rise to a delayed fading component. The
channel reduces to a flat-fading Rician channel when 0 = 1.
Models for the Power Delay Profile
It has been observed in many measurements that the Power Delay Profile (PDP) can be
approximated by a one-sided exponential function
--------------- (1)
In a more general model (see also Section 7.3.3), the PDP is the sum of several delayed
exponential functions, corresponding to multiple clusters of Interacting Objects (IOs)
35
VII SEMESTER
-------------------------(2)
the power, delay, and delay spread of the lth cluster, respectively. The sum of all cluster powers
has to add up to the narrowband power described. For a PDP in the form of Eq. (1), the rms
delay spread characterizes delay dispersion. In the case of multiple clusters, Eq. (2), the rms
delay spread is defined mathematically, but often has a limited physical meaning. Still, the vast
majority of measurement campaigns available in the literature use just this parameter for
characterization of delay dispersion. Typical values of the delay spread for different
environments are as follows:
Indoor residential buildings: 510 ns are typical; but up to 30 ns have been measured.
Indoor office environments: these show typical delay spreads of between 10 and 100 ns, but
even 300 ns have been measured. Room size has a clear influence on delay spread. Building size
and shape have an impact as well.
Factories and airport halls: these have delay spreads that range from 50 to 200 ns.
Microcells: in microcells, delay spreads range from around 5100 ns (for LOS situations) to
100500 ns (for non-LOS).
Tunnels and mines: empty tunnels typically show a very small delay spread (on the order of20
ns), while car-filled tunnels exhibit larger values (up to 100 ns).
Typical urban and suburban environments: these show delay spreads between 100 and 800 ns,
although values up to 3 s have also been observed.
Bad Urban (BU) and Hilly Terrain (HT) environments: these show clear examples of multiple
clusters that lead to much larger delay spreads. Delay spreads up to 18 s, with cluster delays of
up to 50 s, have been measured in various European cities, while American cities show
somewhat smaller values. Cluster delays of up to 100 s occur in mountainous terrain.
Ultra Wideband Channels
UWB Signals with Large Relative Bandwidth
The above models are wideband in the sense that they model the delay dispersion caused by
multipath propagation. However, they are still based on the following two assumptions.
1.The reflection, transmission, and diffraction coefficients of the IOs are constant over the
considered bandwidth.
2. The relative bandwidth of the system (bandwidth divided by carrier frequency) is much
36
VII SEMESTER
Smaller than unity. Note that these conditions are met for the bandwidth of most currently used
wireless systems.
However, in recent years, a technique called Ultra Wide Band (UWB) transmission has gained
increased interest. UWB systems have a relative bandwidth of more than 20%. In that case, the
different frequency components contained in the transmitted signal see different propagation
environments. For example, the diffraction coefficient of a building corner is different at100MHz
compared with 1 GHz; similarly, the reflection coefficients of walls and furniture can vary over
the bandwidth of interest. Channel impulse realization is then given by
--------------------------- (1)
where i ( ) denotes the distortion of the ith MPC by the frequency selectivity of IOs. One
example for a distortion of a short pulse by diffraction by a screen is shown in Figure 1.For
UWB systems, propagation effects can also show frequency dependence. path loss is a function
of frequency if the antennas have constant gain. Similarly, diffraction and reflection are
frequency dependent. Thus, the higher frequency components of the transmitted signal are
usually attenuated more strongly by the combination of antenna and channel. Also, this effect
Fig.1leads to a distortion of individual MPCs since any frequency dependence of the transfer
function leads to delay dispersion, and thus distortion of an MPC. As a consequence of the
distortion ofthe frequency dependence, statistical channel models also change.
37

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VII SEMESTER

EC2401 WIRELESS COMMUNICATION

DHANALAKSHMI SRINIVASAN COLLEGE OF

B.E./B.Tech. DEGREE EXAMINATION

Electronics and Communication

QUESTION & ANSWER BANK

Maximum dimension of antenna=1m

small-scale fading it is changed over

large scale fading

as large distance scale fading concern

6. Define Snells law.

as the angle measured from the normal of the boundary,

as the velocity of light

index (which is unitless) of the respective medium.

8. List the different types of wireless channels.

Wide sense stationary uncorrelated

9. What is the frequency selective fading? How to avoid fading?

The effective area,

(8) [Nov/Dec 2011]

the signal bandwidth.

Types of Small-Scale Fading:

Doppler spread leads to frequency dispersion and time selective fading.

measured impulse response

For frequency selective fading

Frequency selective fading channel characteristic

Channel bandwidth=25 kHz2 simplex channels=50 kHz/duplex channel

(8 mark) [Nov/Dec 2013]

(8 mark) [Nov/Dec 2013]

is such that reflection coefficient is equal to zero

According to laws of reflection in dielectrics given by

: rms value of the received signal before envelop detection

The mean value of the Rayleigh distribution is given by

The variance of the Rayleigh distribution is given by

12.(a)(ii) Derive the Okumura path loss model in a fading environment

(10 mark) [May/ June 2013]

(8) [Nov/Dec 2011]

(c) Power Delay Profile c()

(ISI).Characterizing frequency-selective channels is tougher than the flat-fading channels is

12.(b) (ii) Brief about the properties of Nakagami distribution.

(6 ) [May/ June 2013]

The Nakagami distribution or the Nakagami-m distribution is a probability distribution

. The Nakagami fading model was initially proposed because it

The sum of multiple independent and identically distributed (i.i.d.) Rayleigh-fading

. In the special case that m = 1, Rayleigh fading is recovered,

Its cumulative distribution function is[1]

where P is the incomplete gamma function (regularized).

An alternative way of fitting the distribution is to re-parametrize

and m as = /m and m.[3]

, and taking the square root of

can be generated from the chi distribution with

and then following it by a scaling transformation of random variables.

That is, a Nakagami random variable

is generated by a simple scaling transformation on a

Pr dBm = Pt dBm + 10log10(Gl) + 20log10() 20 log10(4) 20 log10(d) -------- (3)

The free-space path gain is

Solution: Since the operating frequency f = 900 Mhz, the

Multipath propagation and time dispersion

propagation has traditionally been viewed as a transmission impairment, nowadays there is a