Ceiling FAN

CONTENTS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Basic Operation
Why no starting Torque
Single phase IM Starting Methods
Visual Aid
Basic Parameters calculation
Finding the capacitor value
Shaded Pole Motor
Speed Control
REFERENCES

> BASIC Operation

Ceiling fan uses a single phase induction motor that has no starting torque but if initial
torque is provided externally, it begin to rotate.
Thus to have starting torque the single phase is converted to double phase by giving a phase
shift of 90 to the current of an auxiliary winding in the stator. This phase shift is provided
by Capacitor kept in series with auxiliary winding (or starting winding) and generally
electrolytic cap is used because its cheap.
Main and auxiliary windings are kept perpendicular to each other as shown below.
A centrifugal switch is used to cut off the auxiliary winding from circuitry when the motor
reaches a speed corresponding to 75% of its rated full load speed.

Double Revolving Field Theory Explanations

> Why no starting Torque?

Stator winding is a distributed winding and rotor has squirrel cage type winding because its
cheap and has low rating. Figure shown below:

a) Stator (distributed winding)

b) Rotor (squirrel cage winding)

The flux in air gap is alternating only (i.e. mathematically the pulsating field is divided into
tow rotating fields in opposite direction) and not synchronously rotating as in poly phase
motors.
When stator winding carries sinusoidal current fed by single phase supply, a sinusoidal
space has a distributed MMF whose peak value alternates with time corresponding to

sinusoidal input and is produced in air gap between rotor and stator.
Thus a sinusoidal flux () is sum of two rotating fluxes which are having magnitudes /2
and rotating in opposite directions with synchronous speed given by ns =2*f/p

Let the counter clock direction of sync. field represents the same direction of rotating rotor
and its called as +ve or forward direction and other direction as -ve or backward.
Now the bars of squirrel cage is shorted via ring (as shown in figure below) and
electromagnetic torque is produced by +ve field in +ve direction and by -ve field in -ve
direction(clockwise direction).

Torque is produced by two synchronous opposite fields and resulting torque is the difference
of two. If the rotor is stationary ( i.e. nr=0)
=> sf= (ns nr)/ns = sb =1
sf= forward slip and sb = backward slip
Hence the resulting torque is zero.
But if we rotate the rotor manually say in forward direction then forward torque is more than
backward torque and the resulting torque is in forward direction. Rotor speed is decided by
load torque supplied and mechanical loss.
Mathematically MMF is distributed in space with space angle from the winding axis.

F= Fpeak cos , = space angle w.r.t. winding axis

Also, Fpeak = Fmax cos wt
=> F = (Fmax/2) cos (-wt) + (Fmax/2) cos( + wt)
F=Ff + Fb , where Ff and Fb is forward and backward MMF.
Ff= (Fmax/2) cos (-wt)
Fb= (Fmax/2) cos( + wt)
Thus pulsating field is sum of two synchronously rotating fields (ws=2 ns).
When motor starts in positive direction with angular speed wr= 2 nr
slip sf= (ws-wr)/ws
=> wr=(1-sf) ws
similarly for backward direction:
wr= (sb-1) ws
resulting torque T=(Tf -Tb), if sf = sb = 1 then Tf =Tb means no resulting torque.

> Single phase IM Starting Methods

Single phase induction motor has no starting torque but has resultant torque when motor
runs at a speed except at synchronous speed.
Also in balanced 2-phase IM (induction motor) i.e. both windings having equal number of
turns, placed at space angle of 90 and fed from balanced 3-phase supply with equal
magnitudes at an angle of 90. The rotating magnetic field is produced as in three phase
supply and torque is produced.
Thus in single phase IM if auxiliary winding is introduced in stator at space angle of 90,
starting torque will be produced but will not be the maximum torque (as hown in figure
below).
Maximum torque at startup is achieved by introducing 90 shift in the current of auxiliary
winding with respect to main winding current.
Auxiliary winding with high series resistance is added with main winding . This winding has
higher (Ra/Xa) resistance to reactance ratio as compared to main winding and placed at 90
space angle.
As shown in figure below current Ia in auxiliary winding lags voltage by an angle of a
which is small where as Im lags nearly by an angle m ~ 90.
Phase lag between m and a should be greater than 30 i.e. ( m - a ) > 30 for very less
starting torque.

Centrifugal switch cut off auxiliary winding when speed is nearly 75% of full load speed.
Motor has starting torque of 100-200% of full load and starting current 5-7 timed full load
current (only when started with maximum torque).

To have maximum starting torque ( m + a ) = 90 and that is achieved by capacitor in

series with auxiliary winding placed at a space angle of 90. Hence this motor is called as
Capacitor run motor. Starting torque in this motor is very high as shown in figure below.

Direction of rotation of motor can be changed by reversing terminals of any one of two
windings but not both and only before connecting supply.

Other Start up methods:

1) Capacitor start and capacitor run motor
Here two capacitors start capacitor (Cs) and running capacitor (Cr) are used as shown
below.

First Cs is rated for intermittent duty just for starting the motor.
Centrifugal switch is required here in case.
( m + a ) > 90 for the start and equals to 90 for the running case.
Only forward rotating field is present no backward rotating rotating field. Hence the
efficiency is higher.
2) Permanent Capacitor Motor
As shown in figure below same capacitor for starting and running is used.
Power factor of this motor while running will be high.
Operation of is quiet and smooth.

>Visual Aid (Link 1: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=awrUxv7B-a8

Link 2: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SiZ-mak4h4s )

Click on Photo and start Play

> Basic Parameters calculation

1. Output power:
1.4wrmT nm
Pout,hp=
10000
wrm= motor rpm
Tnm= torque in Nm
1 hp = 746 Watt

(horse power)

2. Effeciency =Pout,watt / P
P= Real or active power = VI cos
3. Losses= P Pout,watt
4. Average Electromagnetic torque: [3]
Tw s=[I 2m + aI 2a]( Rf Rb )+2 aI m I b ( R f + Rb ) sin()
Peak amplitude
4
m

1
2

T pw s={[ I +(aI a) +2 (aI m I b ) cos 2()][(R f Rb ) +( X f + X b ) ]}

ws= synchronous angular velocity of motor

a = effective turn ratio of auxiliary to main winding
Im,Ia = main and auxiliary winding currents
= phase shift between Im and Ia
R1m and X1m : main winding resistance and leakage reactance
R1a and X1a are the auxiliary winding resistance and leakage reactance
forward and backward impedances (Rf + j Xf) & (Rb + j Xb) are defined as

Where Xm is magnetzing reactance and R2, X2 are rotor

circuit impedances referred to the stator.
Figure: Double revolving field theory model of single
phase induction motor

> Finding the capacitor value ?

Zm = Rm + j Xm , Za = Ra + j Xa are the main and auxiliary winding impedances of IM.

Ra and Rm cam be calculated by using multimeter but the value we'll get is of dc resistance.
So these are to be multiplied by 1.11 that is the form factor for ac supply.
Xm and Xa need to be calculated from Zm and Za by supplying ac input to each windings
(without capacitor). Once we have Za and Zm , Xa and Xm can be easily calculated as:
X m = Z 2mR 2m and

Let
Zm = 4.5 + j 3.7 and

X a = Z 2aR 2a

Za = 9.5 + j 3.5

Here we can see (Ra/Xa) > (Rm/Xa) as stated earlier.

For maximum starting torque ( m + a') = 90, a' = required leading angle.
Tan m = (3.7/4.5)
=> m= 39.43
a' = 90 39.43 = 50.57

Now suppose capacitor is connected in series with auxiliary winding

=> Za,new = 9.5 + j(3.5 Xc)
=> tan a' = (3.5 Xc)/9.5
=> tan (-50.57) = (3.5 Xc)/9.5
=> Xc = 15.053
and Xc = 1/(2C)

..(-50.57 because Ia is leading Voltage)

=> C = 211.5 F
> Shaded Pole Motor

Shaded pole motor is a cage motor. This is a single phase motor consist only main winding
and no auxiliary winding.
A small portion of each pole is covered with a shot circuited, single turn copper coil called
shaded pole.
The rotating magnetic field induces current in shaded coil which in turn produces its own
flux.

[ Note : Reluctance is akin to electrical resistance but instead of dissipating power it stores
energy. And flux opt for minimum reluctance path. Reluctance=MMF/flux and MMF =
(number of turns * Current)]

As per the above equations, the shading coil current ( I sc ) and flux (sc) phasors lag behind
the induced emf (Esc) by angle sc ; while the flux phasor leads the induced emf ( Esc ) by
90. Obviously the phasor m is in phase with msc . The resultant flux in the shaded pole is
given by the phasor sum sp = msc + sc

As shown in Fig. above and lags the flux m of the remaining pole by the angle . The two
sinusoidally varying fluxes m and sp' are displaced in space as well as have a time phase
difference ( ), thereby producing forward and backward rotating fields, which produce a
net torque. It may be noted that the motor is self-starting unlike a single-phase singlewinding motor.
It is seen from the phasor diagram that the net flux in the shaded portion of the pole ( sp )
lags the flux ( m ) in the unshaded portion of the pole resulting in a net torque, which
causes the rotor to rotate from the unshaded to the shaded portion of the pole. The motor
thus has a definite direction of rotation, which cannot be reversed.
The reversal of the direction of rotation, where desired, can be achieved by providing two
shading coils, one on each end of every pole, and by open-circuiting one set of shading coils
and by short-circuiting the other set.
The fact that the shaded-pole motor is single-winding (no auxiliary winding) self- starting
one, makes it less costly and results in rugged construction. The motor has low efficiency
and is usually available in a range of 1/300 to 1/20 kW. It is used for domestic fans, record
players and tape recorders, humidifiers, slide projectors, small business machines, etc. The
shaded-pole principle is used in starting electric clocks and other single-phase synchronous
timing motors.

Understanding of Shaded Pole Motor by Animations :

Link: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MyEnwJ1Lazg

> Speed Control

Conventional method of controlling speed of ceiling fan is using a rheostat that controls
power fed to fan but in high load application motor control require efficient controlling
mechanism depending on type of loading on system ( i.e. IM used for).
Volts-per-Hertz ratio

Synchronous speed is a speed at which motor magnetic field rotates given by

Ns = (120 *f)/p
The speed of motor shaft with rated voltage and line frequency at full load is called base
speed.
Thus by changing the frequency to motor above and below 50Hz motor can operate above
and below base speed.
V/H is fundamental to the operation of motor using adjustable frequency control. AC IM
produces torque by virtue of flux in its rotating magnetic field. Keeping flux constant will
enable motor to produce full load torque.
Below base speed this is achieved by maintaining V-to-F ratio constant e.g. 230/50=4.6.
If this ratio rises as frequency decreases to reduce motor speed, the motor current will
increase and may be excessive.
If ratio reduces as frequency increases the torque capability of motor reduces.
At approximately 30 Hz and lower V/H ratio is not always maintained. Depending on load,
on heavy loads to maintain torque V/H ratio is increased by increasing voltage. This
adjustment is called Voltage boost. For light loads V/H ration is maintained lower to
minimize motor current. This method is popular in industry as a constant V/F control.
The variable frequency derive (VFD) system is made up of active/passive power electronics
devices as shown in figure below.

Basic concept of these drivers is that a rectifier converts the fixed frequency supply to dc.
DC link (a LPF) smooths the rectified output to a stable dc voltage (or current).
Then DC is inverted to provide synthesized dc waveform at motor terminals.
The frequency and power of ac supply delivered is controlled by inverter.

Motor Load Characteristics

HorsePower = (Speed * Torque) / 5250
Or
Power (kW) = RPM * Torque / 9555

1. Constant HP Load:
This is the characteristics of grinders, winding reels. The torque required decreases if speed
increases and vice-versa. Hence HP is approximately constant. This type of loading is
usually above base speed.
2. Constant Torque Load:
When load requires constant torque at low as well as high speeds. Torque remains constant
and speed varies. Thus Horsepower varies. This type of load characteristics include most
compressors, conveyors, reciprocating pumps.
3. Variable Torque Load:
Loading is function of speed. This is characteristic of centrifugal pump and fans.
Specifically, as speed is increased or decreased the torque required of load will change with
square of speed while power is cube of speed. As an example, with a 100% torque load at
100% speed, when the speed is reduced to 50%, the square of the speed is 0.5 x 0.5 or 0.25
and the load torque will be 25% of full load torque.
Generic Topologies for VFD
1. Voltage Source Inverter drives (VSI)
Diode bridge rectifier plus full bridge IGBT based inverter is used. Dc-link capacitor is used
to supply reactive power needed by motor. Generally VSI drives are used with PWM
voltage output. Figure shown below

2. Current Source Inverted (CSI) Drives

DC o/p of SCR bridge converter stores energy in series reactor and supply stiff current to the
inverter. CSI can be operated with PWM or six-step waveform output. Block is shown
below.

3. Six- step Inverter Drive

This drive could be either VSI or CSI type and also referred to as Variable Voltage Inverter
Drives. Their is no need of a divided DC bus. A special PWM topology need to be
implemented to achieve maximum possible converter utilization for 2-phase o/p voltage
(balanced or unbalanced). Topology shown in figure below.

4. Load Commutated Inverter (LCI) Drives

A special CSI case, the DC o/p of SCR-bridge converter stores energy via dc-link inductor
to supply stiff quasi-sinusoidal six step current o/p of a second SCR bridge inverter and an
over-excited synchronous machine as shown below.

Figure: LCI drive

Six step waveform

5. Cycloconverters
These have AC/AC converters that have no intermediate dc-link for energy storage. In this
configuration ac signal is directly converted to a controlled voltage and frequency AC signal. Motor
torque and current can be controlled and wide range of speed variations can be obtained. However
extra 12 diodes are required as shown if figure below:

6 Doubly Fed Slip recovery systems

A doubly fed slip recovery systems feed rectified slip power to a smoothing reactor to supply power
to AC supply network via an inverter. Speed of motor being controlled by adjusting Dc current.
These are generally used in WIND ENERGY CONVERSION systems as show in figure below.

Control Platforms
1. Scalar control (V/f control)
In this control motor is fed with variable frequency signal generated by PWM control from
an inverter. Here V/f ration is maintained constant in order to get constant torque over entire
operating range. Since only magnitudes of input variables -' frequency and voltage'- are
controlled it is known as scalar control. This is an open loop control system hence offers low
cost and easy implementation.
2. Vector control

This control is also known as ' field oriented control' , 'flux oriented control and 'indirect
torque control'. Three possibilities of such selection exists hence, three vector controls
Stator flux oriented control
rotor flux oriented control
magnetizing flux oriented control
As torque is controlled here only after the transmission is done and is not the main input
reference such a control is known as 'indirect torque control.
Limiting feature of field orientation is the method whereby the flux angle is measured or
estimated. Depending on measurement the vector control is divided in two sub-categories.
Direct : In direct flux sensing is done by flux sensing coils or Hall device. This adds to the
cost and measurement is not accurate.
Indirect : he flux angle is not measured directly here but is estimated from equivalent circuit
model and from measurement of rotor speed, stator current and voltage.

3. Direct Torque Control (DTC)

The heart of this technology is its adaptive motor model. This model is based on the mathematical
expressions of basic motor theory. This model requires information about the various motor
parameters, like stator resistance, mutual inductance, saturation co efficiency; etc Torque vector
controlled drives are capable of controlling the stator flux and torque more accurately than vector
controlled drives, while the controller complexity is reduced considerably. Field orientation is
achieved without rotor speed or position feedback using advanced motor theory to calculate the
motor torque directly without using modulation. The controlling variables are motor magnetizing
flux and motor torque. The external speed set reference signal is decoded to generate the torque and
flux reference. Thus, in the DTC, the motor torque and flux become direct controlled variables and
hence, the name Direct Torque Control. The advantage of this technology is the fastest response
time, elimination of feedback devices, reduced mechanical failure. The disadvantage is due to the
inherent hysteresis of the comparator, higher torque and flux ripple exist.

> REFERENCES
1. http://nptel.ac.in/courses/108105053/pdf/L-34%28NKD%29%28ET%29%20%28%28EE
%29NPTEL%29.pdf
2. http://www.pgey.com/index.php?m=Index&a=down&type=pdf&title=Single%20Phase
%20Induction%20Motor&src=http%3A%2F%2Fxa.yimg.com%2Fkq%2Fgroups
%2F14581512%2F1899985575%2Fname%2FAM_SinglePhase.pdf
3. http://ieeexplore.ieee.org/stamp/stamp.jsp?tp=&arnumber=25070
4. http://www.ee.lamar.edu/gleb/power/Labs/Lab%2011%20-%20Capacitor%20start%20and
%20capasitor%20run%20motors.pdf
5. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0RbbwY9vvs0https://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=0RbbwY9vvs0
6. http://www.ijctee.org/files/VOLUME2ISSUE5/IJCTEE_1012_07.pdf
7. http://lipo.ece.wisc.edu/1991pubs/T77.pdf