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Ladder diagram (LD)

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TM240

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Requirements

Training modules:

TM210 The Basics of Automation Studio

TM211 Automation Studio Online Communication

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TM213 Automation Runtime

TM223 Automation Studio Diagnostics

Software:

None

Hardware:

None

TM240

Ladder diagram (LD)

Table of contents
4

1.1 Objectives

1. INTRODUCTION

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2. LADDER DIAGRAM
2.1 The history of ladder diagrams

2.2 General information

2.3 Properties

2.4 Possibilities

3. THE BASIC ELEMENTS OF LADDER DIAGRAM

3.1 Networks

8
9

4. LADDER DIAGRAM SYMBOLS

4.1 Contacts

5. LOGIC

10
15
21

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4.2 Coil

10

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7. USING FUNCTION BLOCKS

27

8. POWER FLOW

29

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6. CONTROLLING THE PROGRAM FLOW

9. QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

31

9.1 Questions

31

9.2 Exercises

32
34

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10. SUMMARY

Ladder diagram (LD)

TM240

Introduction

1. INTRODUCTION

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Fig. 1 Introduction

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The Ladder Diagram programming language is often referred to as relay

ladder logic. It is a graphical language that is very popular for programming
controller systems. Most manufacturers program their systems using the
Ladder Diagram programming language.

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In the chapters that follow, you will get an overview of the history,
advantages, and programming of ladder diagrams.
Examples will be given to give a better explanation of the individual
functions available.

TM240

Ladder diagram (LD)

Introduction

1.1 Objectives

You will get an overview of the possibilities available when programming

with Ladder Diagram.

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You will learn the fundamental elements of Ladder Diagram and the
symbols for logic programming.

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You will be able to develop flexible Ladder Diagram programs using the
program flow control elements.

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Fig. 2 Overview

Ladder diagram (LD)

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Ladder Diagram

2. LADDER DIAGRAM
2.1 The history of ladder diagrams

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The original concept of the PLC (Programmable Logic Controller) was

developed in the USA around 1968. The PLC concept was developed as a
microprocessor-based, programmable substitute for hard-wired systems.

The PLC was based around the ladder diagram, which is a schematic
representation of a logical control system based on relay circuitry.
At that time, the concept became a very fast way of quickly setting up and
programming a simple logical control system with relatively little training.
For simple logical control problems, ladder diagrams are ideal, easy to use,
and easy to master. They are probably the main reason for the phenomenal
success of PLCs in industry.
Many manufacturers base their programming systems on ladder diagrams.
Unfortunately, the lack of any open standards meant that each vendor's
system was slightly different. Many manufacturers often added "special
operations" in order to increase functionality.

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By the beginning of the 1990s, there were literally thousands of PLC

manufacturers, each with their own programming systems and sets of
instructions. Although the programs that were written for different systems
were similar, the way that programs were structured, as well as the
instruction sets used, varied from one supplier to another.

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Hardware-specific peculiarities always seemed to crop up. This situation

tended to tie users to a particular manufacturer.
In 1979, a working group was set up by the International Electrotechnical
Commission (IEC) to create a common standard for PLCs. This working
group decided to develop a new standard (to be known as IEC 61131)
consisting of five separate parts.

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Part III, "Programming Languages for PLCs", was published in 1993 and
included the specification for PLC software. Part III covers the PLC
configuration, programming, and data storage.
IEC61131-3 addresses most of the criticisms that are aimed at traditional
PLC programming. It provides a framework for developing general PLC
programs that do not require manufacturer-specific training. Most PLC and
industrial control system manufacturers have now adopted this standard.

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Ladder diagram (LD)

Ladder Diagram

2.2 General information

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Ladder Diagram (LD) is a graphics-based programming method. It is a

symbolic representation of electronic circuits. Symbols were selected that
actually looked similar to schematic symbols used for electric devices.
For this reason, an electrician who has never seen a PLC can understand
the Ladder Diagram programming language. In LD, the schematic symbols
(contacts and coils) and the connection lines can be used to create the
necessary logic.

B&R has adopted the 61131-3 standard for ladder diagram programming as
well.
2.3 Properties

Ladder Diagram has the following characteristics:

Graphical programming languages
Similar to wiring diagram
Simple and clear programming
Intuitive to use
Easy to find errors
Complies with the IEC 61131-3 standard

2.4 Possibilities

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The Ladder Diagram programming language provided with Automation

Studio offers the following possibilities:
Using digital inputs / outputs and internal Boolean variables
Using analog inputs / outputs
Using function blocks
Program flow control (jumps, cancelling)
Diagnostics tools

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Ladder diagram (LD)

TM240

The Basic Elements of Ladder Diagram

3. THE BASIC ELEMENTS OF LADDER DIAGRAM

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Imagine that there is a vertical supply line called a "bus bar" on the lefthand side that continuously provides power. Lines that branch out to the
right are known as "instruction lines".

Fig. 3 Basic elements of Ladder Diagram

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The ladder diagram itself consists of two basic parts. The left side holds the
condition logic, while the right side contains the instructions. The logical
combination of these conditions determines when and how an instruction
on the right side is executed. The elements on the far right side are called
coils (e.g. lamps, motors, relays, etc.).

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Fig. 4 Logical conditions and instructions

TM240

Ladder diagram (LD)

The Basic Elements of Ladder Diagram

3.1 Networks

A network is a circuit that represents a specific function. It consists of

elements, branches, and blocks. The network reflects a complete function
and is the basic unit of a ladder diagram.

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A complete Ladder Diagram program consists of several of these networks.

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The beginning of the network is the vertical line on the left (bus bar). If
two or more circuits are connected by a vertical line, then they belong to
the same network.
Up to 50 lines and 50 columns may exist in a network. The size of a
complete ladder diagram is limited only by the amount of memory on the
PC and the controller.

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Fig. 5 Ladder diagram network

Ladder diagram (LD)

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Ladder Diagram Symbols

4. LADDER DIAGRAM SYMBOLS

4.1 Contacts

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A contact is one of many Ladder Diagram symbols. They can be placed in

the first column and also form part of a link with other symbols. They
cannot be placed on the right side; this area is reserved for coils. Contacts
can be linked to the digital inputs / outputs of function blocks.
Linking contacts within a network can be assigned to one or more coils.
Every contact is referenced by a variable name that has been or will be
defined in the variable declaration window. Each contactregardless of
whether it's an input, output, or internal variablecan be used throughout
the program whenever that particular condition needs to be evaluated.
The connection between contacts depends on the desired control logic.
They can be placed in whatever series, parallel, or series/parallel
configuration that is required to control a given output (coil).

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Only variables of type BOOL can be assigned to contacts.

Type of contact
Normally open

Symbol

Normally closed
contact

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Positive edge

Negative edge

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Both edges

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Ladder diagram (LD)

Ladder Diagram Symbols

4.1.1 What are normally open and normally closed contacts?

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In industrial environments, it's not uncommon to hear the terms normally

open and normally closed. Both terms apply to words such as contacts,
inputs, outputs, etc. (all combinations have the same meaning whether
talking about inputs, outputs, contacts, etc.).
A normally closed contact will conduct electricity until it is pressed. A
normally open contact won't conduct electricity until it is pressed down.

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If a normally closed contact is selected, a bell will continously sound until

someone pushes the bell switch. Pressing the switch opens up the contact
and the electricity is cut off.
This behavior is reversed if using a normally open contact.

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Fig. 6 Normally open and normally closed contacts

One example where normally closed contacts are used is in the safety door
on machines. If this door is opened, the contact is interrupted and the
supply circuit is interrupted. This can be done to prevent accidents.

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Normally open and normally closed contacts can apply to outputs and
sensors as well.

Ladder diagram (LD)

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Ladder Diagram Symbols

4.1.2 Normally open contact

Outp

If the contact isn't pressed, electricity is

not conducted and the logical state is
FALSE (0).

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Inp

When pressed, the physical state

switches to "ON", and the instruction is
TRUE (1).

Fig. 7 Relation between an input and output

Inp

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4.1.3 Normally closed contact

Outp

This symbol inverts the status of a

variable (BOOL).

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It is used when an input signal does not

need to be present for the output to be
set.
The state of the output is set to FALSE
if the input is set to TRUE.

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Fig. 8 Relation between an input and output

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Ladder diagram (LD)

Ladder Diagram Symbols

4.1.4 Positive edge

Outp

This symbol is used to form a positive

edge of a digital signal.

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Inp

When the value of a variable switches

from FALSE to TRUE, i.e. a positive
edge occurs, this contact returns TRUE
for a cycle. This can be used to set /
reset states or count the number of
positive edges.

Fig. 9 Relation between an input and output

Inp

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4.1.5 Negative edge

Outp

This symbol is used to form a negative

edge of a digital signal.

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If the value of a variable is switched

from TRUE to FALSE, the status returns
TRUE for a cycle. This can be used e.g.
to set or reset outputs or count
negative edges.

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Fig. 10 Relation between an input and output

Ladder diagram (LD)

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13

Ladder Diagram Symbols

4.1.6 Positive and negative edge

Outp

Inp

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This symbol is used to form the positive

and negative edge of a digital signal.
This behavior corresponds to a parallel
switching of the positive and negative
edge.

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Fig. 11 Relation between an input and output

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Ladder diagram (LD)

Ladder Diagram Symbols

4.2 Coil

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The coil is one of the basic Ladder Diagram elements. It is always placed
on the right-hand side of the ladder diagram as an output. Coils can be
connected to the right of contacts or to function block outputs. At least one
coil must be present in a ladder diagram. Several parallel coils can also be
used.
Each coil can be used for digital outputs or internal variables that will later
serve as an input for an additional network in the program.
The contacts are always queried while the program is running; if logic
continuity is found, then the contact is set to TRUE.
Only Boolean variables can be assigned to coils.
Type of contact
Coil
Negated coil

Reset coil

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Set coil

Symbol

Positive transition coil

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Negative transition coil

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Both edges

Ladder diagram (LD)

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Ladder Diagram Symbols

4.2.1 Coil
Result

Signal

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The coil is switched on if continuity is

found.

Fig. 12 Relation between an input and output

4.2.2 Negated coil

Signal

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Result

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If continuity is found, the coil is

switched off; otherwise, it is switched
on.

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Fig. 13 Relation between an input and output

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Ladder diagram (LD)

Ladder Diagram Symbols

4.2.3 Set
Result
Signal

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This coil sets a variable to TRUE if

logical continuity is found.

This state remains until the variable is

reset. For this reason, this coil is also
referred to as conditionally setting.

Fig. 14 Relation between an input and output

4.2.4 Reset

Signal

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Result

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This coil sets a variable to FALSE if

continuity is found.

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Fig. 15 Relation between an input and output

Ladder diagram (LD)

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17

Ladder Diagram Symbols

4.2.5 Positive transition coil

Result
Signal

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This coil sets a variable to TRUE for one

cycle if continuity is found.

For all other cycles where continuity is

found, the output remains set to FALSE.

Fig. 16 Relation between an input and output

4.2.6 Negative transition coil

Signal

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Result

This coil sets a variable to TRUE for one

cycle if NO continuity is found.

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For all other cycles where no continuity

is found, the value of the variable
remains set to FALSE.

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Fig. 17 Relation between an input and output

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Ladder diagram (LD)

Ladder Diagram Symbols

4.2.7 Positive and negative transition coil

Result

Signal

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This coil unites the function of the

positive and negative edge output.

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Fig. 18 Relation between an input and

output

Ladder diagram (LD)

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19

Ladder Diagram Symbols

Task: Part 1: Conveyor belt

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In this training module, we will be creating an application for controlling

a conveyor belt in four steps.

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Create a program that controls the conveyor belt motor with the digital
output "gDoConvMotor" by pressing the "btnConvStart" button. Don't
connect the output directly with the input. Use the command variable
"cmdManConvMotor" as an intermediate variable as shownin the image
below.

Fig. 20 Task 1 part1, operators

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All new parts in the program are displayed in green.

Fig. 20 Conveyor belt

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Ladder diagram (LD)

Logic

5. LOGIC
5.1.1 AND operation

Fig. 21 Series blocks

Truth table:

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If two or more contacts are connected in a

series, the result is a logical AND
operation.
When all of the conditions have been met,
the output is set to TRUE.

Contact 2

5.1.2 OR operation

Output

0
0
0
1

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Contact 1

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A parallel block is equivalent to an OR

operation.
If at least one of these parallel branches is
TRUE, then the output is set to TRUE.

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Fig. 22 Parallel blocks

Truth table:

Contact 1

Contact 2

Output

Ladder diagram (LD)

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21

Logic

5.1.3 XOR operation

Fig. 23 Exclusive OR

Truth table:

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The Exclusive OR operation is a

combination of the logical AND
and OR operations. If one of the
two inputs is TRUE, then the
output is also TRUE. If both inputs
are TRUE, then the output is
FALSE.

gDiButtonRight

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5.1.4 Branch

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Fig. 24 Branch

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Output

0
1
1
0

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gDiButtonLeft

Ladder diagram (LD)

In a network, a branch refers to a

vertical line that connects two or
more rows with one another.

Logic

5.1.5 Merge

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A merge line is defined as another vertical line that runs parallel to a

branch line and merges the branch circuits into a closed circuit (forming a
parallel block).

Fig. 25 Merge line

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A single vertical line can be both a branch line and a merge line, as shown
in the image below.

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Fig. 26 Branch line and merge line

Ladder diagram (LD)

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23

Logic

Task: Part 2: Conveyor belt

If no material is detected by the final sensor of the

"gDiLoadConvEnd" conveyor belt.
If material is detected by the final sensor of the conveyor belt and
the machine requests more material with the "gDiMachAskMat"
digital input.

Stop the conveyor belt:

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Start the conveyor belt:

Right now, it's possible to control the conveyor belt by pressing a

button. Now we want to add a few more functions for automatic mode.

If material is detected by the final sensor of the conveyor belt and

the machine is not requesting any more material.

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Your program may then appear like this:

Fig. 27 Part 2 - Source code

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TM240

Ladder diagram (LD)

Controlling the Program Flow

6. CONTROLLING THE PROGRAM FLOW

6.1.1 Conditional jump

A conditional jump refers to a jump to a network with a symbolic name

using a condition.

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If the condition is TRUE, then the jump takes place. A jump label with a
unique name must be present for each jump.

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Fig. 28 Jump

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It is used to skip over networks in the program. This allows the program
flow to be controlled efficiently. The program runtime is also reduced since
networks are jumped over if they are not required.

Fig. 29 Conditional jump

6.1.2 Return

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The Return instruction is used to terminate the ladder diagram at a certain

point. Any subsequent networks are no longer executed.

Fig. 30 Return

Ladder diagram (LD)

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25

Controlling the Program Flow

Task: Part 3: Conveyor belt

Networks that belong to automatic mode are executed if

"gDiAutoMode" is TRUE.
Networks that belong to manual mode are only executed if
"gDiAutoMode" is FALSE.
Use conditional jumps.
Use a new variable, "cmdAutConvMotor", in automatic mode.

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We will now add an input "gDiAutoMode" that we can use to switch

between manual and automatic mode.

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Your program may then appear like this:

Fig. 31 Part 3 - Source code

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TM240

Ladder diagram (LD)

Using Function Blocks

7. USING FUNCTION BLOCKS

The Ladder Diagram editor in Automation Studio makes it possible to use
function blocks.

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If a function block is inserted, then input logic conditions are also

represented by contact instructions driving the logic for the function block.
A function block may have one or more coils as the outputs that store the
status or result of a function. If a function block should be active at all
times, then a connection can be made to the function block using a vertical
line.

Fig. 32 Function block in Ladder Diagram

icon or

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A function block can also have "analog" inputs and outputs. The
spacebar can be used to connected a variable.

Ladder diagram (LD)

TM240

27

Using Function Blocks

Task: Part 4: Conveyor belt

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Count the quantity of material that the conveyor belt is transporting in

automatic mode. Use the CTU function block found in the STANDARD
library.

Fig. 33 Part 4 - Source doe

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TM240

Ladder diagram (LD)

Power Flow

8. POWER FLOW

Fig. 34 Logic continuity

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If logic continuity is present in a network, then its output is TRUE. Power

flows from left to right in a network. Networks are executed one after the
other except when the course is changed by returns or jumps.

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There are several different possibilities for logic continuity in this network.

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Fig. 35 Logical passage to the first command line

Ladder diagram (LD)

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29

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Fig. 36 The second continuous path

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Power Flow

Fig. 37 The third continuous path

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Unlike hard-wired relay logic, reversed power flow as shown in the image
below is not possible in PLC logic.

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If the logic calls for the implementation of reverse flow, the user must
program it in with forward power flow to all contact elements.

Fig. 38 A reverse continuity path is not possible

30

TM240

Ladder diagram (LD)

Questions and Exercises

9. QUESTIONS AND EXERCISES

9.1 Questions

It was developed as programmable logic that would serve as a

subsitute for hard-wired relay logic.

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Why is the ladder diagram system so widely accepted? Why was it

developed?

When should Ladder Diagram be used?

It is ideal for logical control tasks and operations.

What is a network?

A network consists of at least one contact and one coil (input and
output). If there is no connection between two rows, then they
belong to two different networks. Networks are executed in the order
they were programmed.

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What is a contact in LD?

The main purpose of a contact is to form a logical condition to

control the output (coil).

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What is a coil in LD?

The coil receives the value that results from the logical conditions
that arise.

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Ladder diagram (LD)

TM240

31

Questions and Exercises

9.2 Exercises

Task: Concrete filling system

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In a cement mixing facility, cement is loaded onto a vehicle using a

conveyor belt.

Filling begins by activating the On button (btnOn). The hydraulics

activated using a magnet valve (doValve) can only be opened if the
conveyor belt has been operating for 5 seconds and there is a vehicle
under the belt (diTruck).

The magnet valve is switched off as soon as the permitted total weight
of the vehicle has been reached (diPressure). However, the conveyor
belt should continue to run for another 5 seconds.

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The entire system is switched off immediately when the Off button is
pressed (btnOff). If the conveyor belt is disrupted
(diConveyorMotorProtection), the magnet value and the conveyor belt
(doConveyor) should be switched off immediately. If the magnet value is
disrupted (diValveProtection), it should be closed immediately, but the
belt should run empty for another 5 seconds.

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TM240

Ladder diagram (LD)

Questions and Exercises

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The ladder diagram could look like this:

Ladder diagram (LD)

TM240

33

Summary

10. SUMMARY

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Programming with ladder diagram is still very popular. It was developed to

program logical switches so that hard-wired relay logic could be replaced.

Fig. 39 Summary

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Using analog signals and function blocks makes it possible to create highpowered applications using Ladder Diagram. Additional program flow
control elements extend the function range.
The Automation Studio, program sequences can be traced using Power
Flow. Colors are used to display the status of lines where are currently
conducting electricity.

34

TM240

Ladder diagram (LD)

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Summary

Overview of training modules

TM600 The Basics of Visualization

TM610 The Basics of ASiV
TM630 Visualization Programming Guide
TM640 ASiV Alarm System, Trend and Diagnostic
TM670 ASiV Advanced

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TM210 The Basics of Automation Studio

TM211 Automation Studio Online Communication
TM213 Automation Runtime
TM220 The Service Technician on the Job
TM223 Automation Studio Diagnostics
TM230 Structured Software Generation
TM240 Ladder Diagram (LAD)
TM241 Function Block Diagram (FBD)
TM246 Structured Text (ST)
TM250 Memory Management and Data Storage
TM261 Closed Loop Control with LOOPCONR

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TM400 The Basics of Motion Control

TM410 The Basics of ASiM
TM440 ASiM Basic Functions
TM441 ASiM Multi-Axis Functions
TM445 ACOPOS ACP10 Software
TM446 ACOPOS Smart Process Technology
TM450 ACOPOS Control Concept and Adjustment
TM460 Starting up Motors
TM480 Hydraulic Drive Control

TM500 The Basics of Integrated Safety Technology

TM510 ASiST SafeDESIGNER
TM540 ASiST SafeMC

TM700 Automation Net PVI

TM710 PVI Communication
TM711 PVI DLL Programming
TM712 PVIServices
TM730 PVI OPC
TM800 APROL System Concept
TM810 APROL Setup, Configuration and Recovery
TM811 APROL Runtime System
TM812 APROL Operator Management
TM813 APROL XML Queries and Audit Trail
TM830 APROL Project Engineering
TM840 APROL Parameter Management and Recipes
TM850 APROL Controller Configuration and INA
TM860 APROL Library Engineering
TM865 APROL Library Guide Book
TM870 APROL Python Programming
TM890 The Basics of LINUX

Ladder diagram (LD)

TM240

35

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Internationality

36

TM240

Ladder diagram (LD)

Back cover (number of pages divisible by 4)

Contact (Headquarters)

Weblink

Copyright Model Number

TM240TRE.00-ENG 0907
2007 by B&R. All rights reserved.
All trademarks presented are the property of their respective company.
We reserve the right to make technical changes.

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Summary