CHAPTER 18 - ELECTROCHEMISTRY

Electrochemistry - a branch of chemistry that deals with the exploitation of spontaneous oxidationreduction reactions to obtain electrical energy and the use of electrical energy to drive nonspontaneous
reactions important in industrial extraction of certain elements.
What you will be learning in this chapter?

Draw diagrams representing electrochemical cell and write the cell notation;
Know what reaction is taking place at the anode and cathode;
Write equations for anode and cathode half-reactions, and for the overall cell reaction;
Calculate standard cell potentials, Eocell, from half-cell potentials, Eo;
Calculate nonstandard cell potentials, Ecell, using the Nernst equation;
Calculate equilibrium constant (Kc) and standard free energy, Go, from Eocell.
Know the different types of electrochemical cells and the difference between an electrochemical
cells and an electrolytic cells;
Know some important applications of electrochemical and electrolytic processes.
Calculate amounts of products formed during electrolysis at anode and cathode.

18.1 Galvanic Cells

A galvanic cell (also called voltaic cell) is a device that uses a spontaneous oxidation-reduction reaction
to produce electric current. The following are some examples of spontaneous oxidation-reduction reactions:
1.

ME:
nie:

Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) Cu(s) + ZnSO4(aq)

Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Cu(s) + Zn2+(aq)

2.

ME:
nie:

Cr(s) + 3AgNO3(aq) Cr(NO3)3(aq) + 3Ag(s)

Cr(s) + 3Ag+(aq) Cr3+(aq) + 3Ag(s)

3.

nie:

MnO4-(aq) + 5Fe2+(aq) + 8H+(aq) Mn2+(aq) + 5Fe3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)

4.

ME:

Zn(s) + 2MnO2(s) ZnO(s) + Mn2O3(s)

Redox reactions can be broken into two half-reactions:

Example-1:
Oxidation half-reaction:

Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e-

Reduction half-reaction: Cu2+(aq) + 2 e- Cu(s)

Overall reaction:

Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Cu(s) + Zn2+(aq)

Example-2
Oxidation half-reaction:

5Fe2+(aq) 5Fe3+(aq) + 5e-

Reduction half-reaction: MnO4-(aq) + 8H+(aq) + 5e- Mn2+(aq) + 4H2O(l)

Overall reaction:

MnO4-(aq) + 5Fe2+(aq) + 8H+(aq) Mn2+(aq) + 5Fe3+(aq) + 4H2O(l)


Spontaneous redox reactions are exothermic reactions. Heat produced in an exothermic reaction is
normally lost as heat. However, it can be trapped and converted into electrical energy if the reactants
involved are not in direct contact with each other. In galvanic cells redox reactions is split into two halfreactions, each occurring in two separate compartments, called half-cells. The chemical energy is used to
drive electrons through the external circuit connecting the two half-cells, thus producing electric current.
For example, consider the following reaction:
Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) Cu(s) + ZnSO4(aq)
If zinc metal is placed in CuSO 4 solution, an exothermic reaction occurs, producing heat. In a galvanic cell
set up, a zinc metal is placed in ZnSO 4 solution in one container, a copper metal in CuSO 4 solution in
another container, the two metals are connected by a wire, and to complete the circuit, the two solutions are
connected by a salt-bridge containing strong electrolyte such as KCl (aq) or K2SO4(aq) that allows ions to flow
between the two half-cells. The reactants - zinc metal and copper ions are not allowed to come in direct
contact. Because of the potential different between the two half-cells, electrons are force to flow from the
zinc electrode (the anode) to the copper electrode (the cathode). At the interface between the zinc electrode
and ZnSO4 solution Zn atoms are oxidized to Zn 2+ ions; while at the interface between copper electrode and
CuSO4 solution Cu2+ ions combine with incoming electrons and is reduced to Cu atoms. These oxidation and
reduction processes are shown in the following half-reaction equations:
Anode-reaction (oxidation):

Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e-;

Cathode-reaction (reduction): Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s)

The two half-cells are represented by notations Zn|Zn 2+ and Cu2+|Cu. In a galvanic cell, the metal that is
more readily oxidized serves as an anode and the other as cathode. Zinc is more easily oxidized than copper
and it serves as the anode, while copper forms the cathode. Oxidation half-reaction occurs at anode and
reduction half-reaction at cathode. This galvanic or voltaic cell can be represented using the following cell
notation:
Zn|ZnSO4(aq)||CuSO4(aq)|Cu
(A cell notation is always written with the anode on the left side and cathode on the right.)
At the anode half-cell, Zn2+ ions are continuously formed, creating an excess of positive ions. While in
the cathode half-cell, Cu2+ ions are continuously reduced to Cu, causing a decrease in cation concentration.
To maintain electrically neutral solutions in both half-cells, anions flow into the anode half-cell and cations
flows into the cathode half-cell. Thus, electric current is the flow of charged particles electrons flows from
anode to cathode through wire; cations and anions flows in opposite direction through the salt-bridge.
Cell Potential
The driving force that enables electrons to flow from one electrode to the other is called electromotive
force (emf), or cell potential (Ecell), which has the unit volt (V). A volt is one Joule per Coulomb, where
Coulomb is the unit of charge.
17.2 Standard Reduction Potential
In a galvanic cell electrons flow from one electrode to the other because there is an electrical potential
difference between the two half-cells, simply called the cell potential. In the zinc-copper cell, electrons flow
from Zn|Zn2+ half-cell to Cu|Cu 2+ half-cell. The Zn|Z2+ half-cell has a higher electrical potential than Cu|Cu 2+.
The magnitude of cell potential depends on the nature of the two half-cells, the concentration of the

electrolyte in each half-cell, and temperature. The standard cell potential, Eocell, is the cell potential measured
under standard conditions, (1 atm pressure for gas, 1 M of electrolytes, and at 25 oC).
The standard half-cell potential or the reduction potential of a substance is determined by connecting
the half-cell of the substance (under standard conditions) to the standard hydrogen electrode (SHE) as
reference half-cell. This reference half-cell consists of a Pt-electrode in a solution containing 1 M H + into
which H2 gas is purged at a constant pressure of 1 atm. Because the reference half-cell is assigned zero
potential, the cell potential measured under this conditions is the standard half-cell potential of the
substance. For example, when a Zn|Zn 2+(aq, 1 M) half-cell is connected to the reference half-cell (SHE),
the voltage measured at 25 oC is found to be 0.763 V. However, in this set up, electron flows from Zn|Zn 2+ to
SHE, and relative to SHE, the reduction potential for Zn|Zn 2+ half-cell will be the negative value of the
measured voltage. That is,
Zn2+(aq) + 2e- Zn(s);

Eo = -076 V;

2H+(aq) + 2e- H2(s);

Eo = 0.000 V

Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s);

Eo = 0.34 V

(where Eo is the reduction potential)

Since values are obtained against the standard hydrogen potential, species with positive reduction potentials
are easier to reduce compared to H+ ions; while those with negative reduction potentials are more difficult to
reduce. Therefore, relative to H +, Cu2+ is easier to reduce, whereas Zn 2+ is more difficult to reduce. When Zn|
Zn2+ is connected to Cu|Cu 2+ half-cells, the spontaneous process will be the flow of electrons from Zn|Zn 2+ to
Cu|Cu2+ half-cell.
In galvanic cells, species with more positive reduction potential serves as cathode and one with less
positive or more negative reduction potential serves as the anode half-cell. The net cell potential is the sum
of the two half-cell potential. For the Zn-copper cell,
Anode half-cell reaction:

Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e-;

EoZn

Cathode half-cell reaction: Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s);

>Zn2+

EoCu2+

>Cu

= 0.76 V
= 0.34 V

Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s);

Overall cell reaction:

Eocell = EoZn

>Zn2+

+ EoCu2+

>Cu

= 0.76 V + 0.34 V = 1.10 V

For a cell consisting of Cr|Cr3+ and Ag|Ag+ half-cells, the cell notation and cell potential are:
Cr|Cr3+(aq,1 M)||Ag+(aq,1 M)|Ag
(anode)
(cathode)
Anode half-cell reaction:

Cr(s) Cr3+(aq) + 3e-;

Cathode half-cell reaction: Ag+(aq) + e- Ag(s(aq));

Overall cell reaction:

EoCr
EoAg+

>Cr3+

= 0.73 V

>Ag

= 0.80 V

Cr(s) + 3Ag+(aq) Cr3+(aq) + 3Ag(s);

Eocell = EoCr Cr3+ + EoAg+ Ag
= 0.73 V + 0.80 V = 1.53 V

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Exercise-1:
1.
For each of the following galvanic cell, write the anode and cathode half-cell reactions, the overall cell
reaction, and calculate the standard cell potential. Use the standard reduction half-cell potentials given
in Table-17.1 (page 833)
(a) Zn|Zn2+(aq, 1 M)||Fe3+,Fe2+(aq, 1 M)|Pt;
(b) Zn|Zn2+(aq, 1 M)||Br2,Br-(aq, 1 M)|Pt;
2.

Write the cell notation and calculate the standard cell potential for galvanic cells in which the
following reactions occur:
(a) Pb(s) + 2 Fe3+(aq) Pb2+(aq) + 2Fe2+(aq)
(b) 2Li(s) + I3-(aq) 2Li+(aq) + 3I-(aq)

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18.3 Cell Potential and Free Energy
The cell potential measures the potential difference between the two half-cells. A potential difference of
1 V is equivalent to 1 Joule of work done per Coulomb of charge that flows between two points in the
circuit. (1 V = 1 J/C or 1 J = 1 V.C)
Maximum work produced = charge x maximum potential
Wmax = -qEmax = G
Electrical charge, q = nF; G = -nFEcell; or Go = -nFEocell
where n = mole of electrons transferred or that flow through circuit,
and F = 96,485 C/mol e- is called Faradays constant
For example, the reaction: Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s) has Eocell = 1.10 V
The standard free energy is, Go = -2 mol e- x

96,485 C
x 1.10 V = -2.12 x 105 J
1 mol e -

2.12 x 102 kJ is the maximum work that can be derived per mole of Zn reacted by Cu 2+.
Exercise-2:
1.
In the following reaction: Zn(s) + CuSO4(aq) ZnSO4(aq) + Cu(s),
What is the maximum energy produced when 15.0 g of Zn is completely reacted in a Zn-Cu
electrochemical cell that has an average cell potential of 1.05 V?

2.

The following reaction has an average cell potential of 3.00 V: 2 Li (s) + LiI3 3 LiI(aq)
How much energy can be derived from a reaction in which 5.00 g of Li is oxidized?

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18.4 Dependence of Cell Potential on Concentration

The quantitative relationship between electrolyte concentration and cell potential is given by the
following Nernst Equation:
Ecell = Eocell - (RT/nF) lnQ;
Ecell is cell potential under non-standard conditions, while Eocell is cell potential under standard conditions
(calculated from standard reduction potentials), R = 8.314 J/(mol.K), F = 96,485 C/mol, is the Faradays
constant; Q is the reaction quotient, such that, for the reaction:
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s),
At 25 oC,

Q = [Zn2+]/[Cu2+].

(8.314 J/mol.K)(298 K)
RT
=
= 0.0257 J/C = 0.0257 V
96,485 C/mol
F

The expression for the Nernst equation becomes,

Ecell = Eocell -

(0.0257 V)
lnQ ;
n

= Eocell -

(0.0591 V)
logQ
n

For example, the non-standard cell potential for

Zn|Zn2+(aq, 0.010 M)||Cu2+(aq, 1.0 M)|Cu can be calculated as follows:
Ecell = (EoCu2+|Cu + EoZn|Zn2+) - (0.0591 V) log([Zn2+]/[Cu2+]);
n
= (0.34 V + 0.76 V) -

(0.0591 V)
log(0.010 M/1.0 M)
n

= 1.10 V + 0.060 V = 1.16 V

For the voltaic cell, Cu|Cu2+(aq)||Ag+(aq)|Ag, the Nernst equation is expressed as:
Ecell = (EoAg+|Ag + EoCu|Cu2+) - (0.0591 V/2) log ([Cu2+]/[Ag+]2)
If [Ag+] = 0.010 M, [Cu2+] = 1.0 M, and Eocell = 0.80 V 0.34 V = 0.46 V,
Ecell = 0.46 V
= 0.46 V

(0.0591 V)
log{1.0/(0.010)2}
2
(0.0591 V)
(4.0) = 0.46 V 0.12 V = 0.34 V
2

The cell potential calculated from Nernst equation is the maximum potential at the instant the cell circuit is
connected. As the cell discharges and current flows, the electrolyte concentrations will change, Q increases
and Ecell deceases.

The cell reaction will occur spontaneously until it reaches equilibrium, at which point
equilibrium constant) and

Q = K (the

Ecell = Eocell - (RT/nF) ln(K) = 0 ;

ln(K) = nFEocell/RT; K = exp(nFEocell/RT)
Note also that at equilibrium, G = Go RT ln(K) = 0 (no current flows through the circuit)
Exercise-3:
1.
Write an overall net ionic equation and calculate the cell potential at 25 oC for:
Zn|Zn2+(aq, 0.0050 M)||Cu2+(aq,1.0 M)|Cu
2.

Write an overall net ionic equation and calculate the cell potential at 25 oC for:
Cu|Cu2+(aq, 0.0050 M)||Ag+(aq, 0.50 M)|Ag

3.

The standard cell potential (Eocell) for the following galvanic cell is 1.10 V
Zn|Zn2+(aq, 1M)||Cu2+(aq, 1M)|Cu
What is the K value for the reaction: Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s) ?

Concentration Cells
A concentration cell is an electrochemical cell in which both half-cells are of the same type, but with
different electrolyte concentrations. The following cell notations are examples of concentration cells:
Cu|Cu2+(aq, 0.0010 M)||Cu2+(aq, 1.0 M)|Cu
Ag|Ag+(aq, 0.0010 M) ||Ag+(aq, 0.10 M)|Ag
In concentration cells, the half-cell with the lower electrolyte concentration serves as an anode half-cell and
one with the higher electrolyte concentration is the cathode half-cell. At the anode half-cell, oxidation
reaction occurs to increase the electrolyte concentration and at the cathode half-cell, a reduction reaction
occurs to decrease its electrolyte concentration. Oxidation-reduction reaction will continue until the
electrolyte concentrations in both half-cells become equal.
At anode half-cell:
At cathode half-cell:

Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2e-;

(in 0.0010 M Cu2+)
Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s); (in 0.50 M Cu2+)

Exercise-4:
1.
Determine the cell potentials of the following concentration cells:
(a) Cu|Cu2+(aq, 0.0010 M)||Cu2+(aq, 1.0 M)|Cu
(b) Ag|Ag+(aq, 0.0010 M)||Ag+(aq, 0.10 M)|Ag
2.

A concentration cell is set up by connecting a half-cell containing a zinc electrode in 0.10 M ZnSO 4(aq)
and another half-cell containing zinc electrode in a saturated solution of ZnS. If the Ksp of ZnS is 2.5 x
10-22, what is the expected cell potential at 25oC?
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18.5 Batteries
Batteries are galvanic cells or a group of galvanic cells connected in series, where the total battery
potential is equal to the sum of the potentials of the individual cells. There are three types of batteries
primary batteries, secondary batteries, and the fuel cell. Primary batteries are not re-chargeable, where as
secondary batteries are re-chargeable. Fuel cell will last as long as there is an ample supply of fuel to
provide the energy.
Dry Cells: The normal (acidic) dry batteries, alkaline batteries, and the mercury batteries are example of
primary batteries. The acidic dry battery consists of Zinc casing as container, anode and as the reducing
agent; graphite rod as (inert) cathode; aqueous NH 4Cl paste as electrolyte, and MnO2 powder as the
oxidizing agent.
Zn|Zn2+,NH4+,NH3(aq)||Mn2O3,MnO2|C(s)
Zn(s) Zn2+(aq) + 2e-;

Anode reaction:

Cathodic reaction: 2MnO2(s) + 2NH4+(aq) + 2e- Mn2O3(s) + 2NH3(aq) + H2O(l)

Net reaction: Zn(s) + 2MnO2(s) + 2NH4+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Mn2O3(s) + 2NH3(aq) + H2O(l)

The reverse reaction is prevented by the formation of [Zn(NH 3)4]2+ ions.

A new dry cell battery has a potential of about 1.5 V regardless of the size, but the amount of energy that
a battery can deliver depends on its size. For example, a D-size battery can deliver more current (greater
amperes) than an AAA-size battery. Normal dry batteries use aqueous NH 4Cl paste as electrolyte and are
referred to as acidic batteries due to the following ionization: NH 4+(aq) NH3(aq) + H+(aq)
Alkaline batteries also use zinc (as the reducing agent) and MnO 2 (as oxidizing agent), but aqueous paste
containing KOH, instead of NH4Cl, is used as the electrolyte. The anode and cathode reactions are as
follows:
Zn(s) + 2OH-(aq) ZnO(s) + H2O(l) + 2e-;

At anode:
At cathode:

2MnO2(s) + H2O(l) + 2e- Mn2O3(s) + 2OH-(aq);

Net reaction:

Zn(s) + 2MnO2(s) ZnO(s) + Mn2O3(s)

Since all reactants involved are in the solid form, alkaline batteries can deliver a fairly constant voltage until
the limiting reactant is completely used up. They also last longer because zinc metal corrodes more slowly
under basic conditions.
Batteries used in calculators and watches are mercury batteries. The following reactions occur at the anode
and cathode sections of the cell:
Anode reaction: Zn(s) + 2OH-(aq) ZnO(s) + H2O + 2e-;
Cathode reaction: HgO(s) + H2O + 2e- Hg(l) + 2OH-(aq)
Net cell reaction:

Zn(s) + HgO(s) ZnO(s) + Hg(l)

Lead Storage Batteries

These are batteries used in all types of automobiles. The lead storage batteries contain sulfuric acid as
electrolyte. Each cell contains a number of grids of lead alloy. One set of alternating grids is packed with
lead metal and the other with lead(IV) oxide, PbO 2. Each set of grids, which are the electrodes, are
connected in a parallel arrangement, which enables the cell to deliver more current - the amount of current
delivered depends on the surface area of the electrode. Each cell in a lead storage battery produces a
potential of about 2.01 V. A standard 12-V battery used in most cars contains six cells connected in series.
Spontaneous Reactions that occur in the lead storage battery are:
Anode reaction:
Pb(s) + HSO4-(aq) PbSO4(s) + H+(aq) + 2eCathode reaction: PbO2(s) + 3H+(aq) + HSO4-(aq) + 2e- PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(m)

Net reaction: Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2HSO4-(aq) 2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) discharging

The greatest advantage of lead storage batteries is that they are re-chargeable. When you start the engine the
discharge reaction occurs, but while the car is being driven, the battery obtains energy from the motor
through the alternator and the following re-charging reaction occurs:
2PbSO4(s) + 2H2O(l) Pb(s) + PbO2(s) + 2H+(aq) + 2HSO4-(aq)
Lead storage batteries also have a longer lifetime and can deliver a relatively large amount of current and
electrical energy within a short time. The major disadvantages are: (1) they are very heavy and bulky - nonportable; (2) lead is a toxic metal and the disposal creates environmental problems; (3) the battery must be
kept upright and H2SO4 is very corrosive.
Lithium batteries: these are batteries used in cameras and computers.
Anode reaction:

2 Li(s) Li+(aq) + 2e-;

Cathode reaction:

I3-(aq) + 2e- 3I-(aq)

Net cell reaction:

2Li(s) + I3-(aq) 2Li+(aq) + 3I-(aq)

The nickel-cadmium batteries are rechargeable batteries used in cordless phones. They contain cadmium as
the anode and hydrated nickel oxide as the cathode. The electrolyte is made up of aqueous KOH paste.
Anode reaction:
Cathode reaction:

Cd(s) + 2OH-(aq) Cd(OH)2(s) + 2e-;

2NiO(OH)(s) + 2H2O(l) + 2e- 2Ni(OH)2(s) + 2OH-(aq);

Net cell reaction: Cd(s) + 2NiO(OH)(s) + 2H2O(l) Cd(OH)2(aq) + 2Ni(OH)2(aq);

Fuel Cells:
A fuel cell is a galvanic cell that uses hydrogen (as fuel), which reacts with oxygen, and a large amount
of energy from the reaction is available to produce electricity. The fuel is supplied continuously from an
external tank. The hydrogen-oxygen fuel cells are used in the space shuttle modules.
Anode reaction:
Cathode reaction:

2H2(g) + 4OH-(aq) 4H2O(l) + 4e-;

2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e- 4OH-(aq)

Net cell reaction:

2H2(g) + O2(g) 2H2O(l) + Energy
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18.6 Corrosion Control
Corrosion is a spontaneous oxidation of metals by atmospheric oxygen a process that has great
economic impact. Consider the rusting process of a steel pipe. The process is accelerated by the presence of
water droplets on the metal surface. At the edge of the droplet, the part of iron exposed to the air acts as the
cathode for the electrochemical reaction. At the center of the droplet, the metal acts as anode and get
oxidized (corroded).

O2

OH-

Cathode

Fe2+ OH- O2
Anode

Cathode

At the edge of the droplet, molecular oxygen is reduced to OH -:

O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4e- 4OH-(aq)
and at the center of the droplet, metallic iron is oxidized to Fe 2+:
2Fe(s) 2Fe2+(aq) + 4eInside the droplets, Fe2+ combines with OH- to form iron(II) hydroxide, Fe(OH) 2, which is then further
oxidized to iron(III) oxide, Fe2O3.H2O.
Fe2+(aq) + 2OH-(aq) Fe(OH)2(s)
4Fe(OH)2(s) + O2(g) 2Fe2O3.H2O(s) + 2H2O
"rust"
Corrosion prevention can be done by passive method, such as by painting the metal surface, thus prevents
contact of the metal surface with oxygen and moisture. The active method of corrosion prevention involves
electrochemical process, which is the method employed in the control of corrosion of underground steel
pipes and tanks. If the pipe is wrapped or tied with a metal that is more electropositive than iron, such as
magnesium, aluminum, or zinc, then in electrochemical reactions these metals will act as the anodes and the
iron (pipe) as the cathode, while the wet soil acts as the electrolyte. The sacrificial metals will be oxidized
before the pipe.
For example, if magnesium is used as sacrificial anode, the following reactions will occur:
2Mg(s) 2Mg2+(aq) + 4e-;
and,

O2(g) + 2H2O(l) + 4 e- 4OH-(aq)

(at anode)
(at cathode)

Net reaction: 2Mg(s) + O2(g) + 2H2O 2Mg(OH)2(s);

This method of corrosion prevention using active metals such as magnesium as sacrificial anode is called a
cathodic protection, because as a cathode the pipe will not oxidized.
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10

11

18.7 Electrolysis
A galvanic cell produces current from a spontaneous oxidation-reaction. An electrolytic cell uses
electrical energy to drive nonspontaneous oxidation-reduction reactions. Electrolysis involves forcing a
current through a cell to produce a chemical change, which has a negative cell potential. For example, a lead
storage or car battery is a galvanic cell during the discharge process, that is when you starts the car or when
the headlight is on without the engine running. When the car is driven the re-charging reaction occurs and
the battery acts as an electrolytic cell. For example, the following spontaneous reaction occurs in a galvanic
cell that consists of Zn|Zn2+(aq) and Cu|Cu2+(aq) half-cells:
Zn(s) + Cu2+(aq) Zn2+(aq) + Cu(s);

Eocell = 1.10 V

In an electrolytic cell, the reverse reaction occurs if a voltage greater than 1.10 V is applied. A higher voltage
than Eo is needed to cause the reverse reaction; the excess voltage is referred to as overpotential or
overvoltage.
Three types of reactions are possible in electrolytic cells when a sufficient voltage is applied:
Solute ions or molecules may be oxidized or reduced;

The solvent can be oxidized or reduced;

Metal electrode that forms the anode can be oxidized.

Which of these reactions will actually take place depends both on the thermodynamic and kinetic properties
of each reaction. In general, the half-reactions with the most positive (or the least negative) reduction
potential will occur before others. If the difference in the standard reduction potentials between two halfcell reactions is small, concentration may determine the outcome of electrolysis. This is a kinetic factor. For
example, the following reactions are possible during the electrolysis of 1 M NaCl (aq):
At anode:

2Cl-(aq) Cl2(g) + 2e-;

Eo = -1.36 V
2H2O O2(g) + 4H+(aq) + 4e-;
Eo = -1.23 V

At cathode:

2H2O + 2e- H2(g) + 2OH-(aq)

Na+(aq) + e- Na(s);

Eo = -0.83 V
Eo = -2.71 V

In an actual electrolysis of aqueous sodium chloride, Cl 2 is formed at the anode instead of O 2 although Eo for
the formation of O2 from H2O is less negative than for the formation of Cl 2 from Cl-. This is because the
formation of O2 involves a higher activation energy (overvoltage), thus kinetically less favorable. At the
cathode, H2 is formed since it requires less voltage than the reduction of Na +(aq).
If a solution containing metal cations that require lower potential or one that has a positive reduction
potential is electrolyzed, the metal will be deposited on the cathode and no hydrogen will be produced. For
example, the electrolysis of aqueous copper(II) chloride solution will yield Cl 2 gas at the anode and copper
metal deposits at the cathode. If the anode is made of copper, it will also be oxidized because of the lower
voltage requirement relative to water.
Anode reaction:

Cu(s) Cu2+(aq) + 2e-;

Cathode reaction: Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s);

Eo = -0.34 V
Eo = +0.34 V

12

Electrolysis of Water
The decomposition of water is a nonspontaneous process, which an amount of energy of about 400
kJ/mol of water. However, the decomposition of water can be effected by electrolysis, in which oxygen is
formed at the anode and hydrogen at the cathode:
Anode reaction:

2H2O O2 + 4H+(aq) + 4e-;

Cathode reaction:

4H2O + 4e- 2H2 + 4OH-(aq);

Net reaction:

Eo = -1.23 V
Eo = -0.83 V

6H2O 2H2 + O2 + 4(H+ + OH-); Eo = -2.06 V

2H2O 2H2 + O2;

This potential assumes an electrolytic cell with [H +] = [OH-] = 1 M and PH2 = PO2 = 1 atm. In the electrolysis
of pure water, where [H+] = [OH-] = 10-7 M, the potential for the overall process is 1.23 V. However,
applying a voltage of 1.23 V will not be sufficient to affect the electrolysis of water. An extra voltage of
about 1 V (as overpotential or overvoltage) is needed to make the electrolysis takes effect.
Electrolysis of Solution Containing Mixtures of Ions
Consider a solution containing Cu2+, Zn2+, and Ag+ is electrolyzed using a current with sufficient voltage
to reduce all three cations. In such electrolysis, the metal having the smallest potential will be the first to be
formed. The reduction potentials of these elements are as follows:
Ag+(aq) + e- Ag(s);

Eo = 0.80 V

Cu2+(aq) + 2e- Cu(s);

Eo = 0.34 V

Zn2+(aq) + 2e- Zn(s);

Eo = -0.76 V

Since the reduction of Ag+ to Ag has the most positive potential, silver will be deposited at the cathode
before the other metals, which is then followed by Cu and Zn, respectively. If the voltage supply is properly
controlled, starting with the lowest voltage possible, it is possible to separate the three metals using
electrolysis.
Exercise-5:
1.
What products are formed at the anode and cathode, respectively, when each of the following solutions
is electrolyzed?

2.

(a) LiCl(aq)

(b) CuSO4(aq)

(c) NaCl(l)

(d) H2SO4(aq), using platinum as electrodes.

In an electrolysis of a solution contains a mixture of Fe 2+, Cu2+, and Pb2+ ions, in what order will the
metals be deposited on the cathode? If the anode is a mixture of Fe, Cu, and Pb, in what order will
they be oxidized?

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The Stoichiometry of Electrolysis Total Charge and Theoretical Yield

An electric current that flows through a cell is measured in ampere (A), which is the amount of
charge, in Coulomb (C), that flows through the circuit per second. That is,
Ampere = Coulomb/second (1 A = 1 C/s)
Coulomb = Ampere x time in second (1 C = 1 A.s) = total charge
Joule = Coulomb x Volt (1 J = 1 C.V)
The amount of substances formed at the anode or cathode can be calculated from the magnitude of current
(in amperes) and time (in seconds) of electrolysis.
For example, if a current of 1.50 A flows through an aqueous solution of CuSO 4 for 25.0 minutes, the
amount of charge passing through the solution is
(1.50 C/s)(25.0 minutes)(60 seconds/minutes) = 2250 C
The number of moles of electrons passing through the solution = (2250 C) x (1 mol e-_)
96,485 C
= 0.0233 mol
2+

2+

Since the reduction of Cu requires 2 mol e per mole of Cu: Cu + 2e Cu,

the amount of copper formed at the cathode is:
(0.0233 mol e-) x (1 mol Cu) x (63.55 g Cu) = 0.741 g Cu
2 mol e- 1 mol Cu
If the above process uses a cell with a voltage of 3.0 V, the energy consumed is:
3.0 V x 2250 C = 6750 C.V = 6800 J = 6.8 kJ
Exercise-6:
1.
How many grams of silver will be produced if a current of 1.50 A passes through a solution of AgNO 3
for 30.0 minutes?
2.

How long (in minutes) would it take to deposit 0.67 g of copper from a solution containing Cu 2+ using
a cell that operates at 6.0 V and produces a current of 1.3 A? How much energy (in kJ) is consumed to
produce this amount of copper?

18.8 Commercial Electrolytic Processes

The production of active metals such as sodium, magnesium, and aluminum from their compounds can
only be accomplished by electrolysis, which is carried out by passing current in the order of 10 4 105
Amperes. The most common examples of this method of production are those of sodium, magnesium, and
aluminum. Sodium and magnesium are produced by electrolysis of molten sodium chloride and magnesium
chloride, respectively.

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The Production of Aluminum

Aluminum is produced by electrolysis of molten Al 2O3 in cryolite (Na3AlF6) in a process called the HallHeroult process, named after the founders. The electrolytic cells for aluminum production use graphite for
both anode and cathode. The following reactions are thought to take place during the electrolysis which
occurs at temperature above 1000 oC:
At temperature above 1000 oC alumina reacts with molten cryolite ion:
Al2O3 + 4AlF63- 3Al2OF62- + 6F-;
Then the anode and cathode reactions are thought to occur as follows:
Anode reaction:

2Al2OF62- + 12F- + C 4AlF63- + CO2 + 4e-;

AlF63+ + 3e- Al + 6F-;

Cathode reaction:
The overall cell reaction is:

Al2O3 + 3C 4Al + 3CO2(g)

The anode, which is made of graphite, is consumed in the process and must be replaced from time to
time. Since aluminum is denser than aluminum oxide and cryolite, the molten aluminum sinks to the bottom
of the cell and can be removed quite easily. The aluminum produced in this process is about 99.5% pure.
Aluminum forms strong but light construction materials when alloyed with zinc or magnesium, which are
often used for making aircraft and aircraft engine.
Electrolysis of Molten Salt to Produce Sodium
The electrolysis of molten salt to produce sodium metal is commercially carried out in the Downs cells
at temperature around 600 oC. Chlorine is a by-product in this process.
At the anode:
At the cathode:
Net reaction:

2 Cl- Cl2(g) + 2e2Na+ + 2e- 2Na(l)

2NaCl(l) 2Na(l) + Cl2(g)

In the Downs cells the anode and cathode chambers are separated by a steel screen to prevent contact
between molten sodium metal and chlorine gas to prevent an explosive reaction between the two reactive
elements. The molten sodium metal forms a layer above the molten NaCl and can be siphoned off. To obtain
sodium metal, the electrolysis must use molten NaCl, to which BaCl 2 is added to lower the melting point. If
aqueous NaCl is used, water will be reduced at the cathode and hydrogen gas, instead of sodium, is
produced.
Electrolysis of Brine Solution for Commercial Production of Sodium Hydroxide
Sodium hydroxide is commercially produced by electrolysis of brine solution (saturated salt solution in
the chlor-alkali process.
Anode reaction:

2Cl-(aq) Cl2(g) + 2e-;

Cathode reaction: 2H2O + 2e- H2(g) + 2OH-(aq);

Net reaction: 2NaCl(aq) + 2H2O 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g) + Cl2(g)
The voltage requirement for the reduction of Na+ is higher than that required for reducing water. Thus,
hydrogen gas is produced instead of sodium metal. Oxygen gas is not formed at the anode because it

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involves a high overvoltage compared to that for chlorine gas. As a result, the overall voltage requirement to
oxidize water (which will produce oxygen gas) is greater than the overall potential needed to produce
chlorine gas.
Electro-refining of Copper
Electrolysis is also an important process in the purification of some metals. For example, impure copper
from the chemical reduction of copper ore is cast into large slabs that serve as the anodes for electrolytic
cells. The cells also use thin sheets of ultra pure copper as cathodes and aqueous copper(II) sulfate as the
electrolyte. Assuming zinc and iron as the major impurities in the copper slabs, the following reactions occur
at the anode:
Zn Zn2+(aq) + 2e-;
Eo = 0.76 V
Fe Fe2+(aq) + 2e-;

Eo = 0.44 V

Cu Cu2+(aq) + 2e-;

Eo = -0.34 V

By maintaining a low voltage supply, only copper is deposited at the cathode, which is made of pure copper
metal sheet; ionic impurities remain in solution.
Electroplating
Plating a thin coating of a metal that resist corrosion can protect other metals that readily corrode. The
process is called electroplating, in which the corrosion resistant metal is used as the anode where it is
oxidized and goes into solution. The ions formed from this metal are then reduced at the cathode, which
consists of utensils to be electroplated. The electrolyte usually contains a low ion concentration of
electroplating metal. For example, in silver plating, silver metal is used as the anode and the utensil to be
silver-plated as the cathode; the electrolyte consists of AgNO 3 in KCN(aq). In solution Ag+ forms complex
with CNAg+(aq) + 2CN-(aq) Ag(CN)2-(aq);
This reaction maintains a very low concentration of free Ag + ion in solution and yields a very thin and
uniform silver coating.
Anode reaction:

Ag + 2CN-(aq) Ag(CN)2-(aq) + e-;

Cathode reaction: Ag(CN)2-(aq) + e- Ag(s) + 2CN-(aq);

Exercise-7:
1.
How many grams of Na and Cl2, respectively, can be produced in 1.00 hr by the electrolysis of molten
NaCl in a Downs cell that operates at 5.0 V and 7.5 x 10 4 amperes? How many kilowatt-hours (kWh)
of energy are consumed to produce this amount of sodium and chlorine? (Faradays constant = 96,485
C/mol e-; 1 kWh = 3.6 x 106 J)
2.

The electrolysis of Al2O3 in molten cryolite to produce aluminum metal uses a cells that operate at 4.5
V and 2.0 x 105 A. How long does it take to produce 908 kg (~ 1 ton) of aluminum? How much kWh
of energy is consumed to produce this much aluminum? (Faradays constant = 96,485 C/mol e -; 1
kWh = 3.6 x 106 J)

16

3.

Molten magnesium chloride is electrolyzed in a cell that operates at 4.5 V and 1.5 x 10 5 A. How many
kilograms of magnesium are produced in an 8.0-hour shift? What other product is also formed and on
which electrode? (Faradays constant = 96,485 C/mol e-; 1 kWh = 3.6 x 106 J)

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