ANSYS Mechanical APDL Material Reference

ANSYS Mechanical APDL Material Reference
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Table of Contents
1. Introduction to Material Models ............................................................................................................. 1
1.1. Material Models for Displacement Applications ................................................................................. 1
1.2. Material Models for Temperature Applications ................................................................................... 2
1.3. Material Models for Electromagnetic Applications ............................................................................. 2
1.4. Material Models for Coupled Applications ......................................................................................... 3
1.5. Material Parameters .......................................................................................................................... 3
2. Material Model Element Support ........................................................................................................... 5
3. Material Models .................................................................................................................................... 13
3.1. Understanding Material Data Tables ................................................................................................ 13
3.2. Experimental Data .......................................................................................................................... 14
3.3. Linear Material Properties ............................................................................................................... 14
3.3.1. Defining Linear Material Properties ......................................................................................... 15
3.3.2. Stress-Strain Relationships ...................................................................................................... 17
3.3.3. Anisotropic Elasticity .............................................................................................................. 18
3.3.4. Damping ............................................................................................................................... 18
3.3.5. Thermal Expansion ................................................................................................................. 19
3.3.6. Emissivity ............................................................................................................................... 20
3.3.7. Specific Heat .......................................................................................................................... 20
3.3.8. Film Coefficients ..................................................................................................................... 21
3.3.9. Temperature Dependency ...................................................................................................... 21
3.3.10. How Material Properties Are Evaluated ................................................................................. 21
3.4. Rate-Independent Plasticity ............................................................................................................ 21
3.4.1. Understanding the Plasticity Models ....................................................................................... 22
3.4.1.1. Nomenclature ............................................................................................................... 23
3.4.1.2. Strain Decomposition .................................................................................................... 24
3.4.1.3.Yield Criterion ................................................................................................................ 24
3.4.1.4. Flow Rule ...................................................................................................................... 25
3.4.1.5. Hardening ..................................................................................................................... 26
3.4.1.6. Large Deformation ........................................................................................................ 27
3.4.1.7. Output .......................................................................................................................... 27
3.4.1.8. Resources ...................................................................................................................... 28
3.4.2. Isotropic Hardening ............................................................................................................... 29
3.4.2.1. Yield Criteria and Plastic Potentials ................................................................................. 30
3.4.2.1.1. Von Mises Yield Criterion ....................................................................................... 30
3.4.2.1.2. Hill Yield Criterion ................................................................................................. 31
3.4.2.1.2.1. Separated Hill Potentials for Plasticity and Creep ........................................... 33
3.4.2.2. General Isotropic Hardening Classes .............................................................................. 33
3.4.2.2.1. Bilinear Isotropic Hardening .................................................................................. 33
3.4.2.2.1.1. Defining the Bilinear Isotropic Hardening Model ........................................... 34
3.4.2.2.2. Multilinear Isotropic Hardening ............................................................................. 34
3.4.2.2.2.1. Defining the Multilinear Isotropic Hardening Model ...................................... 35
3.4.2.2.3. Nonlinear Isotropic Hardening .............................................................................. 36
3.4.2.2.3.1. Power Law Nonlinear Isotropic Hardening .................................................... 36
3.4.2.2.3.2. Voce Law Nonlinear Isotropic Hardening ....................................................... 36
3.4.2.2.4. Isotropic Hardening Static Recovery ...................................................................... 38
3.4.2.2.4.1. Defining the Isotropic Static Recovery ........................................................... 38
3.4.3. Kinematic Hardening ............................................................................................................. 39
3.4.3.1. Yield Criteria and Plastic Potentials ................................................................................. 40
3.4.3.2. General Kinematic Hardening Classes ............................................................................ 40
3.4.3.2.1. Bilinear Kinematic Hardening ................................................................................ 40
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Material Reference
3.4.3.2.1.1. Defining the Bilinear Kinematic Hardening Model ......................................... 41
3.4.3.2.2. Multilinear Kinematic Hardening ........................................................................... 41
3.4.3.2.2.1. Defining the Multilinear Kinematic Hardening Model .................................... 43
3.4.3.2.3. Nonlinear Kinematic Hardening ............................................................................ 44
3.4.3.2.3.1. Defining the Nonlinear Kinematic Hardening Model ..................................... 44
3.4.3.2.4. Kinematic Hardening Static Recovery .................................................................... 45
3.4.3.2.4.1. Defining the Kinematic Static Recovery ......................................................... 45
3.4.4. Generalized Hill ...................................................................................................................... 46
3.4.4.1. Defining the Generalized Hill Model ............................................................................... 48
3.4.5. Drucker-Prager ....................................................................................................................... 48
3.4.5.1. Classic Drucker-Prager ................................................................................................... 48
3.4.5.1.1. Defining the Classic Drucker-Prager Model ............................................................ 49
3.4.5.2. Extended Drucker-Prager (EDP) ...................................................................................... 49
3.4.5.2.1. EDP Yield Criteria Forms ........................................................................................ 49
3.4.5.2.1.1. Linear Form .................................................................................................. 50
3.4.5.2.1.2. Power Law Form ........................................................................................... 50
3.4.5.2.1.3. Hyperbolic Form .......................................................................................... 51
3.4.5.2.2. EDP Plastic Flow Potentials .................................................................................... 52
3.4.5.2.2.1. Linear Form .................................................................................................. 52
3.4.5.2.2.2. Power Law Form ........................................................................................... 52
3.4.5.2.2.3. Hyperbolic Form .......................................................................................... 52
3.4.5.2.3. Plastic Strain Increments for Flow Potentials .......................................................... 53
3.4.5.2.4. Example EDP Material Model Definitions ............................................................... 53
3.4.5.3. Extended Drucker-Prager Cap ........................................................................................ 54
3.4.5.3.1. Defining the EDP Cap Yield Criterion and Hardening .............................................. 56
3.4.5.3.2. Defining the EDP Cap Plastic Potential ................................................................... 57
3.4.5.3.3. Example EDP Cap Material Model Definition .......................................................... 57
3.4.6. Gurson ................................................................................................................................... 57
3.4.6.1. Void Volume Fraction ..................................................................................................... 58
3.4.6.2. Hardening ..................................................................................................................... 60
3.4.6.3. Defining the Gurson Material Model .............................................................................. 60
3.4.6.3.1. Defining the Gurson Base Model ........................................................................... 60
3.4.6.3.2. Defining Stress- or Strain-Controlled Nucleation .................................................... 60
3.4.6.3.3. Defining the Void Coalescence Behavior ............................................................... 61
3.4.6.3.4. Example Gurson Model Definition ......................................................................... 61
3.4.7. Cast Iron ................................................................................................................................ 62
3.4.7.1. Defining the Cast Iron Material Model ............................................................................ 63
3.5. Rate-Dependent Plasticity (Viscoplasticity) ...................................................................................... 64
3.5.1. Perzyna and Peirce Options .................................................................................................... 64
3.5.2. Exponential Visco-Hardening (EVH) Option ............................................................................. 65
3.5.3. Anand Option ........................................................................................................................ 66
3.5.4. Defining Rate-Dependent Plasticity (Viscoplasticity) ............................................................... 66
3.5.5. Creep ..................................................................................................................................... 67
3.5.5.1. Implicit Creep Equations ................................................................................................ 68
3.5.5.2. Explicit Creep Equations ................................................................................................ 69
3.5.5.2.1. Primary Explicit Creep Equation for C6 = 0 ............................................................. 70
3.5.5.2.4.1. Double Exponential Creep Equation (C4 = 0) ................................................. 71
3.5.5.2.4.2. Rational Polynomial Creep Equation with Metric Units (C4 = 1) ...................... 71
3.5.5.2.4.3. Rational Polynomial Creep Equation with English Units (C4 = 2) .................... 72
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Material Reference
3.5.5.2.5. Primary Explicit Creep Equation for C6 = 10 ........................................................... 72
3.5.5.2.5.1. Double Exponential Creep Equation (C4 = 0) ................................................. 72
3.5.5.2.6.1. Modified Rational Polynomial Creep Equation (C4 = 0) .................................. 73
3.5.5.2.8. Primary Explicit Creep Equation for C6 Equals 13 ................................................... 75
3.5.5.2.10. Primary Explicit Creep Equation for C6 = 15 ......................................................... 76
3.5.5.2.11. Primary Explicit Creep Equation for C6 = 100 ....................................................... 76
3.5.5.2.12. Secondary Explicit Creep Equation for C12 = 0 ..................................................... 76
3.5.5.2.13. Secondary Explicit Creep Equation for C12 = 1 ..................................................... 76
3.5.5.2.14. Irradiation Induced Explicit Creep Equation for C66 = 5 ........................................ 76
3.6. Hyperelasticity ................................................................................................................................ 77
3.6.1. Arruda-Boyce Hyperelasticity .................................................................................................. 77
3.6.2. Blatz-Ko Foam Hyperelasticity ................................................................................................. 78
3.6.3. Extended Tube Hyperelasticity ............................................................................................... 78
3.6.4. Gent Hyperelasticity ............................................................................................................... 79
3.6.5. Mooney-Rivlin Hyperelasticity ................................................................................................ 79
3.6.6. Neo-Hookean Hyperelasticity ................................................................................................. 81
3.6.7. Ogden Hyperelasticity ............................................................................................................ 81
3.6.8. Ogden Compressible Foam Hyperelasticity ............................................................................. 82
3.6.9. Polynomial Form Hyperelasticity ............................................................................................. 83
3.6.10. Response Function Hyperelasticity ....................................................................................... 85
3.6.11. Yeoh Hyperelasticity ............................................................................................................. 85
3.6.12. Special Hyperelasticity .......................................................................................................... 86
3.6.12.1. Anisotropic Hyperelasticity .......................................................................................... 86
3.6.12.2. Bergstrom-Boyce Material ............................................................................................ 87
3.6.12.3. Mullins Effect ............................................................................................................... 88
3.6.12.4. User-Defined Hyperelastic Material .............................................................................. 89
3.7. Viscoelasticity ................................................................................................................................. 89
3.7.1. Viscoelastic Formulation ......................................................................................................... 90
3.7.1.1. Small Deformation ......................................................................................................... 90
3.7.1.2. Small Strain with Large Deformation .............................................................................. 92
3.7.1.3. Large Deformation ........................................................................................................ 92
3.7.1.4. Dissipation .................................................................................................................... 93
3.7.2. Time-Temperature Superposition ........................................................................................... 94
3.7.2.1. Williams-Landel-Ferry Shift Function .............................................................................. 94
3.7.2.2. Tool-Narayanaswamy Shift Function ............................................................................... 95
3.7.2.3. User-Defined Shift Function ........................................................................................... 96
3.7.3. Harmonic Viscoelasticity ......................................................................................................... 97
3.7.3.1. Prony Series Complex Modulus ...................................................................................... 97
3.7.3.2. Experimental Data Complex Modulus ............................................................................ 97
3.7.3.3. Frequency-Temperature Superposition .......................................................................... 99
3.7.3.4. Stress ............................................................................................................................ 99
3.8. Microplane ..................................................................................................................................... 99
3.8.1. Microplane Modeling ............................................................................................................. 99
3.8.1.1. Discretization .............................................................................................................. 101
3.8.2. Material Models with Degradation and Damage .................................................................... 101
Material Reference
3.8.3. Material Parameters Definition and Example Input ................................................................ 103
3.8.4. Learning More About Microplane Material Modeling ............................................................. 104
3.9. Porous Media ................................................................................................................................ 104
3.9.1. Coupled Pore-Fluid Diffusion and Structural Model of Porous Media ...................................... 104
3.10. Electricity and Magnetism ........................................................................................................... 105
3.10.1. Piezoelectricity ................................................................................................................... 105
3.10.2. Piezoresistivity ................................................................................................................... 106
3.10.3. Magnetism ......................................................................................................................... 107
3.10.4. Anisotropic Electric Permittivity .......................................................................................... 107
3.11. Gasket ........................................................................................................................................ 108
3.12. Swelling ...................................................................................................................................... 110
3.13. Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) ......................................................................................................... 111
3.13.1. SMA Model for Superelasticity ............................................................................................ 112
3.13.1.1. Constitutive Model for Superelasticity ........................................................................ 113
3.13.1.2. Material Parameters for the Superelastic SMA Material Model ..................................... 115
3.13.2. SMA Material Model with Shape Memory Effect .................................................................. 115
3.13.2.1. The Constitutive Model for Shape Memory Effect ........................................................ 116
3.13.2.2. Material Parameters for the Shape Memory Effect Option ........................................... 118
3.13.3. Result Output of Solution Variables ..................................................................................... 119
3.13.4. Element Support for SMA ................................................................................................... 119
3.13.5. Learning More About Shape Memory Alloy ......................................................................... 120
3.14. MPC184 Joint .............................................................................................................................. 120
3.14.1. Linear Elastic Stiffness and Damping Behavior ..................................................................... 120
3.14.2. Nonlinear Elastic Stiffness and Damping Behavior ............................................................... 121
3.14.2.1. Specifying a Function Describing Nonlinear Stiffness Behavior .................................... 123
3.14.3. Frictional Behavior .............................................................................................................. 123
3.15. Contact Friction .......................................................................................................................... 125
3.15.1. Isotropic Friction ................................................................................................................ 126
3.15.2. Orthotropic Friction ............................................................................................................ 126
3.15.3. Redefining Friction Between Load Steps ............................................................................. 127
3.15.4. User-Defined Friction .......................................................................................................... 128
3.16. Contact Interaction ..................................................................................................................... 128
3.16.1. Interaction Options for General Contact Definitions ............................................................ 128
3.16.2. User-Defined Interaction .................................................................................................... 129
3.17. Cohesive Material Law ................................................................................................................. 130
3.17.1. Exponential Cohesive Zone Material for Interface Elements and Contact Elements ............... 130
3.17.2. Bilinear Cohesive Zone Material for Interface Elements and Contact Elements ...................... 130
3.17.3. Viscous Regularization of Cohesive Zone Material for Interface Elements and Contact Elements ........................................................................................................................................... 131
3.17.4. Cohesive Zone Material for Contact Elements ...................................................................... 132
3.17.5. Post-Debonding Behavior at the Contact Interface .............................................................. 133
3.18. Contact Surface Wear .................................................................................................................. 134
3.18.1. Archard Wear Model ........................................................................................................... 134
3.18.2. User-Defined Wear Model ................................................................................................... 135
3.19. Acoustics .................................................................................................................................... 135
3.19.1. Equivalent Fluid Model of Perforated Media ........................................................................ 135
3.19.1.1. Johnson-Champoux-Allard Equivalent Fluid Model of Perforated Media ...................... 135
3.19.1.2. Delany-Bazley Equivalent Fluid Model of Perforated Media ......................................... 136
3.19.1.3. Miki Equivalent Fluid Model of Perforated Media ........................................................ 137
3.19.1.4. Complex Impedance and Propagating-Constant Equivalent Fluid Model of Perforated
Media ..................................................................................................................................... 138
3.19.1.5. Complex Density and Velocity Equivalent Fluid Model of Perforated Media ................. 138
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Material Reference
3.19.1.6. Transfer Admittance Matrix Model of Perforated Media ............................................... 139
3.19.1.7. Transfer Admittance Matrix Model of a Square or Hexagonal Grid Structure ................ 140
3.19.2. Acoustic Frequency-Dependent Materials ........................................................................... 141
3.19.3. Low Reduced Frequency (LRF) Model of Acoustic Viscous-Thermal Media ............................ 141
3.19.3.1. Thin Layer .................................................................................................................. 141
3.19.3.2.Tube with Rectangular Cross-Section .......................................................................... 141
3.19.3.3. Tube with Circular Cross-Section ................................................................................ 142
3.20. Fluids .......................................................................................................................................... 142
3.21. Custom Material Models .............................................................................................................. 143
3.21.1. User-Defined Material Model (UserMat) .............................................................................. 143
3.21.2. User-Defined Thermal Material Model (UserMatTh) ............................................................. 144
3.21.3. User-Defined Cohesive Material (UserCZM) ......................................................................... 144
3.21.4. Using State Variables with User-Defined Materials ............................................................... 145
3.21.4.1. Using State Variables with the UserMat Subroutine ..................................................... 145
3.21.4.2. Using State Variables with the UserMatTh Subroutine ................................................. 145
3.21.4.3. Using State Variables with the UserCZM Subroutine .................................................... 146
3.22. Material Strength Limits .............................................................................................................. 146
3.23. Material Damage ........................................................................................................................ 148
3.23.1. Damage Initiation Criteria ................................................................................................... 148
3.23.2. Damage Evolution Law ....................................................................................................... 149
3.23.2.1. Predicting Post-Damage Degradation of Brittle Anisotropic Materials ......................... 151
3.23.2.1.1. Damage Modes ................................................................................................. 153
4. Explicit Dynamics Materials ................................................................................................................ 155
5. Material Curve Fitting ......................................................................................................................... 157
5.1. Hyperelastic Material Curve Fitting ................................................................................................ 157
5.1.1. Understanding the Hyperelastic Material Curve-Fitting Process ............................................. 157
5.1.2. Step 1. Prepare Experimental Data ........................................................................................ 158
5.1.3. Step 2. Input the Experimental Data ...................................................................................... 159
5.1.3.1. Batch ........................................................................................................................... 159
5.1.3.2. GUI .............................................................................................................................. 160
5.1.4. Step 3. Select a Material Model Option .................................................................................. 160
5.1.4.1. Batch Method .............................................................................................................. 161
5.1.4.2. GUI Method ................................................................................................................. 161
5.1.5. Step 4. Initialize the Coefficients ............................................................................................ 161
5.1.5.1. Batch ........................................................................................................................... 162
5.1.5.2. GUI .............................................................................................................................. 162
5.1.6. Step 5. Specify Control Parameters and Solve ........................................................................ 162
5.1.6.1. Batch ........................................................................................................................... 163
5.1.6.2. GUI .............................................................................................................................. 163
5.1.7. Step 6. Plot Your Experimental Data and Analyze ................................................................... 163
5.1.7.1. GUI .............................................................................................................................. 163
5.1.7.2. Review/Verify .............................................................................................................. 164
5.1.8. Step 7. Write Data to the TB Command .................................................................................. 164
5.1.8.1. Batch ........................................................................................................................... 164
5.1.8.2. GUI .............................................................................................................................. 164
5.2. Viscoelastic Material Curve Fitting ................................................................................................. 164
5.2.1. Understanding the Viscoelastic Material Curve-Fitting Process .............................................. 165
5.2.3. Step 2. Input the Data ........................................................................................................... 166
5.2.3.1. Batch ........................................................................................................................... 167
5.2.3.2. GUI .............................................................................................................................. 167
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Material Reference
5.2.4.1. Batch Method .............................................................................................................. 167
5.2.4.2. GUI Method ................................................................................................................. 168
5.2.5.1. Batch Method ............................................................................................................. 169
5.2.5.2. GUI Method ................................................................................................................. 170
5.2.6.1. Temperature-Dependent Solutions Using the Shift Function ......................................... 171
5.2.6.2. Temperature-Dependent Solutions Without the Shift Function ..................................... 171
5.2.6.3. Batch Method .............................................................................................................. 172
5.2.6.4. GUI Method ................................................................................................................. 173
5.2.7. Step 6. Plot the Experimental Data and Analyze ..................................................................... 173
5.2.7.1. Analyze Your Curves for Proper Fit ................................................................................ 173
5.2.8.1. Batch Method .............................................................................................................. 174
5.2.8.2. GUI Method ................................................................................................................. 175
5.3. Creep Material Curve Fitting .......................................................................................................... 175
5.3.1. Understanding the Creep Material Curve-Fitting Process ....................................................... 175
5.3.3.1. Batch Method .............................................................................................................. 177
5.3.3.2. GUI Method ................................................................................................................. 178
5.3.4.1. Batch Method .............................................................................................................. 178
5.3.4.2. GUI Method ................................................................................................................. 179
5.3.5.1. Batch Method .............................................................................................................. 180
5.3.5.2. GUI Method ................................................................................................................. 180
5.3.6.1. Batch Method .............................................................................................................. 181
5.3.6.2. GUI Method ................................................................................................................. 181
5.3.7.1. GUI Method ................................................................................................................. 181
5.3.7.2. Analyze Your Curves for Proper Fit ................................................................................ 182
5.3.8.1. Batch Method .............................................................................................................. 182
5.3.8.2. GUI Method ................................................................................................................. 182
5.3.9. Tips For Curve Fitting Creep Models ...................................................................................... 182
5.4. Chaboche Material Curve Fitting ................................................................................................... 184
5.4.1. Understanding the Chaboche Material Curve-Fitting Process ................................................ 184
5.4.3.1. Batch Method .............................................................................................................. 186
5.4.3.2. GUI Method ................................................................................................................. 186
5.4.4.1. Batch Method .............................................................................................................. 187
5.4.4.2. GUI Method ................................................................................................................. 187
5.4.5.1. Including Isotropic Hardening Models with Chaboche Kinematic Hardening ................. 187
5.4.5.2. General Process for Initializing MISO Option Coefficients .............................................. 188
5.4.5.2.1. Batch Method ..................................................................................................... 189
5.4.5.2.2. GUI Method ........................................................................................................ 189
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Material Reference
5.4.6.1. Temperature-Dependent Solutions .............................................................................. 190
5.4.6.2. Batch Method .............................................................................................................. 190
5.4.6.3. GUI Method ................................................................................................................. 191
5.4.7.1. Analyzing Your Curves for Proper Fit ............................................................................. 191
6. Material Model Combinations ............................................................................................................ 193
7. Understanding Field Variables ............................................................................................................ 199
7.1. User-Defined Field Variables .......................................................................................................... 199
7.1.1. Subroutine for Editing Field Variables .................................................................................... 200
7.2. Data Processing ............................................................................................................................ 200
7.3. Logarithmic Interpolation and Scaling ........................................................................................... 202
7.4. Example: One-Dimensional Interpolation ....................................................................................... 202
7.5. Example: Two-Dimensional Interpolation ....................................................................................... 203
7.6. Example: Multi-Dimensional Interpolation ..................................................................................... 203
8. GUI-Inaccessible Material Properties .................................................................................................. 205
ix
List of Figures
3.1. Stress-Strain Curve for an Elastic-Plastic Material .................................................................................... 22
3.2.Yield Surface in Principal Stress Space .................................................................................................... 25
3.3. Plastic Strain Flow Rule .......................................................................................................................... 25
3.4. Isotropic Hardening of the Yield Surface ................................................................................................ 26
3.5. Kinematic Hardening of the Yield Surface .............................................................................................. 27
3.6.Yield Surface for von Mises Yield Criterion .............................................................................................. 31
3.7. Stress vs. Total Strain for Bilinear Isotropic Hardening ............................................................................. 34
3.8. Stress vs. Total Strain for Multilinear Isotropic Hardening ........................................................................ 35
3.9. Stress vs. Plastic Strain for Voce Hardening ............................................................................................. 37
3.10. Stress vs. Total Strain for Bilinear Kinematic Hardening ......................................................................... 40
3.11. Stress vs. Total Strain for Multilinear Kinematic Hardening .................................................................... 42
3.12. Power Law Criterion in the Meridian Plane ........................................................................................... 50
3.13. Hyperbolic and Linear Criterion in the Meridian Plane .......................................................................... 51
3.14. Yield Surface for the Cap Criterion ....................................................................................................... 55
3.15. Growth, Nucleation, and Coalescence of Voids at Microscopic Scale ...................................................... 58
3.16. Cast Iron Yield Surfaces for Compression and Tension .......................................................................... 63
3.17. Generalized Maxwell Solid in One Dimension ...................................................................................... 90
3.18. Sphere Discretization by 42 Microplanes ............................................................................................ 101
3.19. Damage Parameter d Depending on the Equivalent Strain Energy ...................................................... 103
3.20. Stress-strain Behavior at Uniaxial Tension ........................................................................................... 103
3.21. Pseudoelasticity (PE) and Shape Memory Effect (SME) ........................................................................ 112
3.22. Typical Superelasticity Behavior ......................................................................................................... 113
3.23. Idealized Stress-Strain Diagram of Superelastic Behavior .................................................................... 114
3.24. Admissible Paths for Elastic Behavior and Phase Transformations ....................................................... 118
xi
xii
List of Tables
3.1. Linear Material Property Descriptions .................................................................................................... 15
3.2. Implicit Creep Equations ....................................................................................................................... 68
3.3. Superelastic Option Constants ............................................................................................................ 115
3.4. Shape Memory Effect Option Constants .............................................................................................. 119
5.1. Experimental Details for Case 1 and 2 Models and Blatz-Ko .................................................................. 158
5.2. Experimental Details for Case 3 Models ............................................................................................... 158
5.3. Hyperelastic Curve-Fitting Model Types ............................................................................................... 160
5.4. Viscoelastic Data Types and Abbreviations ........................................................................................... 166
5.5. Creep Data Types and Abbreviations ................................................................................................... 176
5.6. Creep Model and Data/Type Attribute ................................................................................................. 177
5.7. Creep Models and Abbreviations ......................................................................................................... 178
6.1. Material Model Combination Possibilities ............................................................................................ 193
xiii
xiv
Chapter 1: Introduction to Material Models

Material models (also called constitutive models), are the mathematical representation of a material's
response to an applied load.
Typical model classes include the relationships between stress-strain, heat flux-temperature gradient,
voltage-strain, and current-voltage, but also include more general behaviors such as friction and
bonding, and response due to changes in the physical environment such as thermal expansion and
swelling.
This reference provides information about material model behavior and application, including details
about the load-response relationship and the necessary information required to use the material models
in an analysis. The models are grouped based on the degrees of freedom that, directly or indirectly,
give the loading function that serves as the input for the material model.
The following related introductory topics are available:
1.1. Material Models for Displacement Applications
1.2. Material Models for Temperature Applications
1.3. Material Models for Electromagnetic Applications
1.4. Material Models for Coupled Applications
1.5. Material Parameters
1.1. Material Models for Displacement Applications

For analyses that include displacement degrees of freedom, the input is a function of deformation such
as strain or displacement, and the response is given force-like quantities such as stress or normal and
tangential forces. The following general material types are available:
Type
Behavior
Application
Linear elastic
The response is the stresses that are directly

Many metals are linear
proportional to the strains and the material will elastic at room temperature
fully recover the original shape when unloaded. when the strains are small.
For isotropic materials, the relationship is given
by Hooke's law and this relationship can be
generalized to define anisotropic behavior.
Plastic and
elastic-plastic
The deformation of the material includes a

permanent, or plastic, component that will not
return to the original configuration if the load
is removed and evolves in response to the
deformation history. These materials also
typically have an elastic behavior so that the
combined deformation includes a part that is
recoverable upon unloading.
Plastic deformation is
observed in many materials
such as metals, alloys, soils,
rocks, concrete, and
ceramics.
Hyperelastic
The behavior of these models is defined by a

strain-energy potential, which is the energy
stored in the material due to strain. The
Hyperelastic models are

often used for materials that
undergo large elastic
Introduction to Material Models

Type
Behavior
Application
mathematical formulation is convenient for

large-deformation analyses.
deformation, such as
polymers and biological
materials.
Rate effects and

time
dependency
This is a general behavior in which the response

of the material depends on the rate of
deformation, and thus also the time. Examples
include viscoelasticity, viscoplasticity, creep and
damping.
Metal alloys that show

significant creep
deformation under elevated
temperature,
rate-dependent metal
forming applications,
polymers which typically get
stiffer for increased
deformation rate, and
structures that damp out
high frequency waves under
dynamic loading.
Expansion and
swelling
Materials often respond to changes in the

physical environment and this response affects
the structural behavior. Examples include
thermal expansion in which changes in material
volume depend on changes in temperature and
swelling behaviors that depend on hygroscopic
effects or neutron flux.
Radiation environments,
bonded materials with
thermal strain mismatch,
and soils that absorb water.
Interaction
These models produce a response based on the Gasket and joint materials
interaction of structures.
and also models of bonded
and separating surfaces
along interfaces or material
cleavage.
Shape memory
alloy
An elastic constitutive model with an internal

phase transformation.
The phase transformation

depends on the stress and
temperature that cause an
internal transformation
strain.
1.2. Material Models for Temperature Applications

For analyses that include temperature as a degree of freedom, the material model for conduction gives
a heat flux due to the gradient of temperature and also interaction between bodies due to radiative
heat transfer that is dependent on surface temperature differences.
1.3. Material Models for Electromagnetic Applications

Material models for use in analyses with electromagnetic degrees of freedom include:
Type
Description
Magnetic
Gives the magnetomotive force in response to the magnetic

flux.
Conductivity
For electric and magnetic current conductivities that model

the relationship between the respective field and its flux.
Material Parameters
Type
Description
Permittivity and
Permeability
Gives the energy storage in a material in response to an

electromagnetic field.
Loss
Represents the energy lost in electromagnetic and dielectric

materials in response to changes in electromagnetic fields.
1.4. Material Models for Coupled Applications

Some models are valid in analyses that couple the thermal, electromagnetic, and displacement degrees
of freedom.
Although the models are coupled, they remain distinct and give the same load-response behavior.
However, the piezoelectric and piezoresistive materials are electromechanical coupled models that give
a strain in response to a voltage and also produce a voltage in response to straining.
1.5. Material Parameters

Because a material model represents a mathematical relationship between response and load, it requires
input parameters so that the model matches the material behavior.
In some cases, the parameters can be a function of physical field quantities such as temperature, frequency or time or interaction quantities such as normal pressure, relative distance, or relative velocity.
Matching the model to the actual behavior can be challenging; therefore, some built-in curve-fitting
methods are available that use minimization to select a set of parameters that give a close fit to measured
material behavior. The curve-fitting methods help you to select material parameters for creep, hyperelastic, viscoelastic, and some plastic models.
Chapter 2: Material Model Element Support

Following is a list of available material models and the elements that support each material.
Material models are specified via the TB,Lab command, where Lab represents the material model label
(shortcut name).
For a list of elements and the material models they support (Lab value), see Element Support for Material Models in the Element Reference.
Label
(Lab)
Material Model
Elements
AHYPER
Anisotropic
hyperelasticity
SHELL181, PLANE182, PLANE183, SOLID185, SOLID186,

SOLID187, SHELL208, SHELL209, PLANE223, SOLID226,
SOLID227, SOLID272, SOLID273, SHELL281, SOLID285, PIPE288,
PIPE289, ELBOW290
ANEL
Anisotropic elasticity SOLID5, PLANE13, SOLID98, SHELL181, PLANE182, PLANE183,

SOLID185, SOLID186, SOLID187, SOLSH190, SHELL208,
SHELL209, PLANE223, SOLID226, SOLID227, SOLID272,
SOLID273, SHELL281, SOLID285, PIPE288, PIPE289, ELBOW290
Also, explicit dynamic elements SOLID164, SOLID168
ANISO
Anisotropic plasticity SOLID65

Nonlinear legacy elements only
BB
Bergstrom-Boyce
PLANE182, PLANE183, SHELL181, SOLID185, SOLID186,

SOLID187, SOLSH190, SHELL208, SHELL209, PLANE223,
SOLID226, SOLID227, SOLID272, SOLID273, SHELL281,
SOLID285, PIPE288, PIPE289, ELBOW290
BH
Magnetic
SOLID5, PLANE13, PLANE53, SOLID96, SOLID97, SOLID98,

PLANE233, SOLID236, SOLID237
BISO
Bilinear isotropic
hardening
von Mises plasticity:

SOLID65, LINK180, SHELL181, SOLID185,
SOLID186, SOLID187, BEAM188, BEAM189,
SOLSH190, SHELL208, SHELL209, PLANE223,
SOLID226, SOLID227, REINF263, REINF264,
REINF265, SHELL281, PIPE288, PIPE289,
ELBOW290, PLANE182, PLANE183
Also , explicit dynamic elements PLANE162,
SHELL163, SOLID164, SOLID168
Hill plasticity:
SOLID65, LINK180, SHELL181, PLANE182, PLANE183,
SOLID185, SOLID186, SOLID187, BEAM188, BEAM189,
Material Model Element Support

Label
(Lab)
Material Model
Elements
SOLID226, SOLID227, REINF263, REINF264, REINF265,
SOLID272, SOLID273, SHELL281, SOLID285, PIPE288,
PIPE289, ELBOW290
BKIN
Bilinear kinematic
hardening

SOLID65, LINK180, SHELL181, SOLID185,
SOLID186, SOLID187, BEAM188, BEAM189,
SOLID226, SOLID227, REINF263, REINF264,
REINF265, SHELL281, PIPE288, PIPE289,
ELBOW290, PLANE182, PLANE183
Also , explicit dynamic elements LINK160,
BEAM161, PLANE162, SHELL163, SOLID164,
SOLID168
Hill plasticity:
SOLID65, LINK180, SHELL181, PLANE182,
PLANE183, SOLID185, SOLID186, SOLID187,
BEAM188, BEAM189, SOLSH190, SHELL208,
SHELL209, PLANE223, SOLID226, SOLID227,
REINF263, REINF264, REINF265, SOLID272,
SOLID273, SHELL281, SOLID285, PIPE288,
PIPE289, ELBOW290
CAST
Cast iron
PLANE182 (not applicable for plane stress), PLANE183 (not

applicable for plane stress), SOLID185, SOLID186, SOLID187,
SOLSH190, PLANE223, SOLID226, SOLID227, SOLID272,
SOLID273, SOLID285, PIPE288, PIPE289
CDM
Mullins effect

CGCR
Crack growth
fracture criterion
PLANE182, SOLID185
CHABOCHE Chaboche nonlinear

kinematic hardening
von Mises or Hill plasticity:

LINK180, SHELL181, PLANE182, PLANE183,
SOLID185, SOLID186, SOLID187, BEAM188,
BEAM189, SOLSH190, SHELL208, SHELL209,
PLANE223, SOLID226, SOLID227, REINF263,
REINF264, REINF265, SOLID272, SOLID273,
SHELL281, SOLID285, PIPE288, PIPE289,
ELBOW290
COMP
Composite damage
Explicit dynamic elements PLANE162, SHELL163, SOLID164,

SOLID168
Label
(Lab)
Material Model
Elements
CONCR
Concrete or
concrete damage
SOLID65
Concrete damage model using explicit dynamic elements
SOLID164, SOLID168
CREEP
Creep
Implicit creep with von Mises or Hill potential:

SOLID285, SHELL281, PIPE288, PIPE289,
ELBOW290
Explicit creep:
SOLID65
CTE
Coefficient of
thermal expansion
LINK180, SHELL181, PLANE182, PLANE183, SOLID185,

SOLID186, SOLID187, BEAM188, BEAM189, SOLSH190,
SHELL208, SHELL209, CPT212, CPT213, CPT215, CPT216,
CPT217, PLANE223, SOLID226, SOLID227, REINF263, REINF264,
REINF265, SOLID272, SOLID273, SHELL281, SOLID285, PIPE288,
PIPE289, ELBOW290
CZM
Cohesive zone
CONTA171, CONTA172, CONTA173, CONTA174, CONTA175,

CONTA176, CONTA177, INTER202, INTER203, INTER204,
INTER205
DISCRETE
Explicit
spring-damper
(discrete)
COMBI165
DMGE
Damage evolution
law
Progressive damage evolution (MPDG option):

SOLID272, SOLID273, SHELL281, SOLID285,
PIPE288, PIPE289, ELBOW290
Continuum damage mechanics (CDM option):
SHELL181, PLANE182 (plane stress option),
PLANE183 (plane stress option), SHELL208,
SHELL209, SHELL281, PIPE288 (thin pipe
formulation), PIPE289 (thin pipe formulation),
ELBOW290
DMGI
Damage initiation
criteria

SHELL208, SHELL209, SOLID272, SOLID273, SHELL281,

Label
(Lab)
Material Model
Elements
DP
Drucker-Prager
plasticity
SOLID65
DPER
Anisotropic electric
permittivity
EDP
Extended
Drucker-Prager

SOLID273, SOLID285, PIPE288, PIPE289
ELASTIC
Elasticity

SHELL208, SHELL209, CPT212, CPT213, CPT215, CPT216,
CPT217, PLANE223, SOLID226, SOLID227, REINF263, REINF264,
REINF265, SOLID272, SOLID273, SHELL281, SOLID285, PIPE288,
PIPE289, ELBOW290
EOS
Equation of state
Explicit dynamic elements only
EVISC
Viscoelasticity
Explicit dynamic elements BEAM161, PLANE162, SOLID164,

SOLID168
EXPE
Experimental data
Used only with other material models
FCON
Fluid conductance
data
FLUID116
FCLI
Failure criteria
material strength
limits
All structural elements
FLUID
Fluid
HSFLD241, HSFLD242
FOAM
Foam
Explicit dynamic elements PLANE162, SOLID164, SOLID168
FRIC
Coefficient of
friction
CONTA171, CONTA172, CONTA173, CONTA174, CONTA175,

CONTA176, CONTA177, CONTA178
Orthotropic friction (TB,FRIC,,,,ORTHO) is not applicable
to the 2-D contact elements CONTA171 and CONTA172,
nor to CONTA178.
GASKET
Gasket
INTER192, INTER193, INTER194, INTER195
GCAP
Geological cap
Explicit dynamic elements SOLID164, SOLID168
GURSON
Gurson
pressure-dependent
plasticity

SOLID273, SOLID285
HFLM
Film coefficient data
FLUID116
HILL
Hill anisotropy

SHELL208, SHELL209, PLANE223, SOLID226, SOLID227,
REINF263, REINF264, REINF265, SOLID272, SOLID273, SHELL281,
HONEY
Honeycomb
Explicit dynamic elements PLANE162, SOLID164, SOLID168
Label
(Lab)
Material Model
Elements
HYPER
Hyperelasticity

SOLID187, SOLSH190, CPT212, CPT213, CPT215, CPT216,
CPT217, SHELL208, SHELL209, PLANE223, SOLID226, SOLID227,
SOLID272, SOLID273, SHELL281, SOLID285, PIPE288, PIPE289,
ELBOW290,
INTER
Contact interaction
User-defined contact interaction:

CONTA171, CONTA172, CONTA173, CONTA174,
CONTA175, CONTA176, CONTA177, CONTA178
Contact interactions for general contact:
CONTA171, CONTA172, CONTA173, CONTA174,
CONTA177
JOIN
Joint (linear and

nonlinear elastic
stiffness, linear and
nonlinear damping,
and frictional
behavior)
MPC184
KINH
Multilinear
kinematic hardening

SOLID65, PLANE13, LINK180, SHELL181,
PLANE182, PLANE183, SOLID185, SOLID186,
SOLID187, BEAM188, BEAM189, SOLSH190,
SHELL208, SHELL209, PLANE223, SOLID226,
SOLID227, REINF263, REINF264, REINF265,
SHELL281, PIPE288, PIPE289, ELBOW290
Hill plasticity:
SOLID273, SHELL281, SOLID285, ELBOW290
MELAS
Multilinear elasticity
SOLID65
Nonlinear legacy elements only
MISO
Multilinear isotropic
hardening

SOLID65, LINK180, SHELL181,PLANE182,
SOLID273, SHELL281, SOLID285, PIPE288,
PIPE289, ELBOW290

Label
(Lab)
Material Model
Elements
Hill plasticity:
SOLID273, SHELL281, SOLID285, ELBOW290
MKIN
Multilinear
kinematic hardening

ELBOW290
Hill plasticity:
SHELL281, SOLID285, ELBOW290
MOONEY
Mooney-Rivlin
hyperelasticity
Explicit dynamic elements PLANE162, SHELL163, SOLID164,

SOLID168
MPLANE
Microplane
PLANE182 and PLANE183 (plane stress excluded), SOLID185,

SOLID186, SOLID187
NLISO
Voce isotropic
hardening law
von Mises or Hill plasticity:

ELBOW290
PERF
Johnson-Champoux-Allard
FLUID30, FLUID220, FLUID221
Equivalent Fluid
Model of a Porous
Media
PIEZ
Piezoelectric matrix
SOLID5, PLANE13, SOLID98, PLANE223, SOLID226,

SOLID227
PLASTIC
Plasticity
LINK180, SHELL181, PIPE288, PIPE289, ELBOW290, PLANE182,

PLANE183, SOLID185, SOLID186, SOLID187, BEAM188,
BEAM189, SOLSH190, SHELL208, SHELL209, PLANE223,
10
Label
(Lab)
Material Model
Elements
SOLID226, SOLID227, REINF263, REINF264, REINF265, SOLID272,
SOLID273, SHELL281, SOLID285
PLAW
Plasticity laws
Explicit dynamic elements LINK160, BEAM161, PLANE162,

SHELL163, SOLID164, SOLID168
PM
Coupled Pore-Fluid
Diffusion and
Structural Model of
Porous Media
CPT212, CPT213, CPT215, CPT216, CPT217
PRONY
Prony series
constants for
viscoelastic
materials
LINK180, SHELL181, PIPE288, PIPE289, ELBOW290, PLANE182,

PLANE183, SOLID185, SOLID186, SOLID187, BEAM188,
BEAM189, SOLSH190, SHELL208, SHELL209, PLANE223,
SOLID226, SOLID227, REINF263, REINF264, REINF265, SOLID272,
PZRS
Piezoresistivity
RATE
Rate-dependent
plasticity
(viscoplasticity)

SHELL208, SHELL209, PLANE223, SOLID226, SOLID227,
REINF263, REINF264, REINF265, SOLID272, SOLID273, SHELL281,
Anand unified plasticity option:
SHELL181 (except plane stress), PLANE182
(except plane stress), PLANE183 (except plane
stress), SOLID185, SOLID186, SOLID187,
SOLSH190, SOLID272, SOLID273, SOLID285,
PIPE288, PIPE289
SDAMP
Material structural
damping

SOLID285, ELBOW290
SHIFT
Shift function for

viscoelastic
materials

SHELL208, SHELL209, PLANE223, SOLID226, SOLID227, PIPE288,
PIPE289, ELBOW290, REINF263, REINF264, REINF265, SOLID272,
SMA
Shape memory alloy
PLANE182, PLANE183, PLANE223 (with plane strain or

axisymmetric stress states), SOLID185, SOLID186, SOLID187,
BEAM188, BEAM189, SOLSH190, SHELL208, SHELL209,
SOLID285, PIPE288, PIPE289
STATE
State variables
(user-defined)
SOLID65, LINK180, SHELL181, PLANE182, PLANE183, SOLID185,

SHELL208, SHELL209, REINF263, REINF264, REINF265,
11

Label
(Lab)
Material Model
Elements
Also, user-defined plasticity or viscoplasticity: PLANE183
SWELL
Swelling

SOLID187, SOLSH190, SHELL208, SHELL209, REINF263,
REINF264, REINF265, SOLID272, SOLID273, SHELL281, SOLID285
UNIAXIAL
Uniaxial stress-strain
relation
PLANE182, PLANE183, PLANE223 (not applicable for plane

stress), SOLID185, SOLID186, SOLID187, SOLSH190, SOLID226,
SOLID227, SOLID272, SOLID273, SOLID285
USER
User-defined
SOLID65, LINK180, SHELL181, PLANE182, PLANE183, SOLID185,

SHELL208, SHELL209, REINF263, REINF264, REINF265,
Also, user-defined plasticity or viscoplasticity: PLANE183
WEAR
12
Contact surface
wear
CONTA171, CONTA172, CONTA173, CONTA174, CONTA175
Chapter 3: Material Models

This document describes all material models available for implicit analysis, including information about
material data table input (TB). The following material model topics are available:
3.1. Understanding Material Data Tables
3.2. Experimental Data
3.3. Linear Material Properties
3.4. Rate-Independent Plasticity
3.5. Rate-Dependent Plasticity (Viscoplasticity)
3.6. Hyperelasticity
3.7. Viscoelasticity
3.8. Microplane
3.9. Porous Media
3.10. Electricity and Magnetism
3.11. Gasket
3.12. Swelling
3.13. Shape Memory Alloy (SMA)
3.14. MPC184 Joint
3.15. Contact Friction
3.16. Contact Interaction
3.17. Cohesive Material Law
3.18. Contact Surface Wear
3.19. Acoustics
3.20. Fluids
3.21. Custom Material Models
3.22. Material Strength Limits
3.23. Material Damage
For a list of the elements that support each material model, see Material Model Element Support (p. 5).
For related information, see Nonlinear Structural Analysis in the Structural Analysis Guide.
For information about explicit dynamics material models, including detailed data table input, see Material Models in the ANSYS LS-DYNA User's Guide.
3.1. Understanding Material Data Tables

A material data table is a series of constants that are interpreted when they are used. Data tables are
always associated with a material number and are most often used to define nonlinear material data
(stress-strain curves, creep constants, swelling constants, and magnetization curves). Other material
properties are described in Linear Material Properties (p. 14).
For some element types, the data table is used for special element input data other than material
properties. The form of the data table (referred to as the TB table) depends upon the data being defined:
Where the form is peculiar to only one element type, the table is described with the element in Element
Library.
13
Material Models
If the form applies to more than one element, it is described here and referenced in the element description.
3.2. Experimental Data

The experimental data table option (TB,EXPE) allows you to input experimental data. The data is used
with other material models.
Initiate the experimental data table, then specify the appropriate experimental data type (TBOPT), as
follows:
UNIAXIAL - Uniaxial experimental data
BIAXIAL - Equibiaxial experimental data
SHEAR - Pure shear experimental data, also known as planar tension
VOLUMETRIC - Volumetric experimental data
SSHEAR - Simple shear experimental data
UNITENSION - Uniaxial tension experimental data
UNICOMPRESSION - Uniaxial compression experimental data
GMODULUS - Shear modulus experimental data
KMODULUS - Bulk modulus experimental data
EMODULUS - Tensile modulus experimental data
NUXY - Poisson's ratio experimental data
Enter the data (TBPT) for each data point. Each data point entered consists of the independent variable
followed by one or more dependent variables. The specific definition of the input points depends on
the requirements of the material model associated with the experimental data.
You can also define experimental data as a function of field variables. Field-dependent data are entered
by preceding a set of experimental data (TBFIELD) to define the value of the field.
3.3. Linear Material Properties

Material properties (which may be functions of temperature) are described as linear properties because
typical non-thermal analyses with these properties require only a single iteration.
Conversely, if properties needed for a thermal analysis (such as KXX) are temperature-dependent, the
problem is nonlinear. Properties such as stress-strain data are described as nonlinear properties because
an analysis with these properties requires an iterative solution.
Linear material properties that are required for an element, but which are not defined, use default values.
(The exception is that EX and KXX must be input with a nonzero value where applicable.) Any additional
material properties are ignored.
The X, Y, and Z portions of the material property labels refer to the element coordinate system. In
general, if a material is isotropic, only the X and possibly the XY term is input.
The following topics concerning linear material properties are available:
3.3.1. Defining Linear Material Properties
3.3.2. Stress-Strain Relationships
3.3.3. Anisotropic Elasticity
3.3.4. Damping
3.3.5.Thermal Expansion
3.3.6. Emissivity
3.3.7. Specific Heat
14
Linear Material Properties

3.3.8. Film Coefficients
3.3.9.Temperature Dependency
3.3.10. How Material Properties Are Evaluated
3.3.1. Defining Linear Material Properties

The linear material properties used by the element type are listed under "Material Properties" in the
input table for each element type.
The following table describes all available linear material properties, defined via the Lab value on the
MP command:
Table 3.1: Linear Material Property Descriptions
MP,
Lab
Value
Units
EX
EY
Description
Elastic modulus, element x direction
Force/Area
Elastic modulus, element y direction
EZ
Elastic modulus, element z direction
PRXY
Major Poisson's ratio, x-y plane
PRYZ
Major Poisson's ratio, y-z plane
PRXZ
NUXY
Major Poisson's ratio, x-z plane
None
Minor Poisson's ratio, x-y plane
NUYZ
Minor Poisson's ratio, y-z plane
NUXZ
Minor Poisson's ratio, x-z plane
GXY
Shear modulus, x-y plane
GYZ
Force/Area
Shear modulus, y-z plane
GXZ
Shear modulus, x-z plane
ALPX
Secant coefficient of thermal expansion, element x direction
ALPY
Strain/Temp
Secant coefficient of thermal expansion, element y direction
ALPZ
Secant coefficient of thermal expansion, element z direction
CTEX
Instantaneous coefficient of thermal expansion, element x

direction
CTEY
Strain/Temp
Instantaneous coefficient of thermal expansion, element y

direction
CTEZ
Instantaneous coefficient of thermal expansion, element z

direction
THSX
Thermal strain, element x direction
THSY
Strain
THSZ
Thermal strain, element y direction

Thermal strain, element z direction
REFT
Temp
Reference temperature (as a property) (see also TREF)
MU
None
Coefficient of friction (or, for FLUID29, boundary admittance)
ALPD
None
Mass matrix multiplier for damping (also see ALPHAD)
BETD
None
Stiffness matrix multiplier for damping (also see BETAD)

15
Material Models
MP,
Lab
Value
Units
Description
DMPR
None
Constant material damping coefficient
DENS
Mass/Vol
Mass density
KXX
KYY
Thermal conductivity, element x direction

Heat*Length/
(Time*Area*Temp)
KZZ
Thermal conductivity, element y direction

Thermal conductivity, element z direction
Heat/Mass*Temp
Specific heat
ENTH
Heat/Vol
Enthalpy ( DENS*C d(Temp))
HF
Heat /
(Time*Area*Temp)
Convection (or film) coefficient
EMIS
None
Emissivity
Heat/Time
Heat generation rate for thermal mass element MASS71
None
Fraction of plastic work converted to heat (Taylor-Quinney

coefficient) for coupled-field elements PLANE223, SOLID226,
and SOLID227
VISC
Force*Time/ Length2
Viscosity
SONC
Length/Time
Sonic velocity (FLUID29, FLUID30, FLUID129, and FLUID130

elements only)
QRATE
MURX
MURY
Magnetic relative permeability, element x direction

None
Magnetic relative permeability, element y direction
MURZ
Magnetic relative permeability, element z direction
MGXX
Magnetic coercive force, element x direction
MGYY
Current/Length
Magnetic coercive force, element y direction
MGZZ
Magnetic coercive force, element z direction
RSVX
Electrical resistivity, element x direction
RSVY
Resistance*Area/Length
Electrical resistivity, element y direction
RSVZ
Electrical resistivity, element z direction
PERX
Electric relative permittivity, element x direction
PERY
None
Electric relative permittivity, element y direction
PERZ
LSST
Electric relative permittivity, element z direction

None
Dielectric loss tangent
SBKX
SBKY
Seebeck coefficient, element x direction

Voltage/Temp
SBKZ
Seebeck coefficient, element z direction
DXX
DYY
Diffusion coefficient, element x direction

2
Length /Time
DZZ
CREF
CSAT
16
Seebeck coefficient, element y direction
Diffusion coefficient, element y direction

Diffusion coefficient, element z direction
Mass/Length
Saturated concentration
Mass/Length
Reference concentration

MP,
Lab
Value
Units
BETX
BETY
Description
Coefficient of diffusion expansion, element x direction
Length /Mass
BETZ
Coefficient of diffusion expansion, element y direction

Coefficient of diffusion expansion, element z direction
3.3.2. Stress-Strain Relationships

Structural material properties must be input as an isotropic, orthotropic, or anisotropic material.
If the material is isotropic:
Young's modulus (EX) must be input.
Poisson's ratio (PRXY or NUXY) defaults to 0.3. If a zero value is desired, input PRXY or
NUXY with a zero or blank value. Poisson's ratio should not be 0.5 nor -1.0.
The shear modulus (GXY) defaults to EX/(2(1+NUXY)). If GXY is input, it must match EX/(2
(1+NUXY)). The sole purpose for inputting GXY is to ensure consistency with the other
two properties.
If the material is orthotropic:
EX, EY, EZ, (PRXY, PRYZ, PRXZ, or NUXY, NUYZ, NUXZ), GXY, GYZ, and GXZ must all be
input if the element type uses the material property. There are no defaults. For example,
if only EX and EY are input (with different values) to a plane stress element. The program
generates an error message indicating that the material is orthotropic and that GXY and
NUXY are also needed.
Poisson's ratio may be input in either major (PRXY, PRYZ, PRXZ) or minor (NUXY, NUYZ,
NUXZ) form, but not both for a particular material. The major form is converted to the
minor form during the solve operation (SOLVE). Solution output is in terms of the minor
form, regardless of how the data was input. If zero values are desired, input the labels
with a zero (or blank) value.
For axisymmetric analyses, the X, Y, and Z labels refer to the radial (R), axial (Z), and
hoop () directions, respectively. Orthotropic properties given in the R, Z, system should
be input as follows: EX = ER, EY = EZ, and EZ = E . An additional transformation is required for Poisson's ratios. If the given R, Z, properties are column-normalized (see the
Mechanical APDL Theory Reference), NUXY = NURZ, NUYZ = NUZ = (ET/EZ) *NU Z, and
NUXZ = NUR . If the given R, Z, properties are row-normalized, NUXY = (EZ/ER)*NURZ,
NUYZ = (E /EZ)*NUZ = NU Z, and NUXZ = (E /ER)*NUR .
For all other orthotropic material properties (including ALPX, ALPY, and ALPZ), the X, Y,
and Z part of the label (as in KXX, KYY, and KZZ) refers to the direction (in the element
coordinate system) in which that particular property acts. The Y and Z directions of the
properties default to the X direction (for example, KYY and KZZ default to KXX) to reduce
the amount of input required.
If the material is anisotropic:
See Anisotropic Elasticity (p. 18).
17
Material Models
3.3.3. Anisotropic Elasticity

Anisotropic elastic capability (TB,ANEL) is available with current-technology plane and solid elements.
Input the elastic coefficient matrix [D] either by specifying the stiffness constants (EX, EY, etc.) with MP
commands, or by specifying the terms of the matrix with data table commands as described below.
The matrix should be symmetric and positive definite (requiring all determinants to be positive).
The full 6 x 6 elastic coefficient matrix [D] relates terms ordered x, y, z, xy, yz, xz via 21 constants as
shown below.
For 2-D problems, a 4 x 4 matrix relates terms ordered x, y, z, xy via 10 constants (D11, D21, D22, D31,
D32, D33, D41, D42, D43, D44). Note, the order of the vector is expected as {x, y, z, xy, yz, xz}, whereas for
some published materials the order is given as {x, y, z, yz, xz, xy}. This difference requires the "D" matrix
terms to be converted to the expected format. The "D" matrix can be defined in either "stiffness" form
(with units of Force/Area operating on the strain vector) or in "compliance" form (with units of the inverse
of Force/Area operating on the stress vector), whichever is more convenient. Select a form using TBOPT
on the TB command. Both forms use the same data table input as described below.
Enter the constants of the elastic coefficient matrix in the data table via the TB family of commands.
Initialize the constant table with TB,ANEL. Define the temperature with TBTEMP, followed by up to 21
constants input with TBDATA commands. The matrix may be input in either stiffness or flexibility form,
based on the TBOPT value. For the coupled-field elements, temperature- dependent matrix terms are
not allowed. You can define up to six temperature-dependent sets of constants (NTEMP = 6 max on the
TB command) in this manner. Matrix terms are linearly interpolated between temperature points. The
constants (C1-C21) entered on TBDATA (6 per command) are:
Constant
Meaning
C1-C6
Terms D11, D21, D31, D41, D51, D61
C7-C12
Terms D22, D32, D42, D52, D62, D33
C13-C18
Terms D43, D53, D63, D44, D54, D64
C19-C21
Terms D55, D65, D66
For a list of the elements that support this material model, see Material Model Element Support (p. 5).
3.3.4. Damping
Material dependent mass and stiffness damping (MP,ALPD and MP,BETD) is an additional method of
including damping for dynamic analyses and is useful when different parts of the model have different
damping values.
ALPD and BETD are not assumed to be temperature dependent and are always evaluated at T = 0.0.
Special-purpose elements, such as MATRIX27 and FLUID29, generally do not require damping. However,
18

if material property ALPD and BETD are specified for these elements, the value will be used to create
the damping matrix at solution time.
Constant material damping coefficient (DMPR) is a material-dependent structural damping coefficient
that is constant with respect to the excitation frequency in harmonic analysis and is useful when different
parts of the model have different damping values (see Damping Matrices in the Mechanical APDL Theory
Reference). DMPR is not temperature dependent and is always evaluated at T = 0.0.
For layered elements, the material damping is applied to all layers using the MAT command. Damping
is not included when the material definition uses MAT on the SECDATA command for SHELL type elements. See Defining the Layered Configuration for details.
See Damping Matrices in the Mechanical APDL Theory Reference for more details about the damping
formulation.
See Damping in the Structural Analysis Guide for more information about DMPR.
3.3.5. Thermal Expansion

The uniform temperature does not default to REFT (but does default to TREF on the TREF command).
The effects of thermal expansion can be accounted for in three different (and mutually exclusive) ways:
Secant coefficient of thermal expansion (ALPX, ALPY, ALPZ via the MP or TB,CTE command)
Instantaneous coefficient of thermal expansion (CTEX, CTEY, CTEZ via the MP command)
Thermal strain (THSX, THSY, THSZ via the MP command)
When you use ALPX to enter values for the secant coefficient of thermal expansion (se), the program
interprets those values as secant or mean values, taken with respect to some common datum or definition temperature.
For example, suppose you measured thermal strains in a test laboratory, starting at 23C, and took
readings at 200, 400, 600, 800, and 1000. When you plot this strain-temperature data, you could
input this directly via THSX. The slopes of the secants to the strain-temperature curve would be the
mean (or secant) values of the coefficient of thermal expansion, defined with respect to the common
temperature of 23 (To).
You can also input the instantaneous coefficient of thermal expansion (in, using CTEX). The slopes of
the tangents to this curve represent the instantaneous values. Hence, the figure below shows how the
alternate ways of inputting coefficients of thermal expansion relate to each other.
The program calculates structural thermal strain as follows:

th = se(T) * (T - TREF)
where:
19
Material Models
T = element evaluation temperature
TREF = temperature at which zero thermal strains exist (TREF command or REFT )
se(T) = secant coefficient of thermal expansion, with respect to a definition temperature (in
this case, same as TREF) (ALPX )
If the material property data is in terms of instantaneous values of , then the program will convert
those instantaneous values into secant values as follows:
where:
Tn = temperature at which an se value is being evaluated
To = definition temperature at which the se values are defined (in this case, same as TREF)
in(T) = instantaneous coefficient of thermal expansion at temperature T (CTEX )
If the material property data is in terms of thermal strain, the program will convert those strains into
secant values of coefficients of thermal expansion as follows:
where:
ith(T) = thermal strain at temperature T (THSX)
If necessary, the data is shifted so that the thermal strain is zero when Tn = Tref. If a data point at Tref
exists, a discontinuity in se may be generated at Tn = Tref. This can be avoided by ensuring that the
slopes of ith on both sides of Tref match.
If the se values are based upon a definition temperature other than TREF, then you need to convert
those values to TREF (MPAMOD). Also see the Mechanical APDL Theory Reference.
3.3.6. Emissivity
EMIS defaults to 1.0 if not defined. However, if EMIS is set to zero or blank, EMIS is taken to be 0.0.
3.3.7. Specific Heat

You can input specific heat effects using either the C (specific heat) or ENTH (enthalpy) property. Enthalpy
has units of heat/volume and is the integral of C x DENS over temperature. If both C and ENTH are
specified, the program uses ENTH. ENTH should be used only in a transient thermal analysis. For phasechange problems, you must input ENTH as a function of temperature using the MP family of commands
(MP, MPTEMP, MPTGEN, and MPDATA).
20
Rate-Independent Plasticity
3.3.8. Film Coefficients

Film coefficients are evaluated as described via the SF command. See the Mechanical APDL Theory Reference for additional details. Property evaluation at element temperatures beyond the supplied tabular
range assumes a constant property at the extreme range value. An exception occurs for the ENTH
property, which continues along the last supplied slope.
3.3.9. Temperature Dependency

Temperature-dependent properties may be input in tabular form (value vs. temperature [MP]) or as a
fourth-order polynomial (value = f(temperature) [MPTEMP and MPDATA]). If input as a polynomial, the
program evaluates the dependencies at discrete temperature points during PREP7 preprocessing and
then converts the properties to tabular form. The tabular properties are then available to the elements.
3.3.10. How Material Properties Are Evaluated

Material properties are evaluated at or near the centroid of the element or at each of the integration
points, as follows:
Heat-transfer elements: All properties are evaluated at the centroid (except for the specific heat or enthalpy,
which is evaluated at the integration points).
Structural elements: All properties are evaluated at the integration points.
All other elements: All properties are evaluated at the centroid.
If the temperature of the centroid or integration point falls below or rises above the defined temperature
range of tabular data, ANSYS assumes the defined extreme minimum or maximum value, respectively,
for the material property outside the defined range.
3.4. Rate-Independent Plasticity

Plasticity is used to model materials subjected to loading beyond their elastic limit. As shown in the
following figure, metals and other materials such as soils often have an initial elastic region in which
the deformation is proportional to the load, but beyond the elastic limit a nonrecoverable plastic strain
develops:
21
Material Models
Figure 3.1: Stress-Strain Curve for an Elastic-Plastic Material
Unloading recovers the elastic portion of the total strain, and if the load is completely removed, a permanent deformation due to the plastic strain remains in the material. Evolution of the plastic strain
depends on the load history such as temperature, stress, and strain rate, as well as internal variables
such as yield strength, back stress, and damage.
To simulate elastic-plastic material behavior, several constitutive models for plasticity are provided. The
models range from simple to complex. The choice of constitutive model generally depends on the experimental data available to fit the material constants.
The following rate-independent plasticity material model topics are available:
3.4.1. Understanding the Plasticity Models
3.4.2. Isotropic Hardening
3.4.3. Kinematic Hardening
3.4.4. Generalized Hill
3.4.5. Drucker-Prager
3.4.6. Gurson
3.4.7. Cast Iron
3.4.1. Understanding the Plasticity Models

The constitutive models for elastic-plastic behavior start with a decomposition of the total strain into
elastic and plastic parts and separate constitutive models are used for each. The essential characteristics
of the plastic constitutive models are:
The yield criterion that defines the material state at the transition from elastic to elastic-plastic behavior.
The flow rule that determines the increment in plastic strain from the increment in load.
The hardening rule that gives the evolution in the yield criterion during plastic deformation.
The following topics concerning plasticity theory and behavior are available to help you to further understand the plasticity material models:
3.4.1.1. Nomenclature
22
3.4.1.2. Strain Decomposition
3.4.1.3.Yield Criterion
3.4.1.4. Flow Rule
3.4.1.5. Hardening
3.4.1.6. Large Deformation
3.4.1.7. Output
3.4.1.8. Resources
3.4.1.1. Nomenclature
Following are the common symbols used in the rate-independent plasticity theory documentation:
Symbol
Definition
Symbol
Definition
Identity tensor
Anisotropic directional yield strength
Strain
Young's Modulus
Elastic strain
Elasto-plastic tangent
Plastic strain
Elasto-plastic tangent in direction i
Plastic strain components
Plastic tangent
Effective plastic strain
Plastic tangent in direction i
Accumulated equivalent plastic strain
Hill yield surface coefficients
Stress
Hill yield surface directional yield ratio
Stress components
Generalize Hill yield surface coefficients
Principal stresses
Generalized Hill constant
Stress minus back stress
Generalized Hill tensile and compressive

yield strength
Yield stress
Plastic work
Anisotropic yield stress in direction i
Uniaxial plastic work
Initial yield stress
Drucker-Prager yield surface constant
Initial yield stress in direction i
Drucker-Prager plastic potential constant
Equivalent plastic stress
Mohr-Coulomb cohesion
Von Mises effective stress
Mohr-Coulomb internal friction angle
User input strain-stress data point
Mohr-Coulomb flow internal friction

angle
Magnitude of plastic strain increment
Extended Drucker-Prager yield surface

pressure sensitivity
Effective stress function
Extended Drucker-Prager plastic

potential pressure sensitivity
Yield function
Extended Drucker-Prager power law

yield exponent
23
Material Models
Symbol
Definition
Symbol
Definition
Plastic potential
Extended Drucker-Prager power law

plastic potential exponent
Translation of yield surface (back stress)
Extended Drucker-Prager hyperbolic

yield constant
Set of material internal variables
Extended Drucker-Prager hypobolic

plastic potential constant
3.4.1.2. Strain Decomposition

From Figure 3.1: Stress-Strain Curve for an Elastic-Plastic Material (p. 22), a monotonic loading to
gives a total strain . The total strain is additively decomposed into elastic and plastic parts:
The stress is proportional to the elastic strain
and the evolution of plastic strain
is a result of the plasticity model.
For a general model of plasticity that includes arbitrary load paths, the flow theory of plasticity decomposes the incremental strain tensor into elastic and plastic strain increments:
The increment in stress is then proportional to the increment in elastic strain, and the plastic constitutive
model gives the incremental plastic strain as a function of the material state and load increment.
3.4.1.3. Yield Criterion

The yield criterion is a scalar function of the stress and internal variables and is given by the general
function:
(3.1)
where
represents a set of history dependent scalar and tensor internal variables.
Equation 3.1 (p. 24) is a general function representing the specific form of the yield criterion for each
of the plasticity models. The function is a surface in stress space and an example, plotted in principal
stress space, as shown in this figure:
24
Figure 3.2: Yield Surface in Principal Stress Space
Stress states inside the yield surface are given by

and result in elastic deformation. The material yields when the stress state reaches the yield surface and further loading causes plastic deformation.
Stresses outside the yield surface do not exist and the plastic strain and shape of the yield surface
evolve to maintain stresses either inside or on the yield surface.
3.4.1.4. Flow Rule

The evolution of plastic strain is determined by the flow rule:
where
is the magnitude of the plastic strain increment and
is the plastic potential.
When the plastic potential is the yield surface from Equation 3.1 (p. 24), the plastic strain increment is
normal to the yield surface and the model has an associated flow rule, as shown in this figure:
Figure 3.3: Plastic Strain Flow Rule
25
Material Models
These flow rules are typically used to model metals and give a plastic strain increment that is proportional to the stress increment. If the plastic potential is not proportional to the yield surface, the model
has a non-associated flow rule, typically used to model soils and granular materials that plastically deform
due to internal frictional sliding. For non-associated flow rules, the plastic strain increment is not in the
same direction as the stress increment.
Non-associated flow rules result in an unsymmetric material stiffness tensor. Unsymmetric analysis can
be set via the NROPT command. For a plastic potential that is similar to the yield surface, the plastic
strain direction is not significantly different from the yield surface normal, and the degree of asymmetry
in the material stiffness is small. In this case, a symmetric analysis can be used, and a symmetric material stiffness tensor will be formed without significantly affecting the convergence of the solution.
3.4.1.5. Hardening
The yield criterion for many materials depends on the history of loading and evolution of plastic strain.
The change in the yield criterion due to loading is called hardening and is defined by the hardening
rule. Hardening behavior results in an increase in yield stress upon further loading from a state on the
yield surface so that for a plastically deforming material, an increase in stress is accompanied by an increase in plastic strain.
Two common types of hardening rules are isotropic and kinematic hardening. For isotropic hardening,
the yield surface given by Equation 3.1 (p. 24) has the form:
where
is a scalar function of stress and
is the yield stress.
Plastic loading from

to
increases the yield stress and results in uniform increase in the size
of the yield surface, as shown in this figure:
Figure 3.4: Isotropic Hardening of the Yield Surface
This type of hardening can model the behavior of materials under monotonic loading and elastic unloading, but often does not give good results for structures that experience plastic deformation after
a load reversal from a plastic state.
For kinematic hardening, the yield surface has the form:
26
where
is the back stress tensor.
As shown in the following figure, the back stress tensor is the center (or origin) of the yield surface,
and plastic loading from
to
results in a change in the back stress and therefore a shift in
the yield surface:
Figure 3.5: Kinematic Hardening of the Yield Surface
Kinematic hardening is observed in cyclic loading of metals. It can be used to model behavior such as
the Bauschinger effect, where the compressive yield strength reduces in response to tensile yielding.
It can also be used to model plastic ratcheting, which is the buildup of plastic strain during cyclic
loading.
Many materials exhibit both isotropic and kinematic hardening behavior, and these hardening rules
can be used together to give the combined hardening model. Other hardening behaviors include
changes in the shape of the yield surface in which the hardening rule affects only a local region of the
yield surface, and softening behavior in which the yield stress decreases with plastic loading.

The plasticity constitutive models are applicable in both small-deformation and large-deformation
analyses. For small deformation, the formulation uses engineering stress and strain. For large deformation
(NLGEOM,ON), the constitutive models are formulated with the Cauchy stress and logarithmic strain.
3.4.1.7. Output
Output quantities specific to the plastic constitutive models are available for use in the POST1 database
postprocessor (/POST1) and in the POST26 time-history results postprocessor (/POST26).
The equivalent stress (label SEPL) is the current value of the yield stress evaluated from the hardening
model.
The accumulated plastic strain (label EPEQ) is a path-dependent summation of the plastic strain rate
over the history of the deformation:
27
Material Models
where
is the magnitude of the plastic strain rate.
The stress ratio (label SRAT) is the ratio of the elastic trial stress to the current yield stress and is an indicator of plastic deformation during an increment. If the stress ratio is:
>1
A plastic deformation occurred during the increment.
<1
An elastic deformation occurred during the increment.
1
The stress state is on the yield surface.
Alternatively, the output quantities can have specialized meanings specific to the given material model.
For example:
For the kinematic hardening models, the equivalent stress is determined by evaluating the kinematic
hardening rule for stress vs. plastic strain using the accumulated plastic strain. The stress ratio for multilinear
kinematic hardening uses the trial stress and yield stress of the first subvolume.
For the generalized Hill model, the equivalent plastic strain is given by:
and the equivalent stress is:
3.4.1.8. Resources
The following list of resources offers more information about plasticity:
1. Hill, R. The Mathematical Theory of Plasticity. New York: Oxford University Press, 1983.
2. Prager, W.The Theory of Plasticity: A Survey of Recent Achievements. Proceedings of the Institution of
Mechanical Engineers. 169.1 (1955): 41-57.
3. Besseling, J. F.A Theory of Elastic, Plastic, and Creep Deformations of an Initially Isotropic Material Showing
Anisotropic Strain-Hardening, Creep Recovery, and Secondary Creep. ASME Journal of Applied Mechanics.
25 (1958): 529-536.
4. Owen, D. R. J., A.Prakash, O. C. Zienkiewicz.Finite Element Analysis of Non-Linear Composite Materials by
Use of Overlay Systems. Computers and Structures. 4.6 (1974): 1251-1267.
5. Rice, J. R.Continuum mechanics and thermodynamics of plasticity in relation to microscale deformation
mechanisms. Constitutive Equations in Plasticity. Ed. A. Argon. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 1975. 23-79.
28
6. Chaboche, J. L.Constitutive Equations for Cyclic Plasticity and Cyclic Viscoplasticity. International Journal
of Plasticity. 5.3 (1989): 247-302.
7. Chaboche, J. L.On Some Modifications of Kinematic Hardening to Improve the Description of Ratchetting
Effects. International Journal of Plasticity. 7.7 (1991): 661-678.
8. Shih, C. F., D. Lee.Further Developments in Anisotropic Plasticity. Journal of Engineering Materials and
Technology. 100.3 (1978): 294-302.
9. Valliappan, S., P. Boonlaulohr, I. K. Lee.Non-Linear Analysis for Anisotropic Materials. International Journal
for Numerical Methods in Engineering. 10.3 (1976): 597-606.
10. Drucker, D. C., W. Prager.Soil Mechanics and Plastic Analysis or Limit Design. Quarterly of Applied Mathematics. 10.2 (1952): 157-165.
11. Sandler, I. S, F. L. DiMaggio, G. Y. Baladi.A Generalized Cap Model for Geological Materials. Journal of the
Geotechnical Engineering Division. 102.7 (1976): 683-699.
12. Schwer, L. E., Y. D. Murray.A Three-Invariant Smooth Cap Model with Mixed Hardening. International
Journal for Numerical and Analytical Methods in Geomechanics. 18.10 (1994): 657-688.
13. Foster, C., R. Regueiro, A. Fossum, R. Borja.Implicit Numerical Integration of a Three-Invariant, Isotropic/Kinematic Hardening Cap Plasticity Model for Geomaterials. Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and Engineering. 194.50-52 (2005): 5109-5138.
14. Pelessone, D.A Modified Formulation of the Cap Model. Technical Report GA-C19579. San Diego: Gulf
Atomics, 1989.
15. Fossum, A.F., J. T. Fredrich.Cap Plasticity Models and Compactive and Dilatant Pre-Failure Deformation.
Pacific Rocks 2000: Rock Around the Rim. Proceedings of the Fourth North American Rock Mechanics Symposium. Eds. J. Girard, M. Liebman, C. Breeds, T. Doe, A. A. Balkema. Rotterdam, 2000: 1169-1176.
16. Gurson, A. L.Continuum Theory of Ductile Rupture by Void Nucleation and Growth: Part I--Yield Criteria
and Flow Rules for Porous Ductile Media. Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology. 99.1 (1977): 215.
17. Needleman, A. V. Tvergaard.An Analysis of Ductile Rupture in Notched Bars. Journal of the Mechanics and
Physics of Solids. 32.6 (1984): 461-490.
18. Arndt, S., B. Svendsen, D. Klingbeil. Modellierung der Eigenspannungen an der Rispitze mit einem
Schdigungsmodell. Technische Mechanik. 4.17 (1997): 323-332.
19. Besson, J., C. Guillemer-Neel.An Extension of the Green and Gurson Models to Kinematic Hardening.
Mechanics of Materials. 35.1-2 (2003): 1-18.
20. Hjelm, H. E.Yield Surface for Grey Cast Iron Under Biaxial Stress. Journal of Engineering Materials and
Technology. 116.2 (1994): 148-154.
21. Chen, W. F., D. J. Han. Plasticity for Structural Engineers. New York: Springer-Verlag, 1988.
3.4.2. Isotropic Hardening

During plastic deformation, isotropic hardening causes a uniform increase in the size of the yield surface
and results in an increase in the yield stress. The yield criterion has the form:
29
Material Models
where
is a scalar function of stress and
is the yield stress that evolves as a function of the
set of material internal variables . This type of hardening can model the behavior of materials under
monotonic loading and elastic unloading, but often does not give good results for structures that experience additional plastic deformation after a load reversal from a plastic state.
Three general classes of isotropic hardening models are available: bilinear, multilinear, and nonlinear.
Each of the hardening models assumes a von Mises yield criterion, unless an anisotropic Hill yield criterion
is defined, and includes an associated flow rule.
Isotropic hardening can also be combined with kinematic hardening and the Extended Drucker-Prager
and Gurson models to provide an evolution of the yield stress. For more information, see Material
Model Combinations (p. 193).
The following topics related to the isotropic hardening material model are available:
3.4.2.1.Yield Criteria and Plastic Potentials
3.4.2.2. General Isotropic Hardening Classes
3.4.2.1. Yield Criteria and Plastic Potentials

Hardening models assume a von Mises yield criterion, unless an anisotropic Hill yield criterion is defined.
3.4.2.1.1. Von Mises Yield Criterion
3.4.2.1.2. Hill Yield Criterion
3.4.2.1.1. Von Mises Yield Criterion

The von Mises yield criterion is commonly used in plasticity models for a wide range of materials. It is
a good first approximation for metals, polymers, and saturated geological materials. The criterion is
isotropic and independent of hydrostatic pressure, which can limit its applicability to microstructured
materials and materials that exhibit plastic dilatation.
The von Mises yield criterion is:
(3.2)
where
and
is the von Mises effective stress, also known as the von Mises equivalent stress,
is the yield strength and corresponds to the yield in uniaxial stress loading.
In principal stress space, the yield surface is a cylinder with the axis along the hydrostatic line
and gives a yield criterion that is independent of the hydrostatic stress, as shown in the following figure:
30
Figure 3.6: Yield Surface for von Mises Yield Criterion
For an associated flow rule, the plastic potential is the yield criterion in Equation 3.2 (p. 30) and the
plastic strain increment is proportional to the deviatoric stress
3.4.2.1.2. Hill Yield Criterion

The Hill yield criterion [1] is an anisotropic criterion that depends on the orientation of the stress relative
to the axis of anisotropy. It can be used to model materials in which the microstructure influences the
macroscopic behavior of the material such as forged metals and composites.
In a coordinate system that is aligned with the anisotropy coordinate system, the Hill yield criterion
given in stress components is:
(3.3)
The coefficients in this yield criterion are functions of the ratio of the scalar yield stress parameter and
the yield stress in each of the six stress components:
31
Material Models
where the directional yield stress ratios are the user input parameters and are related to the isotropic
yield stress parameter by:
where is the yield stress in the direction indicated by the value of subscript i. The stress directions
are in the anisotropy coordinate system which is aligned with the element coordinate system (ESYS).
The isotropic yield stress
is entered in the constants for the hardening model.
The Hill yield criterion defines a surface in six-dimensional stress space and the flow direction is normal
to the surface. The plastic strain increments in the anisotropy coordinate system are:
The Hill surface, used with a hardening model, replaces the default von Mises yield surface.
After defining the material data table (TB,HILL), input the required constants (TBDATA):
Constant
Meaning
Property
C1
R11
Yield stress ratio in X direction
C2
R22
Yield stress ratio in Y direction
C3
R33
Yield stress ratio in Z direction
C4
R12
Yield stress ratio in XY direction
C5
R23
Yield stress ratio in YZ direction
C6
R13
Yield stress ratio in XZ direction
The constants can be defined as a function of temperature (NTEMP on the TB command), with temperatures specified for the table entries (TBTEMP).
Example 3.1: Hill Surface
/prep7
MP,EX,1,20.0E5
MP,NUXY,1,0.3
32
! ELASTIC CONSTANTS
TB,HILL,1
! HILL TABLE
TBDATA,1,1.0,1.1,0.9,0.85,0.9,0.80
3.4.2.1.2.1. Separated Hill Potentials for Plasticity and Creep

This capability is reserved for use with the material combination of Chaboche nonlinear kinematic
hardening with implicit creep.
To define separated Hill potentials for the plastic yielding and the creep flow (TB,HILL,,,,PC), issue two
TBDATA commands, one to set constants C1-C6 defining the Hill yield surface for plasticity, the other
to set constants C7-C12 defining the Hill potential for the creep direction.
Example 3.2: Defining Hill Surfaces for Plasticity and Creep
/prep7
MP,EX,1,20.0E5
MP,NUXY,1,0.3
! ELASTIC CONSTANTS
TB,HILL,1,1,,PC
! HILL data table for plasticity and creep
TBDATA,1,1.0,1.1,0.9,0.85,0.9,0.80 ! Plasticity Hill parameters
TBDATA,7,1.0,1.0,1.0,1.0 ,1.0,1.0 ! Creep Hill parameters
3.4.2.2. General Isotropic Hardening Classes

Support is available for these general classes of isotropic hardening:
3.4.2.2.1. Bilinear Isotropic Hardening
3.4.2.2.2. Multilinear Isotropic Hardening
3.4.2.2.3. Nonlinear Isotropic Hardening
3.4.2.2.4. Isotropic Hardening Static Recovery
3.4.2.2.1. Bilinear Isotropic Hardening

Bilinear isotropic hardening is described by a bilinear effective stress versus effective strain curve. The
initial slope of the curve is the elastic modulus of the material. Beyond the user-specified initial yield
stress , plastic strain develops and stress-vs.-total-strain continues along a line with slope defined by
the user-specified tangent modulus . The tangent modulus cannot be less than zero or greater than
the elastic modulus.
33
Material Models
Figure 3.7: Stress vs. Total Strain for Bilinear Isotropic Hardening
3.4.2.2.1.1. Defining the Bilinear Isotropic Hardening Model

Define the isotropic or anisotropic elastic behavior via MP commands. After defining the material data
table (TB,BISO), input the following constants (TBDATA):
Constant
Meaning
Property
C1
Yield stress
C2
Tangent modulus
Example 3.3: Bilinear Isotropic Hardening
/prep7
MPTEMP,1,0,500
MPDATA,EX,1,,14E6,12e6
MPDATA,PRXY,1,,0.3,0.3
TB,BISO,1,2
TBTEMP,0.0
TBDATA,1,44E3,1.2E6
TBTEMP,500
TBDATA,1,29.33E3,0.8E6
! Define temperatures for Young's modulus
!
!
!
!
!
Activate a data table

Temperature = 0.0
Yield = 44,000; Tangent modulus = 1.2E6
Temperature = 500
Yield = 29,330; Tangent modulus = 0.8E6
3.4.2.2.2. Multilinear Isotropic Hardening

The behavior of multilinear isotropic hardening is similar to bilinear isotropic hardening except that a
multilinear stress versus total or plastic strain curve is used instead of a bilinear curve.
34
The multilinear hardening behavior is described by a piece-wise linear stress-total strain curve, starting
at the origin and defined by sets of positive stress and strain values, as shown in this figure:
Figure 3.8: Stress vs. Total Strain for Multilinear Isotropic Hardening
The first stress-strain point corresponds to the yield stress. Subsequent points define the elastic plastic
response of the material.
3.4.2.2.2.1. Defining the Multilinear Isotropic Hardening Model

table (TB,PLASTIC,,,,MISO), input the following constants (TBDATA):
Constant
Meaning
Property
Strain value
Stress value
The stress-plastic strain data points are entered into the table via the TBPT command.
Temperature-dependent data can be defined (NTEMP on the TB command), with temperatures specified
for the table entries (TBTEMP). Interpolation between temperatures occurs via stress-vs.-plastic-strain.
Example 3.4: Multilinear Hardening with Plastic Strain
/prep7
MPTEMP,1,0,500
! Define temperature-dependent EX,
MPDATA,EX,1,,14.665E6,12.423e6
MPDATA,PRXY,1,,0.3
TB,PLASTIC,1,2,5,MISO
TBTEMP,0.0
TBPT,DEFI,0,29.33E3
TBPT,DEFI,1.59E-3,50E3
! Activate TB,PLASTIC data table

! Temperature = 0.0
! Plastic strain, stress at temperature = 0
35
Material Models
TBTEMP,500
TBPT,DEFI,0,27.33E3
TBPT,DEFI,3.76E-3,40.3E3
TBPT,DEFI,6.48E-3,43.7E3
! Temperature = 500
! Plastic strain, stress at temperature = 500
3.4.2.2.3. Nonlinear Isotropic Hardening

Power law and Voce equations are available to model nonlinear isotropic hardening.
3.4.2.2.3.1. Power Law Nonlinear Isotropic Hardening
3.4.2.2.3.2. Voce Law Nonlinear Isotropic Hardening
3.4.2.2.3.1. Power Law Nonlinear Isotropic Hardening

The power law equation has a user-defined initial yield stress
stress
is given by solving the following equation:
and exponent N. The current yield
where G is the shear modulus determined from the user defined elastic constants and
mulated equivalent plastic strain.
is the accu-
Defining the Power Law Nonlinear Isotropic Hardening Model

For the power law hardening model, define the isotropic or anisotropic elastic behavior via MP commands. After defining the material data table (TB,NLISO,,,,POWER), input the following constants (TBDATA):
Constant
Meaning
C1
C2
Property
Exponent
The exponent N must be positive and less than 1.

for the subsequent set of constants (TBTEMP).
Example 3.5: Power Law Nonlinear Isotropic Hardening
/prep7
TB,NLISO,1,2,,POWER
TBTEMP,100
TBDATA,1,275,0.1
TBTEMP,200
TBDATA,1,275,0.1
! Define first temperature

! Define second temperature
3.4.2.2.3.2. Voce Law Nonlinear Isotropic Hardening

The Voce hardening model is similar to bilinear isotropic hardening, with an exponential saturation
hardening term added to the linear term, as shown in this figure:
36
Figure 3.9: Stress vs. Plastic Strain for Voce Hardening
The evolution of the yield stress for this model is specified by the following equation:
where the user-defined parameters include

, the difference between the saturation stress and the
initial yield stress, , the slope of the saturation stress and, , the hardening parameter that governs
the rate of saturation of the exponential term.
Defining the Voce Law Nonlinear Isotropic Hardening Model
table (TB,NLISO,,,,VOCE), input the following constants (TBDATA):
Constant
Meaning
Property
C1
C2
Linear coefficient
C3
Exponential coefficient
C4
Exponential saturation
parameter
The constants can be defined as a function of temperature (NTEMP on the TB command), with temperatures specified for the subsequent set of constants (TBTEMP).
37
Material Models
Example 3.6: Voce Nonlinear Isotropic Hardening
/PREP7
TB,NLISO,1,2,,VOCE
TBTEMP,40
TBDATA,1,280,7e3,155,7e2
TBTEMP,60
TBDATA,1,250,5e3,120,3e2
!
!
!
!
!
Activate NLISO data table

Define first temperature
Constants at first temperature
Define second temperature
Constants at second temperature
3.4.2.2.4. Isotropic Hardening Static Recovery

Static recovery, also known as thermal recovery, of the isotropic yield stress is dependent on time,
temperature and the current yield stress. The rate of isotropic hardening can be separated into work
hardening and static recovery, as follows:
where the first term on the right side of the equation represents the rate of work hardening, and the
second defines the rate of static recovery where , and
are material parameters, is the temperature, and
is the current yield stress. A lower limit yield stress can be defined for static recovery such
that:
where
is the user defined static recovery threshold.
An approximate solution for the static recovery of the yield stress over a time step is to integrate the
static recovery rate and incorporate the work hardening rate into the initial condition. The yield stress
is then given by the solution to:
with the initial condition:
where
is the yield stress at the end of the previous increment and
stress due to work hardening over the current time step.
is the increment in yield
3.4.2.2.4.1. Defining the Isotropic Static Recovery

Static recovery of the isotropic yield stress can be used with the combined creep and Chaboche nonlinear
hardening material. The material parameters are defined via a TB material table with Lab = PLASTIC
and TBOPT = ISR.
Constant
38
Meaning
Property
C1
Coefficient
C2
Temperature Coefficient
C3
Exponential
C4
Recovery threshold
Example 3.7: Isotropic Hardening Static Recovery
/prep7
YOUNGS = 30e3
! Youngs Modulus
NU
= 0.3
! Poissons ratio
SIGMA0 = 18.0E0 ! Initial yield stress
mp,ex,1,YOUNGS
mp,prxy,1,NU
TB,CHAB,1,1,1
! Chaboche kinematic hardening
TBDATA,1,sigma0,
TBDATA,2,1e+3,0
TB,CREEP,1,1, ,1,1
tbdata,1,
! creep model
! No creep strain
TB,PLASTIC,1,,,MISO ! Multilinear isotropic hardening

TBPT,DEFI,0.0,SIGMA0
TBPT,DEFI,0.001,35.0
TB,PLASTIC,1,,4,ISR ! Isotropic hardening static recovery
TBDATA,1,1D-5,1,2,SIGMA0
3.4.3. Kinematic Hardening

During plastic deformation, kinematic hardening causes a shift in the yield surface in stress space. In
uniaxial tension, plastic deformation causes the tensile yield stress to increase and the magnitude of
the compressive yield stress to decrease. This type of hardening can model the behavior of materials
under either monotonic or cyclic loading and can be used to model phenomena such as the Bauschinger
effect and plastic ratcheting.
The yield criterion has the form:
where
is a scalar function of the relative stress
and
is the yield stress. The relative stress is:

(3.4)
where the back stress

plastic deformation.
is the shift in the position of the yield surface in stress space and evolves during
Three general classes of kinematic hardening models are available: bilinear, multilinear, and nonlinear.
Each of the hardening models assumes a von Mises yield criterion, unless an anisotropic Hill yield criterion
is defined, and includes an associated flow rule.
Kinematic hardening can also be combined with isotropic hardening and the Gurson model to provide
an evolution of the yield stress. For more information, see Material Model Combinations (p. 193).
The following topics related to the kinematic hardening material model are available:
3.4.3.1.Yield Criteria and Plastic Potentials
3.4.3.2. General Kinematic Hardening Classes
39
Material Models
3.4.3.1. Yield Criteria and Plastic Potentials

Kinematic hardening uses the von Mises yield criterion with an associated flow rule unless a Hill yield
surface is defined. If a Hill yield surface is defined, the kinematic hardening model uses it for both the
yield criterion and as the plastic potential to give an associated flow rule.
For more information about von Mises and Hill yield surfaces, see Yield Criteria and Plastic Potentials (p. 30).
3.4.3.2. General Kinematic Hardening Classes

Support is available for these general classes of kinematic hardening:
3.4.3.2.1. Bilinear Kinematic Hardening
3.4.3.2.2. Multilinear Kinematic Hardening
3.4.3.2.3. Nonlinear Kinematic Hardening
3.4.3.2.4. Kinematic Hardening Static Recovery
3.4.3.2.1. Bilinear Kinematic Hardening

The back stress tensor for bilinear kinematic hardening evolves so that the effective stress versus effective
strain curve is bilinear. The initial slope of the curve is the elastic modulus of the material and beyond
the user specified initial yield stress , plastic strain develops and the back stress evolves so that stress
versus total strain continues along a line with slope defined by the user specified tangent modulus .
This tangent modulus cannot be less than zero or greater than the elastic modulus.
For uniaxial tension followed by uniaxial compression, the magnitude of the compressive yield stress
decreases as the tensile yield stress increases so that the magnitude of the elastic range is always
,
as shown in this figure:
Figure 3.10: Stress vs. Total Strain for Bilinear Kinematic Hardening
The back stress is proportional to the shift strain
40
where G is the elastic shear modulus and the shift strain is numerically integrated from the incremental
shift strain which is proportional to the incremental plastic strain:
where
and is Young's Modulus and

is the user-defined tangent modulus [2]. The incremental plastic
strain is defined by the associated flow rule for the von Mises or Hill potential given in Yield Criteria
and Plastic Potentials (p. 30) with the stress given by the relative stress .
3.4.3.2.1.1. Defining the Bilinear Kinematic Hardening Model

table (TB,BKIN), input the following constants (TBDATA):
Constant
Meaning
Property
C1
C2
Tangent modulus
This model can be used with the TB commands TBOPT option:
For TBOPT 1, no stress relaxation occurs with an increase in temperature. This option is not recommended for non-isothermal problems.
For TBOPT = 1, Rice's hardening rule [5] is applied, which takes stress relaxation with temperature increase into account.
Example 3.8: Bilinear Kinematic Hardening
/prep7
MPTEMP,1,0,500
! Define temperatures for Young's modulus
MPDATA,EX,1,,14E6,12e6
MPDATA,PRXY,1,,0.3,0.3
TB,BKIN,1,2,2,1
! Activate a data table with TBOPT=1
! stress relaxation with temperature
TBTEMP,0.0
! Temperature = 0.0
TBDATA,1,44E3,1.2E6
! Yield = 44,000; Tangent modulus = 1.2E6
TBTEMP,500
! Temperature = 500
TBDATA,1,29.33E3,0.8E6
! Yield = 29,330; Tangent modulus = 0.8E6
3.4.3.2.2. Multilinear Kinematic Hardening

The back stress tensor for multilinear kinematic hardening evolves so that the effective stress versus
effective strain curve is multilinear with each of the linear segments defined by a set of user input stressstrain points, as shown in this figure:
41
Material Models
Figure 3.11: Stress vs. Total Strain for Multilinear Kinematic Hardening
The model formulation is the sublayer or overlay model of Besselling [3] and Owen, Prakash and Zienkiewicz [4] in which the material is assumed to be composed of a number of sublayers or subvolumes,
all subjected to the same total strain. The number of subvolumes is the same as the number of input
stress-strain points, and the overall behavior is weighted for each subvolume where the weight is given
by:
where
is the tangent modulus for segment of the stress-strain curve.
The behavior of each subvolume is elastic-perfectly plastic, with the uniaxial yield stress for each subvolume given by:
where
is the input stress-strain point for subvolume k.
For plane stress,

is used to calculate the weights and subvolume yield stresses. The resulting
stress-strain behavior is exact for uniaxial stress states but can deviate from the defined stress-strain
values for general deformations.
The default yield surface is the von Mises surface, and each subvolume yields at an equivalent stress
equal to the subvolume uniaxial yield stress. A Hill yield criterion can be used in which each subvolume
yields according to the Hill criterion with the subvolume uniaxial yield as the isotropic yield stress and
the subvolume anisotropic yield condition determined by the Hill surface.
42
The subvolumes undergo kinematic hardening with an associated flow rule and the plastic strain increment for each subvolume is the same as that for bilinear kinematic hardening. The total plastic strain
is given by:
where
is the number of subvolumes and
is the subvolume plastic strain increment.
3.4.3.2.2.1. Defining the Multilinear Kinematic Hardening Model

Define the isotropic or anisotropic elastic behavior via MP commands. To specify the hardening behavior, define the material data table (TB) and input the constants as stress vs. total strain points or as
stress vs. plastic strain points.
Constant
Meaning
Property
P1
Strain value
P2
Stress value
When entering temperature-dependent stress-strain points, the set of data at each temperature must
have the same number of points. Thermal softening for the multilinear kinematic hardening model is
the same as that for bilinear kinematic hardening with Rice's hardening rule [5].
Entering Stress vs. Total Strain Points

After defining the material data table (TB,KINH,,,,0), enter the stress-strain points (TBPT).
The slope of the first segment must correspond to the elastic modulus and no segment slope can be
larger than the slope of the previous segment.
Example 3.9: Multilinear Kinematic Hardening with Stress vs. Total Strain
/prep7
TB,KINH,1,2,3
TBTEMP,20.0
TBPT,,0.001,1.0
TBPT,,0.1012,1.2
TBPT,,0.2013,1.3
TBTEMP,40.0
TBPT,,0.008,0.9
TBPT,,0.09088,1.0
TBPT,,0.12926,1.05
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

Temperature = 20.0
Strain = 0.001, Stress = 1.0
Temperature = 40.0
Strain = 0.12926, Stress = 1.05
Entering Stress vs. Plastic Strain Points

After defining the material data table (TB,KINH,,,,PLASTIC or TB,PLASTIC,,,,KINH), enter the stress-strain
points (TBPT).
No segment slope can be larger than the slope of the previous segment.
43
Material Models
Example 3.10: Multilinear Kinematic Hardening with Stress vs. Plastic Strain
/prep7
TB,PLASTIC,1,2,3,KINH
TBTEMP,20.0
TBPT,,0.0,1.0
TBPT,,0.1,1.2
TBPT,,0.2,1.3
TBTEMP,40.0
TBPT,,0.0,0.9
TBPT,,0.0900,1.0
TBPT,,0.129,1.05
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

Temperature = 20.0
Plastic Strain = 0.0000,
Temperature = 40.0
Stress = 1.0
Stress = 1.2
Stress = 1.3
Stress = 0.9
Stress = 1.0
Stress = 1.05
3.4.3.2.3. Nonlinear Kinematic Hardening

The nonlinear kinematic hardening model is a rate-independent version of the kinematic hardening
model proposed by Chaboche [6][7]. The model allows the superposition of several independent back
stress tensors and can be combined with any of the available isotropic hardening models. It can be
useful in modeling cyclic plastic behavior such as cyclic hardening or softening and ratcheting or
shakedown.
The model uses an associated flow rule with either the default von Mises yield criterion or the Hill yield
criterion if it is defined. The relative stress given by Equation 3.1 (p. 24) is used to evaluate the yield
function, and the back stress tensor is given by the superposition of a number of evolving kinematic
back stress tensors:
where n is the number of kinematic models to be superposed.

The evolution of each back stress model in the superposition is given by the kinematic hardening rule:
where
and are user-input material parameters,
of the plastic strain rate.
is the plastic strain rate, and
is the magnitude
During a solution, if there is a change in temperature over an increment (non-isothermal loading), the
back stress terms are scaled in a manner similar to that of bilinear kinematic hardening with Rice's
hardening rule [5].
3.4.3.2.3.1. Defining the Nonlinear Kinematic Hardening Model

Define the material data table (TB,CHABOCHE) and input the following constants (TBDATA):
Constant
44
Meaning
Property
C1
C2
Material constant for

first kinematic model
C3

first kinematic model
Constant
Meaning
Property
C4

second kinematic model
C5

second kinematic model
...
...
...
C(2n)
Material constant for last

kinematic model
C(1+2n)
Material constant for last

kinematic model
for the table entries (TBTEMP).
Set the TB commands NPTS value equal to n, the number of superimposed kinematic hardening
models.
Example 3.11: Nonlinear Kinematic Hardening
/prep7
TB,CHABOCHE,1,1,3
! Activate Chaboche data table with

! 3 models to be superposed
! Define Chaboche material data
TBDATA,1,18.8
! C1 - Initial yield stress
TBDATA,2,5174000,4607500
! C2,C3 - Chaboche constants for 1st model
TBDATA,4,17155,1040
! C4,C5 - Chaboche constants for 2nd model
TBDATA,6,895.18,9
! C6,C7 - Chaboche constants for 3rd model
3.4.3.2.4. Kinematic Hardening Static Recovery

Static recovery (also known as thermal recovery) for kinematic hardening is included in the Chaboche
nonlinear kinematic hardening model by modifying the evolution of the back stress tensor components:
where the last term on the right side of the equation is the rate of static recovery of the kinematic back
stress component with
and
the material parameters for kinematic static recovery, and
is the
von Mises effective back stress component.
3.4.3.2.4.1. Defining the Kinematic Static Recovery

Static recovery of the kinematic back stress can be used with the combined creep and Chaboche nonlinear hardening material. The material parameters are defined via a TB material table with Lab =
PLASTIC and TBOPT = KSR. The number of material parameter sets should correspond to the number
of superimposed Chaboche back stress terms. Undefined values default to 0.0.
Constant
Meaning
Property
C1
Coefficient
C2
Temperature Coefficient
45
Material Models
Example 3.12: Kinematic Hardening Static Recovery
/prep7
YOUNGS = 30e3
! Youngs Modulus
NU
= 0.3
! Poissons ratio
SIGMA0 = 18.0E0 ! Initial yield stress
mp,ex,1,YOUNGS
mp,prxy,1,NU
TB,CHAB,1,1,1
! Chaboche kinematic hardening
TBDATA,1,sigma0,
TBDATA,2,1e+4,0
TB,CREEP,1,1, ,1,1
tbdata,1,
! creep model
! No creep strain
TB,PLASTIC,1,,1,KSR
TBDATA,1,1e-3,2.0,
! Kinematic hardening static recovery
3.4.4. Generalized Hill

The generalized Hill plasticity model is an anisotropic model that accounts for different yield strength
in tension than in compression. The anisotropic and asymmetric tension-compression behavior can be
useful in modeling textured metals with low crystallographic symmetries. Examples of such materials
include titanium and zirconium alloys, and composite materials with oriented microstructures such as
natural and processed wood products and fiber-matrix composites.
The model includes a yield surface that is a specialization of the Hill yield surface [8], an anisotropic
work-hardening rule [9], and an associated flow rule. In a coordinate system that is aligned with the
anisotropy coordinate system, the generalized Hill yield criterion given in stress components is:
(3.5)
where the coefficients

stress:
are functions of the parameter
and the tensile and compressive yield

(3.6)
where
and
are the user-defined magnitudes of the tension and compression yield strength, respectively. The subscripts on the tension and compression yield stresses correspond to the Voigt notation
coordinate directions
.
From the assumption of incompressible plastic deformation, the mixed subscript coefficients are given
by:
(3.7)
The strength differential coefficients
are:
(3.8)
which, for incompressibility, must satisfy:
46
Setting the coefficient
, then:
and the coefficients in the yield criterion from Equation 3.5 (p. 46) are determined from Equation 3.6 (p. 46) through Equation 3.8 (p. 46), and the user-input tension and compression yield stresses.
Due to the incompressibility assumption,
(3.9)
and for a closed yield surface,
(3.10)
Equation 3.9 (p. 47) and Equation 3.10 (p. 47) must be satisfied throughout the evolution of yield stresses
that result from plastic deformation. The program checks these conditions through 20 percent equivalent
plastic strain, but you must ensure that conditions are satisfied if the deformation exceeds that range.
A bilinear anisotropic work hardening rule is used to evolve the individual components of tension and
compression yield stresses. For a general state of deformation with a bilinear hardening law, the plastic
work is:
where
stress
is the effective stress at initial yield, and

, the plastic strain is:
is the current effective yield stress. For uniaxial
and the plastic work is:
where the plastic slope

is the slope of the stress versus plastic strain. The uniaxial plastic work is
equivalent to the effective plastic work if:
(3.11)
where the plastic tangent
is related to the user input tangent modulus
by:
Equation 3.11 (p. 47) is then the isotropic hardening evolution equation for the tensile and compressive
yield stress components.
47
Material Models
3.4.4.1. Defining the Generalized Hill Model

Define the isotropic or anisotropic elastic behavior via MP commands. Specify the generalized Hill material parameters by defining the material data table (TB,ANISO) and entering the following input (TBDATA):
Constant
Meaning
Property
C1-C3
Tensile yield stresses in the material x,

y, and z directions
C4-C6
Tangent moduli of tension in material

x, y, and z directions
C7-C9
Compressive yield stresses in the

material x, y, and z directions
C10-C12
Tangent moduli of compression in

material x, y, and z directions
C13-C15
Shear yield stresses in the material xy,

yz, and xz directions
C16-C18
Tangent moduli in material xy, yz, and

xz directions
Temperature-dependent parameters are not allowed.

Example 3.13: Generalized Hill
! Define generalized Hill model
/prep7
! Define elastic material properties
mp,ex,1,210
mp,nuxy,1,0.3
! Define anisotropic material properties
tb,aniso,1
tbdata,1,0.33,0.33,0.495
! Tensile yield stress (x,y & z)
tbdata,4,0.21,0.21,0.315
! Tangent moduli (tensile)
tbdata,7,0.33,0.33,0.495
! Compressive yield stress (x,y & z)
tbdata,10,0.21,0.21,0.315
! Tangent moduli (compressive)
tbdata,13,0.1905,0.1905,0.1905
! Shear yield stress (xy,yz,xz)
tbdata,16,0.105,0.07,0.07
! Tangent moduli (shear)
3.4.5. Drucker-Prager
The following topics related to Drucker-Prager plasticity are available:
3.4.5.1. Classic Drucker-Prager
3.4.5.2. Extended Drucker-Prager (EDP)
3.4.5.3. Extended Drucker-Prager Cap
3.4.5.1. Classic Drucker-Prager

The classic Drucker-Prager model [10] is applicable to granular (frictional) material such as soils, rock,
and concrete and uses the outer cone approximation to the Mohr-Coulomb law. The input consists of
only three constants:
Cohesion value (> 0)
48
Angle of internal friction
Dilatancy angle
The amount of dilatancy (the increase in material volume due to yielding) can be controlled via the
dilatancy angle. If the dilatancy angle is equal to the friction angle, the flow rule is associative. If the
dilatancy angle is zero (or less than the friction angle), there is no (or less of an) increase in material
volume when yielding and the flow rule is non-associated.
For more information about this material model, see Classic Drucker-Prager Model in the Mechanical
APDL Theory Reference.
3.4.5.1.1. Defining the Classic Drucker-Prager Model

Define the isotropic or anisotropic elastic behavior via MP commands. Define the material data table
(TB,DP) and define up to three constants (TBDATA), as follows:
Constant
Meaning
Property
C1
Force/Area
Cohesion value
C2
Angle (in degrees)
Internal friction
C3
Angle (in degrees)
Dilatancy
Temperature-dependent parameters are not allowed.

Example 3.14: Classic Drucker-Prager
MP,EX,1,5000
MP,NUXY,1,0.27
TB,DP,1
TBDATA,1,2.9,32,0
! Cohesion = 2.9 (use consistent units),

! Angle of internal friction = 32 degrees,
! Dilatancy angle = 0 degrees
3.4.5.2. Extended Drucker-Prager (EDP)

The extended Drucker-Prager (EDP) material model includes three yield criteria and corresponding flow
potentials similar to those of the classic Drucker-Prager model commonly used for geomaterials with
internal cohesion and friction. The yield functions can also be combined with an isotropic or kinematic
hardening rule to evolve the yield stress during plastic deformation.
The model is defined via one of the three yield criteria combined with any of the three flow potentials
and an optional hardening model.
The following topics related to defining the EDP material model are available:
3.4.5.2.1. EDP Yield Criteria Forms
3.4.5.2.2. EDP Plastic Flow Potentials
3.4.5.2.3. Plastic Strain Increments for Flow Potentials
3.4.5.2.4. Example EDP Material Model Definitions
3.4.5.2.1. EDP Yield Criteria Forms

The EDP yield criteria include the following forms:
3.4.5.2.1.1. Linear Form
3.4.5.2.1.2. Power Law Form
3.4.5.2.1.3. Hyperbolic Form
49
Material Models

The EDP linear yield criterion form is:
where the user-defined parameters are the pressure sensitivity
and the uniaxial yield stress
Defining the EDP Linear Yield Criterion

After initializing the extended Drucker-Prager linear yield criterion (TB,EDP,,,,LYFUN), enter the following
constants (TBDATA):
Constant
Meaning
Property
C1
Pressure sensitivity
C2
Uniaxial yield stress

The EDP power law yield criteria form is:
where the exponent , pressure sensitivity , and uniaxial yield stress
are the user-defined parameters.
Figure 3.12: Power Law Criterion in the Meridian Plane
Defining the EDP Power Law Yield Criterion

After initializing the extended Drucker-Prager power law yield criterion (TB,EDP,,,,PYFUN), enter the
following constants (TBDATA):
50
Constant
Meaning
Property
C1
C2
Exponent
C3

The EDP hyperbolic yield criteria form is:
where the constant , pressure sensitivity , and uniaxial yield stress
are the user-defined parameters.
In the following figure, the hyperbolic yield criterion is plotted and compared to the linear yield criterion
shown in the dashed line:
Figure 3.13: Hyperbolic and Linear Criterion in the Meridian Plane
Defining the EDP Hyperbolic Yield Criterion

After initializing the extended Drucker-Prager hyperbolic yield criterion (TB,EDP,,,,HYFUN), enter the
Constant
Meaning
Property
C1
C2
Material parameter
C3
51
Material Models
3.4.5.2.2. EDP Plastic Flow Potentials

Three EDP flow potentials correspond in form to each of the yield criteria. However, the user-defined
parameters for the flow potentials are independent of those for the yield criteria, and any potential can
be combined with any yield criterion.
The EDP plastic flow potentials include the following forms:

The linear form of the plastic flow potential is:
where
is the flow potential pressure sensitivity.
Defining the Linear Plastic Flow Potential

After initializing the material data table (TB,EDP,,,,LFPOT), enter the following constant (TBDATA):
Constant
Meaning
C1
Property
The material behavior can be defined as a function of temperature (NTEMP on the TB command), with
temperatures specified for the table entries (TBTEMP).

The power law form of the plastic flow potential is:
where the exponent
and the pressure sensitivity
are user-defined parameters.

After initializing the material data table (TB,EDP,,,,PFPOT), enter the following constants (TBDATA):
Constant
Meaning
Property
C1
C2
Exponent

The hyperbolic form of the plastic flow potential is:
52
where the pressure sensitivity
the constant
are user-defined parameters.

After initializing the material data table (TB,EDP,,,,HFPOT), enter the following constants (TBDATA):
Constant
Meaning
Property
C1
C2
Material parameter
3.4.5.2.3. Plastic Strain Increments for Flow Potentials

The plastic strain increment corresponding to each of the plastic flow potentials is:
where
is the deviatoric stress:
The dilatation for each of the flow potentials is:
Associated flow is obtained if the plastic potential form and parameters are set equal to the yield criterion.
3.4.5.2.4. Example EDP Material Model Definitions

The following examples show how to define the EDP material model using various yield criteria and
flow potentials:
Example 3.15: EDP -- Linear Yield Criterion and Flow Potential
/prep7
!!! Define linear elasticity constants
mp,ex,1,2.1e4
mp,nuxy,1,0.45
! Extended Drucker-Prager Material Model Definition
! Linear Yield Function
tb,edp,1,1,2,LYFUN
tbdata,1,2.2526,7.894657
! Linear Plastic Flow Potential
53
Material Models
tb,edp,1,1,2,LFPOT
tbdata,1,0.566206
Example 3.16: EDP -- Power Law Yield Criterion and Flow Potential
/prep7
mp,ex,1,2.1e4
mp,nuxy,1,0.45
! Power Law Yield Function
tb,edp,1,1,3,PYFUN
tbdata,1,8.33,1.5
! Power Law Plastic Flow Potential
tb,edp,1,1,2,PFPOT
tbdata,1,8.33,1.5
Example 3.17: EDP -- Hyperbolic Yield Criterion and Flow Potential

/prep7
mp,ex,1,2.1e4
mp,nuxy,1,0.45
! Hyperbolic Yield Function
tb,edp,1,1,3,HYFUN
tbdata,1,1.0,1.75,7.89
! Hyperbolic Plastic Flow Potential
tb,edp,1,1,2,HFPOT
tbdata,1,1.0,1.75
3.4.5.3. Extended Drucker-Prager Cap

The EDP Cap material model has a yield criterion similar to the other extended Drucker-Prager yield
criteria with the addition of two cap surfaces that truncate the yield surface in tension and compression
regions [11]. The model formulation follows that of Schwer and Murray [12] and Foster et al [13] and
the numerical formulation is modified from the work of Pelessone [14].
The criterion is a function of the three stress invariants
where
, and
, given by:
is the deviatoric stress.
Three functions define the surfaces that make up the yield criterion. The shear envelope function is
given by:
where
is the cohesion related yield parameter and is a user defined material parameter along with
, , and . This function reduces to the Drucker-Prager criterion for
. For positive values of ,
the shear failure envelope is evaluated at
54
= 0, which gives the constant value
The compaction function is itself a function of the shear envelope function and is given by:
where is the Heaviside step function,

is a user-input material parameter, and
section of the compaction surface with the shear envelope, given by:
where
is the user-defined value of
in the following figure:
defines the inter-
at the intersection of the compaction cap with
, as shown
Figure 3.14: Yield Surface for the Cap Criterion
The compaction function defines the material yield surface when
The expansion function is a function of the shear envelope function and is given by:
where
when
is a user-input material parameter. The expansion function defines the material yield surface
. The expansion cap function reaches peak value at
These functions define the yield criterion, given by:

(3.12)
where
is the Lode angle function. The Lode angle is given by:
and the Lode angle function is:
55
Material Models
where is a user-defined material parameter, a ratio of the extension strength to compression strength
in triaxial loading.
Two methods of isotropic hardening can be used to evolve the yield criterion due to plastic deformation.
Hardening of the compaction cap is due to evolution of , which is the intersection of the cap surface
with
shown in Figure 3.14: Yield Surface for the Cap Criterion (p. 55). This value evolves due to
plastic volume strain
where
, and the relationship is given by [15]:
is the initial value of , and the user-defined parameters are

is enforced so that the material does not soften.
, and
. The restriction
Evolution of the yield surface at the intersection of the shear envelope with the expansion cap occurs
by combining the cap model with an isotropic hardening model to evolve the value of . The bilinear,
multilinear, or nonlinear isotropic hardening function can be used, and the yield stress from the isotropic
hardening model must be consistent with the value of
calculated from the cap material parameters
given by
.
The following topics related to defining the EDP Cap material model are available:
3.4.5.3.1. Defining the EDP Cap Yield Criterion and Hardening
3.4.5.3.2. Defining the EDP Cap Plastic Potential
3.4.5.3.3. Example EDP Cap Material Model Definition
3.4.5.3.1. Defining the EDP Cap Yield Criterion and Hardening

After initializing the material data table (TB,EDP,,,,CFYUN), enter the following constants (TBDATA):
Constant
Material
Property
C1
Compaction cap parameter
C2
Expansion cap parameter
C3
Compaction cap yield pressure
C4
Cohesion yield parameter
C5
Shear envelope exponent
C6
Shear envelope exponential

coefficient
C7
Shear envelope linear coefficient
C8
Ratio of extension to compression

strength
C9
Limiting value of volumetric plastic

strain
C10
Hardening parameter
C11
Hardening parameter
The yield criterion and hardening behavior can be defined as a function of temperature (NTEMP on the
TB command), with temperatures specified for the table entries (TBTEMP).
56
3.4.5.3.2. Defining the EDP Cap Plastic Potential

After initializing the material data table (TB,EDP,,,,CFPOT), enter the following constants (TBDATA):
Constant
Material
Property
C1
Compaction cap parameter
C2
Expansion cap parameter
C3
Shear envelope exponent
C4
Shear envelope linear coefficient
The plastic flow potential can be defined as a function of temperature (NTEMP on the TB command),
with temperatures specified for the table entries (TBTEMP).
If the plastic flow potential is not defined, the yield surface is used as the flow potential, resulting in
an associated flow model.
3.4.5.3.3. Example EDP Cap Material Model Definition

The following example input shows how to define an EDP Cap model by defining the yield criterion,
hardening, and plastic flow potential:
Example 3.18: EDP Cap Model Material Constant Input
/prep7
! Define linear elasticity constants
mp,ex ,1,14e3
mp,nuxy,1,0.0
! Cap yield function
tb,edp ,1,1,,cyfun
tbdata,1,2
! Rc
tbdata,2,1.5
! Rt
tbdata,3,-80
! Xi
tbdata,4,10
! SIGMA
tbdata,5,0.001
! B
tbdata,6,2
! A
tbdata,7,0.05
! ALPHA
tbdata,8,0.9
! PSI
! Define hardening for cap-compaction portion
tbdata,9,0.6
! W1c
tbdata,10,3.0/1000 ! D1c
tbdata,11,0.0
! D2c
! Cap plastic flow potential function
tb,edp ,1,1,,cfpot
tbdata,1,2
! RC
tbdata,2,1.5
! RT
tbdata,3,0.001
! B
tbdata,4,0.05
! ALPHA
3.4.6. Gurson
The Gurson model is used to represent plasticity and damage in ductile porous metals [16][17]. When
plasticity and damage occur, ductile metal undergoes a process of void growth, nucleation, and coalescence. The model incorporates these microscopic material behaviors into macroscopic plasticity behavior based on changes in the void volume fraction, also known as porosity, and pressure. A porosity
increase corresponds to an increase in material damage, resulting in a diminished load-carrying capacity.
57
Material Models
The yield criterion and flow potential for the Gurson model is:
where
is the von Mises equivalent stress,
Needleman constants, and
is the yield stress,
, and
are user-input Tvergaard-
is the modified void volume fraction.
The following additional Gurson model topics are available:

3.4.6.1. Void Volume Fraction
3.4.6.2. Hardening
3.4.6.3. Defining the Gurson Material Model
3.4.6.1. Void Volume Fraction

The following figure shows the phenomena of voids at the microscopic scale that are incorporated into
the Gurson model:
Figure 3.15: Growth, Nucleation, and Coalescence of Voids at Microscopic Scale
(a): Existing voids grow when the solid matrix is in a hydrostatic-tension state. The solid
matrix is assumed to be incompressible in plasticity so that any material volume growth
is due to the void volume expansion.
(b): Void nucleation occurs, where new voids are created during plastic deformation due
to debonding of the inclusion-matrix or particle-matrix interface, or from the fracture of
the inclusions or particles themselves.
(c): Voids coalesce. In this process, the isolated voids establish connections. Although
coalescence may not discernibly affect the void volume, the load-carrying capacity of
the material begins to decay more rapidly at this stage.
The void volume fraction is the ratio of void volume to the total volume. A volume fraction of 0 indicates
no voids and the yield criterion reduces to the von Mises criterion. A volume fraction of 1 indicates all
58
the material is void. The initial void volume fraction,
, is a user-defined parameter, and the rate of
change of void volume fraction is a combination of the rate of growth and the rate of nucleation:
From the assumption of isochoric plasticity and conservation of mass, the rate of change of void volume
fraction due to growth is proportional to the rate of volumetric plastic strain:
Void nucleation is controlled by either the plastic strain or the stress, and is assumed to follow a normal
distribution of statistics.
In the case of strain-controlled nucleation, the distribution is described by the mean strain,
deviation, . The void nucleation rate due to strain control is given by:
where
is the maximum void fraction for nucleated voids,
rate of effective plastic strain,

roscopic plastic work:
, and
is the effective plastic strain, and the
, is determined by equating the microscopic plastic work to the mac-
In the case of stress-controlled nucleation, void nucleation is determined by the distribution of maximum
normal stress on the interfaces between inclusions and the matrix, equal to
. Stress-controlled
nucleation takes into account the effect of triaxial loading on the rate of void nucleation. The voidnucleation rate for stress control is given by:
where distribution of stress is described by the mean stress,
and deviation,
The modified void volume fraction, , is used to model the loss of material load carrying capacity associated with void coalescence. When the current void volume fraction reaches a critical value , the
material load carrying capacity decreases rapidly due to coalescence. When the void volume fraction
reaches , the load-carrying capacity of the material is lost completely. The modified void volume
fraction is given by:
59
Material Models
3.4.6.2. Hardening
The Gurson model can be combined with one of the isotropic hardening models to incorporate isotropic
hardening of the yield stress in the Gurson yield criterion.
To combine the Gurson model with Chaboche kinematic hardening, the yield criterion is modified to:
where
is the von Mises equivalent modified relative stress, and
are functions of the modified back stress given by:
where
is the modified yield stress which
is the kinematic hardening back stress. Then, the modified relative stress is:
and the modified yield stress is:
3.4.6.3. Defining the Gurson Material Model

The Gurson material model requires material parameters for the base model combined with parameters
for either strain-controlled or stress-controlled nucleation. Additional input is required to define the
void coalescence behavior.
3.4.6.3.1. Defining the Gurson Base Model
3.4.6.3.2. Defining Stress- or Strain-Controlled Nucleation
3.4.6.3.3. Defining the Void Coalescence Behavior
3.4.6.3.4. Example Gurson Model Definition
3.4.6.3.1. Defining the Gurson Base Model

To define the Gurson base model, initialize the material data table (TB,GURSON,,,,BASE), then input the
Constant
Meaning
Property
C1
Initial yield strength
C2
Initial porosity
C3
First Tvergaard-Needleman constant
C4
Second Tvergaard-Needleman constant
C5
Third Tvergaard-Needleman constant
3.4.6.3.2. Defining Stress- or Strain-Controlled Nucleation

The Gurson base model is combined with either stress- or strain-controlled nucleation.
60
To define stress-controlled nucleation, initialize the material data table (TB,GURSON,,,,SSNU), then input
the following constants (TBDATA):
Constant
Meaning
Property
C1
Nucleation porosity
C2
Mean stress
C3
Stress standard deviation
To define strain-controlled nucleation, initialize the material data table (TB,GURSON,,,,SNNU), then input
the following constants (TBDATA):
Constant
Meaning
Property
C1
Nucleation porosity
C2
Mean strain
C3
Strain standard deviation
3.4.6.3.3. Defining the Void Coalescence Behavior

Define the void coalescence behavior after defining the Gurson base model and either the stress- or
strain-controlled nucleation behavior.
Initialize the material data table (TB,GURSON,,,,COAL), then input the following constants (TBDATA):
Constant
Meaning
Property
C1
Critical porosity
C2
Failure porosity
3.4.6.3.4. Example Gurson Model Definition

Following is an example Gurson plasticity material model definition:
Example 3.19: Gurson Model with Isotropic and Kinematic Hardening
/prep7
mp,ex,1,207.4E3
! Young modulus (MPa)
mp,nuxy,1,0.3
! Poisson's ratio
!!! Define parameters related to Gurson model with
!!! the option of strain-controlled nucleation with
!!! coalescence
f_0=1E-8
q1=1.5
q2=1.0
q3=2.25
f_c=0.15
f_F=0.25
f_N=0.04
s_N=0.1
strain_N=0.3
sigma_Y=755
power_N=0.1
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
initial porosity
first Tvergaard constant
second Tvergaard constant
third Tvergaard constant = q1^2
critical porosity
failure porosity
nucleation porosity
standard deviation of mean strain
mean strain
initial yielding strength (MPa)
power value for nonlinear isotropic
hardening power law
61
Material Models
!base model
tb,gurson,1,,5,base
tbdata,1,sigma_Y,f_0,q1,q2,q3
! Strain-controlled nucleation
tb,gurson,1,,3,snnu
tbdata,1,f_N,strain_N,s_N
! Coalescence
tb,gurson,1,,2,coal
tbdata,1,f_c,f_F
! Power law isotropic hardening
tb,nliso,1,,2,POWER
tbdata,1,sigma_Y,power_N
3.4.7. Cast Iron

The cast iron plasticity model is used to model gray cast iron. The microstructure of gray cast iron is a
two-phase material with graphite flakes embedded in a steel matrix [20]. The microstructure leads to
different behavior in tension and compression. In tension, cracks form due to the graphite flakes and
the material is brittle with low strength. In compression, the graphite flakes behave as incompressible
media that transmit stress and the steel matrix governs the overall behavior.
The model is isotropic elastic with the same elastic behavior in tension and compression. The yield
strength and isotropic hardening behavior may be different in tension and in compression. Different
yield criteria and plastic flow potentials are used for tension and compression.
A composite yield surface is used to model different yield behavior in tension and compression. The
tension behavior is pressure-dependent and the Rankine maximum stress criterion is used:
where
is the uniaxial tension yield stress, and
where
and
where
is the Lode angle:
are the stress invariants:
is the deviatoric stress.
In compression, the pressure-independent von Mises yield criterion is used:
The following figure shows the yield surfaces in compression and tension for perfectly plastic behavior:
62
Figure 3.16: Cast Iron Yield Surfaces for Compression and Tension
The yield surfaces are plotted in the meridian plane in which the ordinate and abscissa are von Mises
equivalent stress and pressure, respectively.
The evolution of the yield stress in tension and compression follows the user input piecewise linear
stress-strain curves for compression and tension. The tension yield stress evolves as a function of the
equivalent uniaxial plastic strain, . The evolution of the equivalent uniaxial plastic strain is defined
by equating the uniaxial plastic work increment to the total plastic work increment:
The compression yield stress evolves as a function of the equivalent plastic strain, , which is calculated
from the increment in plastic strain determined by consistency with the yield criterion and the flow
potential.
The plastic flow potential is defined by the von Mises yield criterion in compression and results in an
associated flow rule. The flow potential in compression is:
In tension, the Rankine cap yield surface is replaced by an ellipsoidal surface defined by:
where
is a constant function of the user-defined plastic Poisson's ratio,
The plastic Poisson's ratio determines the amount of volumetric expansion during tensile plastic deformation. The tensile flow potential gives a nonassociated flow model and results in an unsymmetric material stiffness tensor.
3.4.7.1. Defining the Cast Iron Material Model

Define the isotropic elastic behavior (MP), then define the material data table (TB,CAST,,,,ISOTROPIC).
63
Material Models
Enter the tensile multilinear hardening stress-strain points into a data table (TB,UNIAXIAL,,,,TENSION).
Do the same for the compressive multilinear hardening stress-strain points (TB,UNIAXIAL,,,,COMPRESSION).
Enter tension and compression stress-strain points into their respective tables (TBPT), with the compression points entered as positive values.
The plastic Poisson's ratio and stress-strain points can be defined as a function of temperature (NTEMP
value on the TB command), with individual temperatures specified for the table entries (TBTEMP).
Example 3.20: Cast Iron
/prep7
mp, ex, 1,14.773E6
mp,nuxy, 1,0.2273
! Define cast iron model
TB,CAST,1,,,ISOTROPIC
TBDATA,1,0.04
TB,UNIAXIAL,1,1,5,TENSION
TBTEMP,10
TBPT,,0.550E-03,0.813E+04
TBPT,,0.100E-02,0.131E+05
TBPT,,0.250E-02,0.241E+05
TBPT,,0.350E-02,0.288E+05
TBPT,,0.450E-02,0.322E+05
TB,UNIAXIAL,1,1,5,COMPRESSION
TBTEMP,10
TBPT,,0.203E-02,0.300E+05
TBPT,,0.500E-02,0.500E+05
TBPT,,0.800E-02,0.581E+05
TBPT,,0.110E-01,0.656E+05
TBPT,,0.140E-01,0.700E+05
3.5. Rate-Dependent Plasticity (Viscoplasticity)

The following topics related to rate-dependent plasticity are available:
3.5.1. Perzyna and Peirce Options
3.5.2. Exponential Visco-Hardening (EVH) Option
3.5.3. Anand Option
3.5.4. Defining Rate-Dependent Plasticity (Viscoplasticity)
3.5.5. Creep
For further information about rate-dependent plastic (viscoplastic) material options, see Rate-Dependent
Plasticity in the Mechanical APDL Theory Reference and Viscoplasticity in the Structural Analysis Guide.
3.5.1. Perzyna and Peirce Options

To simulate viscoplasticity, combine the RATE option with the BISO, MISO, or NLISO options. To simulate
anisotropic viscoplasticity, combine the RATE and HILL options with the BISO, MISO, or NLISO options.
The Perzyna option has the following form:
The Peirce option has the following form:
64
Rate-Dependent Plasticity (Viscoplasticity)
In both cases, is the effective stress,

is the equivalent plastic strain rate, is the strain rate
hardening parameter, is the material viscosity parameter, and
is the static yield stress of material.
is a function of some hardening parameter and can be defined via isotropic plasticity (for example,
TB,BISO). As approaches , or approaches zero, or
the static (rate-independent) solution.
When
model.
approaches zero, the solution approaches
is very small, the Peirce model has less difficulty converging as compared to the Perzyna
For details, see Rate-Dependent Plasticity in the Mechanical APDL Theory Reference.
The two material constants for the Perzyna and Peirce models (defined by the TBDATA) are:
Constant
Meaning
C1
- Material strain rate hardening parameter
C2
- Material viscosity parameter
Specify the PERZYNA model (TBOPT = PERZYNA) as follows: TB,RATE,,,2,PERZYNA

Specify the PEIRCE model (TBOPT = PEIRCE) as follows: TB,RATE,,,2,PEIRCE
3.5.2. Exponential Visco-Hardening (EVH) Option

This option has the following form:
where
. Here,
is the accumulated equivalent plastic strain.
The EVH option can be combined with nonlinear (Chaboche) kinematic hardening using von Mises or
Hill yield criterion.
The six material constants in the EVH option are input (TBDATA) in the order shown:
Constant
Meaning
C1
Ko = Material strain hardening

parameter
C2
Ro = Material strain hardening

parameter
C3
R = Material strain hardening

parameter
C4
b = Material strain hardening

parameter
C5
m = Material strain rate hardening

parameter
65
Material Models
Constant
Meaning
C6
K = Material viscosity parameter
Specify this option (TBOPT = EVH) as follows: TB,RATE,,,6,EVH
3.5.3. Anand Option

The Anand option offers a unified plasticity model requiring no combination with other material models.
Details for the Anand option appear in Anand Viscoplasticity Option in the Mechanical APDL Theory
Reference.
This option requires nine material constants input via the data table command (TBDATA) in the order
shown:
Constant Meaning Property
C1
s0
Units
Initial value of deformation

resistance
Stress
Q = Activation energy
Energy / Volume
R = Universal gas constant
Energy / Volume
temperature
C2
Q/R
C3
Pre-exponential factor
1 / Time
C4
xi
Stress multiplier
Dimensionless
C5
Strain rate sensitivity of stress
Dimensionless
C6
h0
Hardening / softening constant
Stress
Coefficient for deformation

resistance saturation value
Stress
C7
C8
Strain rate sensitivity of saturation

(deformation resistance) value
Dimensionless
C9
Strain rate sensitivity of hardening

or softening
Dimensionless
Specify this option (TBOPT = ANAND) as follows: TB,RATE,,,9,ANAND

The Anand model supports plane strain, axisymmetric and full three-dimensional element behavior.
3.5.4. Defining Rate-Dependent Plasticity (Viscoplasticity)

Following is the general process for specifying rate-dependent plasticity (viscoplasticity):
1. Initialize the data table via TB,RATE and specify the model option (TBOPT) as described above.
2. Define the temperature (TBTEMP) for each set of data.
3. Define material constants (TBDATA) for each set of data.
You can define up to nine material constants via TBDATA commands, but only six constants per
command. For the Anand model, therefore, you must issue the TBDATA command more than once.
66

The data table command (TBDATA) must be defined for the same material number to specify the
static hardening behavior of the materials (rate-independent and isotropic).
3.5.5. Creep
The creep strain rate, , can be a function of stress, strain, temperature, and neutron flux level. Libraries
of creep strain rate equations are included under the Implicit Creep Equations (p. 68) and Explicit Creep
Equations (p. 69) sections. Enter the constants shown in these equations using TB,CREEP and TBDATA
as described below. These equations (expressed in incremental form) are characteristic of materials
being used in creep design applications (see the Mechanical APDL Theory Reference for details).
For a list of the elements that support creep behavior, see Material Model Element Support (p. 5).
Three types of creep equations are available:
Primary creep
Secondary creep
Irradiation induced creep
You can define the combined effects of more than one type of creep using the implicit equations specified
by TBOPT = 11 or 12, the explicit equations, or a user-defined creep equation.
The program analyzes creep using the implicit and the explicit time-integration method. The implicit
method is robust, fast, accurate, and recommended for general use, especially with problems involving
large creep strain and large deformation. It has provisions for including temperature-dependent constants.
The program can model pure creep, creep with isotropic hardening plasticity, and creep with kinematic
hardening plasticity, using both von Mises and Hill potentials. See Material Model Combinations (p. 193)
for further information. Because the creep and plasticity are modeled simultaneously (no superposition),
the implicit method is more accurate and efficient than the explicit method. Temperature dependency
can also be incorporated by the Arrhenius function. (See the Mechanical APDL Theory Reference.)
The explicit method is useful for cases involving very small time steps, such as in transient analyses.
There are no provisions for temperature-dependent constants, nor simultaneous modeling of creep
with any other material models such as plasticity. However, there is temperature dependency using the
Arrhenius function, and you can combine explicit creep with other plasticity options using non-simultaneous modeling (superposition). In these cases, the program first performs the plastic analysis, then
the creep calculation.
The terms implicit and explicit, as applied to creep, have no relationship to explicit dynamics, or any
elements referred to as explicit elements.
67
Material Models
3.5.5.1. Implicit Creep Equations

Enter an implicit creep equation using TBOPT within the TB command. Enter the value of TBOPT corresponding to the equation, as shown in Table 3.2: Implicit Creep Equations (p. 68).
Table 3.2: Implicit Creep Equations
Creep
Model
Name
Equation
Type
(TBOPT)
1
Strain
Hardening
C1>0
Primary
Time
Hardening
C1>0
Primary
Generalized
Exponential
Generalized
Graham
C1>0
Generalized
Blackburn
C1>0,
C3>0, Primary
C6>0
Modified Time
Hardening
C1>0
Primary
Modified Strain
Hardening
C1>0
Primary
Generalized
Garofalo
C1>0
Secondary
Exponential
form
C1>0
Secondary
10
Norton
C1>0
Secondary
11
Combined
Time
Hardening
Primary
C1>0,
+
C5>0
Secondary
12
Rational
polynomial
C2>0
13
Generalized
Time
Hardening
100
---
C1>0,
Primary
C5>0
Primary
+
Secondary
Primary
User Creep
---
where:
68
Primary
---

cr = equivalent creep strain
= change in equivalent creep strain with respect to time
= equivalent stress
T = temperature (absolute). The offset temperature (from TOFFST), is internally added to all
temperatures for convenience.
C1 through C12 = constants defined by the TBDATA command
t = time at end of substep
e = natural logarithm base
You can define the user creep option by setting TBOPT = 100, and using TB,STATE to specify the
number of state variables for the user creep subroutine. See the Guide to User-Programmable Features
for more information. The RATE command is necessary to activate implicit creep for specific elements
(see the RATE command description for details). The RATE command has no effect for explicit creep.
For temperature-dependent constants, define the temperature using TBTEMP for each set of data. Then,
define constants C1 through Cm using TBDATA (where m is the number of constants, and depends on
the creep model you choose).
The following example shows how you would define the implicit creep model represented by TBOPT
= 1 at two temperature points.
TB,CREEP,1,,,1
TBTEMP,100
TBDATA,1,c11,c12,c13,c14
TBTEMP,200
TBDATA,1,c21,c22,c23,c24
!Activate creep data table, specify creep model 1

!Define first temperature
!Creep constants c11, c12, c13, c14 at first temp.
!Define second temperature
!Creep constants c21, c22, c23, c24 at second temp.
Coefficients are linearly interpolated for temperatures that fall between user defined TBTEMP values.
For some creep models, where the change in coefficients spans several orders of magnitude, this linear
interpolation might introduce inaccuracies in solution results. Use enough curves to accurately capture
the temperature dependency. Also, consider using the curve fitting subroutine to calculate a temperature
dependent coefficient that includes the Arrhenius term.
When a temperature is outside the range of defined temperature values, the program uses the coefficients
defined for the constant temperature.
For a list of elements that can be used with this material option, see Material Model Element Support (p. 5).
See Creep in the Structural Analysis Guide for more information on this material option.
3.5.5.2. Explicit Creep Equations

Enter an explicit creep equation by setting TBOPT = 0 (or leaving it blank) within the TB command,
then specifying the constants associated with the creep equations using the TBDATA command.
Specify primary creep with constant C6. Primary Explicit Creep Equation for C6 = 0 (p. 70), through
Primary Explicit Creep Equation for C6 = 100 (p. 76), show the available equations. You select an
equation with the appropriate value of C6 (0 to 15). If C1
0, or if T + Toffset
0, no primary creep is
computed.
Specify secondary creep with constant C12. Secondary Explicit Creep Equation for C12 = 0 (p. 76) and
Secondary Explicit Creep Equation for C12 = 1 (p. 76) show the available equations. You select an
equation with the appropriate value of C12 (0 or 1). If C7
0, or if T + Toffset
0, no secondary creep
69
Material Models
is computed. Also, primary creep equations C6 = 9, 10, 11, 13, 14, and 15 bypass any secondary creep
equations since secondary effects are included in the primary part.
Specify irradiation induced creep with constant C66. Irradiation Induced Explicit Creep Equation for C66
= 5 (p. 76) shows the single equation currently available; select it with C66 = 5. This equation can be
used in conjunction with equations C6 = 0 to 11. The constants should be entered into the data table
as indicated by their subscripts. If C55
0 and C61 0, or if T + Toffset
0, no irradiation induced creep
is computed.
A linear stepping function is used to calculate the change in the creep strain within a time step ( cr
= ( )(t)). The creep strain rate is evaluated at the condition corresponding to the beginning of the
time interval and is assumed to remain constant over the time interval. If the time step is less than 1.0e6, then no creep strain increment is computed. Primary equivalent stresses and strains are used to
evaluate the creep strain rate. For highly nonlinear creep strain vs. time curves, use a small time step
if you are using the explicit creep algorithm. A creep time step optimization procedure is available for
automatically increasing the time step whenever possible. A nonlinear stepping function (based on an
exponential decay) is also available (C11 = 1) but should be used with caution since it can underestimate
the total creep strain where primary stresses dominate. This function is available only for creep equations
C6 = 0, 1 and 2. Temperatures used in the creep equations should be based on an absolute scale
(TOFFST).
Use the BF or BFE commands to enter temperature and fluence values. The input fluence (t) includes
the integrated effect of time and time explicitly input is not used in the fluence calculation. Also, for
the usual case of a constant flux (), the fluence should be linearly ramp changed.
Temperature dependent creep constants are not permitted for explicit creep. You can incorporate
other creep options by setting C6 = 100. See the Guide to User-Programmable Features for more information.
The following example shows how you would use the explicit creep equation defined by C6 = 1.
TB,CREEP,1
TBDATA,1,c1,c2,c3,c4,,1
!Activate creep data table

!Creep constants c1, c2, c3, c4 for equation C6=1
The explicit creep constants that you enter with the TBDATA are:
Constant
Meaning
C1-CN
Constants C1, C2, C3, etc. (as defined in Primary Explicit

Creep Equation for C6 = 0 (p. 70) to Irradiation Induced
Explicit Creep Equation for C66 = 5 (p. 76)) These are
obtained by curve fitting test results for your material to
the equation you choose. Exceptions are defined below.
3.5.5.2.1. Primary Explicit Creep Equation for C6 = 0
where:
= change in equivalent strain with respect to time
= equivalent stress
70

T = temperature (absolute). The offset temperature (from TOFFST) is internally added to all
t = time at end of substep
where:

Annealed 304 Stainless Steel:
3.5.5.2.4.1. Double Exponential Creep Equation (C4 = 0)

To use the following Double Exponential creep equation to calculate
where:
x = 0 for C2
x = G + H for C2 < C3
C2 = 6000 psi (default), C3 = 25000 psi (default)
s, r, , G, and H = functions of temperature and stress as described in the reference.
This double exponential equation is valid for Annealed 304 Stainless Steel over a temperature range
from 800 to 1100F. The equation, known as the Blackburn creep equation when C1 = 1, is described
completely in the High Alloy Steels. The first two terms describe the primary creep strain and the last
term describes the secondary creep strain.
To use this equation, input a nonzero value for C1, C6 = 9.0, and C7 = 0.0. Temperatures should be in
R (or F with Toffset = 460.0). Conversion to K for the built-in property tables is done internally. If the
temperature is below the valid range, no creep is computed. Time should be in hours and stress in psi.
The valid stress range is 6,000 - 25,000 psi.
3.5.5.2.4.2. Rational Polynomial Creep Equation with Metric Units (C4 = 1)

To use the following standard Rational Polynomial creep equation (with metric units) to calculate c,
enter C4 = 1.0:
71
Material Models
where:
c = limiting value of primary creep strain
p = primary creep time factor
= secondary (minimum) creep strain rate
This standard rational polynomial creep equation is valid for Annealed 304 SS over a temperature range
from 427C to 704C. The equation is described completely in the High Alloy Steels. The first term describes the primary creep strain. The last term describes the secondary creep strain. The average "lot
constant" is used to calculate .
To use this equation, input C1 = 1.0, C4 = 1.0, C6 = 9.0, and C7 = 0.0. Temperature must be in C and
Toffset must be 273 (because of the built-in property tables). If the temperature is below the valid range,
no creep is computed. Also, time must be in hours and stress in Megapascals (MPa).
Various hardening rules governing the rate of change of creep strain during load reversal may be selected
with the C5 value: 0.0 - time hardening, 1.0 - total creep strain hardening, 2.0 - primary creep strain
hardening. These options are available only with the standard rational polynomial creep equation.
3.5.5.2.4.3. Rational Polynomial Creep Equation with English Units (C4 = 2)

To use the above standard Rational Polynomial creep equation (with English units), enter C4 = 2.0.
This standard rational polynomial equation is the same as described above except that temperature
must be in F, Toffset must be 460, and stress must be in psi. The equivalent valid temperature range is
800 - 1300F.

Annealed 316 Stainless Steel:
3.5.5.2.5.1. Double Exponential Creep Equation (C4 = 0)

To use the same form of the Double Exponential creep equation as described for Annealed 304 SS (C6
= 9.0, C4 = 0.0) in Primary Explicit Creep Equation for C6 = 9 (p. 71) to calculate c, enter C4 = 0.0.
This equation, also described in High Alloy Steels, differs from the Annealed 304 SS equation in that
the built-in property tables are for Annealed 316 SS, the valid stress range is 4000 - 30,000 psi, C2 defaults
to 4000 psi, C3 defaults to 30,000 psi, and the equation is called with C6 = 10.0 instead of C6 = 9.0.

To use the same form of the standard Rational Polynomial creep equation with metric units as described
for Annealed 304 SS (C6 = 9.0, C4 = 1.0) in Primary Explicit Creep Equation for C6 = 9 (p. 71), enter C4
= 1.0.
72

This standard rational polynomial equation, also described in High Alloy Steels, differs from the Annealed
304 SS equation in that the built-in property tables are for Annealed 316 SS, the valid temperature
range is 482 - 704C, and the equation is called with C6 = 10.0 instead of C6 = 9.0. The hardening rules
for load reversal described for the C6 = 9.0 standard Rational Polynomial creep equation are also available.
The average "lot constant" from High Alloy Steels is used in the calculation of .

To use the previous standard Rational Polynomial creep equation with English units, enter C4 = 2.0.
This standard rational polynomial equation is the same as described above except that the temperatures
must be in F, Toffset must be 460, and the stress must be in psi (with a valid range from 0.0 to 24220
psi). The equivalent valid temperature range is 900 - 1300F.

Annealed 2 1/4 Cr - 1 Mo Low Alloy Steel:
3.5.5.2.6.1. Modified Rational Polynomial Creep Equation (C4 = 0)

To use the following Modified Rational Polynomial creep equation to calculate c, enter C4 = 0.0:
A, B, and
are functions of temperature and stress as described in the reference.
This modified rational polynomial equation is valid for Annealed 2 1/4 Cr -1 Mo Low Alloy steel over a
temperature range of 700 - 1100F. The equation is described completely in the Low Alloy Steels. The
first term describes the primary creep strain and the last term describes the secondary creep strain. No
modification is made for plastic strains.
To use this equation, input C1 = 1.0, C6 = 11.0, and C7 = 0.0. Temperatures must be in R (or F with
Toffset = 460.0). Conversion to K for the built-in property tables is done internally. If the temperature is
below the valid range, no creep is computed. Time should be in hours and stress in psi. Valid stress
range is 1000 - 65,000 psi.

To use the following standard Rational Polynomial creep equation (with metric units) to calculate c,
enter C4 = 1.0:
where:
c = limiting value of primary creep strain
p = primary creep time factor
= secondary (minimum) creep strain rate
73
Material Models
This standard rational polynomial creep equation is valid for Annealed 2 1/4 Cr - 1 Mo Low Alloy Steel
over a temperature range from 371C to 593C. The equation is described completely in the Low Alloy
Steels. The first term describes the primary creep strain and the last term describes the secondary creep
strain. No tertiary creep strain is calculated. Only Type I (and not Type II) creep is supported. No modification is made for plastic strains.
To use this equation, input C1 = 1.0, C4 = 1.0, C6 = 11.0, and C7 = 0.0. Temperatures must be in C and
Toffset must be 273 (because of the built-in property tables). If the temperature is below the valid range,
no creep is computed. Also, time must be in hours and stress in Megapascals (MPa). The hardening
rules for load reversal described for the C6 = 9.0 standard Rational Polynomial creep equation are also
available.

To use the above standard Rational Polynomial creep equation with English units, enter C4 = 2.0.
This standard rational polynomial equation is the same as described above except that temperatures
must be in F, Toffset must be 460, and stress must be in psi. The equivalent valid temperature range is
700 - 1100F.
where:
C1 = Scaling constant
M, N, K = Function of temperature (determined by linear interpolation within table) as follows:
Constant
Meaning
C5
Number of temperature values to describe

M, N, or K function (2 minimum, 6
maximum)
C49
First absolute temperature value
C50
Second absolute temperature value

...
C48 + C5
C5th absolute temperature value
C48 + C5 + 1
First M value
...
C48 + 2C5
C5th M value
C48 + 2C5
C5th M value
...
C48 + 2C5
C5th M value
C48 + 2C5 +
1
First N value
...
74

Constant
Meaning
C48 + 3C5
C5th N value
C48 + 3C5 +
1
First K value
...
This power function creep law having temperature dependent coefficients is similar to Equation C6 =
1.0 except with C1 = f1(T), C2 = f2(T), C3 = f3(T), and C4 = 0. Temperatures must not be input in decreasing
order.
3.5.5.2.8. Primary Explicit Creep Equation for C6 Equals 13

Sterling Power Function:
where:
acc = creep strain accumulated to this time (calculated by the program). Internally set to 1 x
10-5 at the first substep with nonzero time to prevent division by zero.
A = C1/T
B = C2/T + C3
C = C4/T + C5
This equation is often referred to as the Sterling Power Function creep equation. Constant C7 should
be 0.0. Constant C1 should not be 0.0, unless no creep is to be calculated.
where:
c = cpt/(1+pt) +
ln c = -1.350 - 5620/T - 50.6 x 10-6 + 1.918 ln (/1000)
ln p = 31.0 - 67310/T + 330.6 x 10-6 - 1885.0 x 10-12 2
ln
= 43.69 - 106400/T + 294.0 x 10-6 + 2.596 ln (/1000)
This creep law is valid for Annealed 316 SS over a temperature range from 800F to 1300F. The equation
is similar to that given for C6 = 10.0 and is also described in High Alloy Steels.
To use equation, input C1 = 1.0 and C6 = 14.0. Temperatures should be in R (or F with Toffset = 460).
Time should be in hours. Constants are only valid for English units (pounds and inches). Valid temperature range: 800 - 1300F. Maximum stress allowed for ec calculation: 45,000 psi; minimum stress: 0.0
psi. If T + Toffset < 1160, no creep is computed.
75
Material Models

General Material Rational Polynomial:
where:
This rational polynomial creep equation is a generalized form of the standard rational polynomial
equations given as C6 = 9.0, 10.0, and 11.0 (C4 = 1.0 and 2.0). This equation reduces to the standard
equations for isothermal cases. The hardening rules for load reversal described for the C6 = 9.0 standard
Rational Polynomial creep equation are also available.

A user-defined creep equation is used. See the Guide to User-Programmable Features for more information.
3.5.5.2.12. Secondary Explicit Creep Equation for C12 = 0
where:
= equivalent stress
T = temperature (absolute). The offset temperature (from TOFFST), is internally added to all
t = time
3.5.5.2.13. Secondary Explicit Creep Equation for C12 = 1
3.5.5.2.14. Irradiation Induced Explicit Creep Equation for C66 = 5
where:
B = FG + C63
= equivalent stress
76
Hyperelasticity
T = temperature (absolute). The offset temperature (from TOFFST) is internally added to all
t0.5 = neutron fluence (input on BF or BFE command)
t = time
This irradiation induced creep equation is valid for 20% Cold Worked 316 SS over a temperature range
from 700 to 1300F. Constants 56, 57, 58 and 62 must be positive if the B term is included.
See Creep in the Structural Analysis Guide for more information on this material option.
3.6. Hyperelasticity
Hyperelastic material behavior is supported by current-technology shell, plane, and solid elements. For
a list of elements that can be used with hyperelastic material models, see Material Model Element
Support (p. 5). You can specify options to describe the hyperelastic material behavior for these elements.
Hyperelasticity options are available via the TBOPT argument on the TB,HYPER command.
Several forms of strain energy potentials describe the hyperelasticity of materials. These are based on
either strain invariants or principal stretches. The behavior of materials is assumed to be incompressible
or nearly incompressible.
The following hyperelastic material model topics are available:
3.6.1. Arruda-Boyce Hyperelasticity
3.6.2. Blatz-Ko Foam Hyperelasticity
3.6.3. Extended Tube Hyperelasticity
3.6.4. Gent Hyperelasticity
3.6.5. Mooney-Rivlin Hyperelasticity
3.6.6. Neo-Hookean Hyperelasticity
3.6.7. Ogden Hyperelasticity
3.6.8. Ogden Compressible Foam Hyperelasticity
3.6.9. Polynomial Form Hyperelasticity
3.6.10. Response Function Hyperelasticity
3.6.11.Yeoh Hyperelasticity
3.6.12. Special Hyperelasticity
For information about other hyperelastic material models, see Special Hyperelasticity (p. 86).
3.6.1. Arruda-Boyce Hyperelasticity

The TB,HYPER,,,,BOYCE option uses the Arruda-Boyce form of strain energy potential given by:
where:
W = strain energy per unit reference volume
J = determinant of the elastic deformation gradient F
77
Material Models
= initial shear modulus of materials
L = limiting network stretch
d = material incompressibility parameter
The initial bulk modulus is defined as:
As L approaches infinity, the option becomes equivalent to the Neo-Hookean option.

The constants , L and d are defined by C1, C2, and C3 using the TBDATA command.
See Arruda-Boyce Hyperelastic Option in the Structural Analysis Guide for more information on this material option.
3.6.2. Blatz-Ko Foam Hyperelasticity

The TB,HYPER,,,,BLATZ option uses the Blatz-Ko form of strain energy potential given by:
where:
= initial strain shear modulus
I2 and I3= second and third strain invariants
The initial bulk modulus k is defined as:
The model has only one constant and is defined by C1 using the TBDATA command.
See Blatz-Ko Foam Hyperelastic Option in the Structural Analysis Guide for more information on this
material option.
3.6.3. Extended Tube Hyperelasticity

The extended tube model is available as a hyperelastic material option (TB,HYPER). The model simulates
filler-reinforced elastomers and other rubber-like materials, supports material curve-fitting, and is
available in all current-technology continuum, shell, and pipe elements.
Five material constants are needed for the extended-tube model:
78
TBOPT
Constants
C1
Gc
Purpose
Crosslinked network
modulus
Hyperelasticity
TBOPT
Constants
Purpose
C2
Ge
Constraint network
modulus
C3
Empirical parameter (0
1)
C4
Extensibility parameter
C5
Incompressibility parameter
Following the material data table command (TB), specify the material constant values via the TBDATA
command , as shown in this example:
TB,HYPER,1,,5,ETUBE
! Hyperelastic material, 1 temperature,
!
5 material constants, and the extended tube option
TBDATA,1,0.25, 0.8,1.0,0.5,1.0e-5 ! Five material constant values (C1 through C5)
For more information, see the documentation for the TB,HYPER command, and Extended Tube Model
in the Mechanical APDL Theory Reference.
3.6.4. Gent Hyperelasticity

The TB,HYPER,,,,GENT option uses the Gent form of strain energy potential given by:
where:
= initial shear modulus of material

The initial bulk modulus K is defined as:
As Jm approaches infinity, the option becomes equivalent to the Neo-Hookean option.

The constants , Jm, and d are defined by C1, C2, and C3 using the TBDATA command.
See Gent Hyperelastic Option in the Structural Analysis Guide for more information on this material option.
3.6.5. Mooney-Rivlin Hyperelasticity

The Mooney-Rivlin model applies to current-technology shell, beam, solid, and plane elements.
79
Material Models
The TB,HYPER,,,,MOONEY option allows you to define 2, 3, 5, or 9 parameter Mooney-Rivlin models using
NPTS = 2, 3, 5, or 9, respectively.
For NPTS = 2 (2 parameter Mooney-Rivlin option, which is also the default), the form of the strain energy
potential is:
where:
W = strain energy potential
c10, c01 = material constants characterizing the deviatoric deformation of the material
The initial shear modulus is defined as:
and the initial bulk modulus is defined as:
where:
d = (1 - 2*) / (C10 + C01)
The constants c10, c01, and d are defined by C1, C2, and C3 using the TBDATA command.
For NPTS = 3 (3 parameter Mooney-Rivlin option, which is also the default), the form of the strain energy
potential is:
The constants c10, c01, c11; and d are defined by C1, C2, C3, and C4 using the TBDATA command.
For NPTS = 5 (5 parameter Mooney-Rivlin option), the form of the strain energy potential is:
The constants c10, c01, c20, c11, c02, and d are material constants defined by C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, and C6
using the TBDATA command.
For NPTS = 9 (9 parameter Mooney-Rivlin option), the form of the strain energy potential is:
80
Hyperelasticity
The constants c10, c01, c20, c11, c02, c30, c21, c12, c03, and d are material constants defined by C1, C2, C3,
C4, C5, C6, C7, C8, C9, and C10 using the TBDATA command.
See Mooney-Rivlin Hyperelastic Option (TB,HYPER) in the Structural Analysis Guide for more information
on this material option.
3.6.6. Neo-Hookean Hyperelasticity

The option TB,HYPER,,,,NEO uses the Neo-Hookean form of strain energy potential, which is given by:
where:
= initial shear modulus of the material
d = material incompressibility parameter.
The initial bulk modulus is defined by:
The constants and d are defined via the TBDATA command.

See Neo-Hookean Hyperelastic Option in the Structural Analysis Guide for more information on this
material option.
3.6.7. Ogden Hyperelasticity

The TB,HYPER,,,,OGDEN option uses the Ogden form of strain energy potential. The Ogden form is based
on the principal stretches of the left Cauchy-Green tensor. The strain energy potential is:
where:
p = principal stretches of the left Cauchy-Green tensor
J = determinant of the elastic deformation gradient
N, p, p and dp = material constants
81
Material Models
In general there is no limitation on the value of N. (See the TB command.) A higher value of N can
provide a better fit to the exact solution. It may however cause numerical difficulties in fitting the material constants. For this reason, very high values of N are not recommended.
The initial shear modulus is defined by:
The initial bulk modulus K is defined by:
For N = 1 and 1 = 2, the Ogden option is equivalent to the Neo-Hookean option. For N = 2, 1 = 2,
and 2 = -2, the Ogden option is equivalent to the 2 parameter Mooney-Rivlin option.
The constants p, p and dp are defined using the TBDATA command in the following order:
For N (NPTS) = 1:
1, 1, d1
For N (NPTS) = 2:
1, 1, 2, 2, d1, d2
For N (NPTS) = 3:
1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, d1, d2, d3
For N (NPTS) = k:
1, 1, 2, 2, ..., k, k, d1, d2, ..., dk
See Ogden Hyperelastic Option in the Structural Analysis Guide for more information on this material
option.
3.6.8. Ogden Compressible Foam Hyperelasticity

The TB,HYPER,,,,FOAM option uses the Ogden form of strain energy potential for highly compressible
elastomeric foam material. The strain energy potential is based on the principal stretches of the left
Cauchy-Green tensor and is given by:
where:
82
Hyperelasticity
J = determinant of the elastic deformation gradient
N, i, i and k = material constants
For this material option, the volumetric and deviatoric terms are tightly coupled. Hence, this model is
meant to simulate highly compressible elastomers.
provide a better fit to the exact solution. It may however cause numerical difficulties in fitting the material constants. For this reason, very high values of N are not recommended.
and the initial bulk modulus K is defined by:
For N = 1, 1 = 2, 1 = -, and 1 = 0.5, the Ogden foam option is equivalent to the Blatz-Ko option.
The constants i, i and i are defined using the TBDATA command in the following order:
For N (NPTS) = 1:
1, 1, 1
For N (NPTS) = 2:
1, 1, 2, 2, 1, 2
For N (NPTS) = 3:
1, 1, 2, 2, 3, 3, 1, 2, 3
For N (NPTS) = k:
1, 1, 2, 2, ..., k, k, 1, 2, ..., k
See Ogden Compressible Foam Hyperelastic Option in the Structural Analysis Guide for more information
on this material option.
3.6.9. Polynomial Form Hyperelasticity

The TB,HYPER,,,,POLY option allows you to define a polynomial form of strain energy potential. The
form of the strain energy potential for the Polynomial option is given by:
83
Material Models
where:

N, cij, and d = material constants
provide a better fit to the exact solution. It may however cause a numerical difficulty in fitting the material constants, and it also requests enough data to cover the whole range of deformation for which
you may be interested. For these reasons, a very high value of N is not recommended.
and the initial bulk modulus is defined as:
For N = 1 and c01 = 0, the polynomial form option is equivalent to the Neo-Hookean option. For N =
1, it is equivalent to the 2 parameter Mooney-Rivlin option. For N = 2, it is equivalent to the 5 parameter
Mooney-Rivlin option, and for N = 3, it is equivalent to the 9 parameter Mooney-Rivlin option.
The constants cij and d are defined using the TBDATA command in the following order:
For N (NPTS) = 1:
c10, c01, d1
For N (NPTS) = 2:
c10, c01, c20, c11, c02, d1, d2
For N (NPTS) = 3:
c10, c01, c20, c11, c02, c30, c21, c12, c03, d1, d2, d3
For N (NPTS) = k:
c10, c01, c20, c11, c02, c30, c21, c12, c03, ..., ck0, c(k-1)1, ..., c0k, d1, d2, ..., dk
See Polynomial Form Hyperelastic Option in the Structural Analysis Guide for more information on this
material option.
84
Hyperelasticity
3.6.10. Response Function Hyperelasticity

The response function option for hyperelastic material constants (TB,HYPER,,,,RESPONSE) uses experimental data (TB,EXPE) to determine the constitutive response functions.
The response functions (first derivatives of the hyperelastic potential) are used to determine hyperelastic
constitutive behavior of the material. In general, the stiffness matrix requires derivatives of the response
functions (second derivatives of the hyperelastic potential).
The method for determining the derivatives is ill-conditioned near the zero stress-strain point; therefore,
a deformation limit is used, below which the stiffness matrix is calculated with only the response functions. The deformation measure is = I1 - 3, where I1 is the first invariant of the Cauchy-Green deformation tensor.
The stiffness matrix is then calculated with only the response functions if < C1, where C1 is the material constant deformation limit (default 1 x 10-5).
The remaining material parameters are for the volumetric strain energy potential, given by
where N is the NPTS value (TB,HYPER,,,,RESPONSE) and dk represents the material constants incompressibility parameters (default 0.0) and J is the volume ratio. Use of experimental volumetric data requires
NPTS = 0. Incompressible behavior results if all dk = 0 or NPTS = 0 with no experimental volumetric
data.
3.6.11. Yeoh Hyperelasticity

The TB,HYPER,,,,YEOH option follows a reduced polynomial form of strain energy potential by Yeoh.
The form of the strain energy potential for the Yeoh option is given by:
where:
N, ci0, and dk = material constants
provide a better fit to the exact solution. It may however cause a numerical difficulty in fitting the material constants, and it also requests enough data to cover the whole range of deformation for which
you may be interested. For these reasons, a very high value of N is not recommended.
85
Material Models
and the initial bulk modulus K is defined as:
For N = 1 the Yeoh form option is equivalent to the Neo-Hookean option.

The constants ci0 and dk are defined using the TBDATA command in the following order:
For N (NPTS) = 1:
c10, d1
For N (NPTS) = 2:
c10, c20, d1, d2
For N (NPTS) = 3:
c10, c20, c30, d1, d2, d3
For N (NPTS) = k:
c10, c20, c30, ..., ck0, d1, d2, ..., dk
See Yeoh Hyperelastic Option in the Structural Analysis Guide for more information on this material option.
3.6.12. Special Hyperelasticity

The following hyperelastic material models have their own Lab value on the TB command (and are
not simply TBOPT hyperelasticity options on the TB,HYPER command):
3.6.12.1. Anisotropic Hyperelasticity
3.6.12.2. Bergstrom-Boyce Material
3.6.12.3. Mullins Effect
3.6.12.4. User-Defined Hyperelastic Material
3.6.12.1. Anisotropic Hyperelasticity

The anisotropic hyperelasticity material model (TB,AHYPER) is available with current-technology shell,
plane, and solid elements. Anisotropic hyperelasticity is a potential-based-function with parameters to
define the volumetric part, the isochoric part and the material directions.
Two strain energy potentials, as forms of polynomial or exponential function, are available for characterizing the isochoric part of strain energy potential.
You can use anisotropic hyperelasticity to model elastomers with reinforcements, and for biomedical
materials such as muscles or arteries.
The strain energy potential for anisotropic hyperelasticity is given by:
The volumetric strain energy is given by:
86
Hyperelasticity
The polynomial-function-based strain energy potential is given by:
The exponential-function-based strain energy potential is given by:
Use TB,AHYPER,,TBOPT to define the isochoric part, material directions and the volumetric part. Only
one TB table can be defined for each option. You can either define polynomial or exponential strain
energy potential.
TBOPT
Constants
Purpose
Input Format
POLY
C1 to C31
Anisotropic strain
energy potential
TB,AHYPER,,,POLY
TBDATA,,A1,A2,A3,B1....
EXP
C1 to C10
Exponential
anisotropic strain
energy potential
TB,AHYPER,,,EXPO
TBDATA,1,A1,A2,A3,B1,B2,B3
TBDATA,7,C1,C2,E1,E2
AVEC
C1 to C3
Material direction
constants
TB,AHYPER,,,AVEC
TBDATA,,A1,A2,A3
BVEC
C1 to C3
Material direction
constants
TB,AHYPER,,,BVEC
TBDATA,,B1,B2, B3
PVOL
C1
Volumetric potential
TB,AHYPER,,,PVOL
TBDATA,,D
You can enter temperature-dependent data for anisotropic hyperelastic material via the TBTEMP command. For the first temperature curve, issue TB, AHYPER,,,TBOPT, then input the first temperature (TBTEMP). The subsequent TBDATA command inputs the data.
The program interpolates the temperature data to the material points automatically using linear interpolation. When the temperature is out of the specified range, the closest temperature point is used.
For more information, see the TB command, and Anisotropic Hyperelasticity in the Mechanical APDL
Theory Reference.
3.6.12.2. Bergstrom-Boyce Material

The Bergstrom Boyce option (TB,BB) is a phenomenological-based, highly nonlinear, rate-dependent
material model for simulation of elastomer materials. The model assumes inelastic response only for
87
Material Models
shear distortional behavior defined by an isochoric strain energy potential, while the response to volumetric deformations is still purely elastic and characterized by a volumetric strain energy potential.
This model requires seven material constants input for the isochoric (TBOPT = ISO) option and one
material constant for the volumetric potential (TBOPT = PVOL) option. Issue the TBDATA data table
command to input the constant values in the order shown:
Isochoric
TB,BB,,,,ISO
Constant
Meaning
C1
Initial shear modulus for

Part A
C2
N0
( Alock )2, where lock is the Dimensionless

limiting chain stretch
C3
Initial shear modulus for

Part B
Pa
C4
N1
( Block )2
Dimensionless
Material constant
s-1(Pa)-m
C5
Property
Units
Pa
C6
Material constant
Dimensionless
C7
Material constant
Dimensionless
C8
Optional material constant
Dimensionless
The default optional material constant is = 1 x 10-5. However, if TBNPT > 7 or TBNPT is unspecified,
the table value is used instead. If the table value is zero or exceeds 1 x 10-3, the default constant value
is used.
Volumetric Potential
TB,BB,,,,PVOL
Constant
Meaning
Property
C1
1 / K, where K is the bulk

modulus
Units
1 / Pa
For more information, see:

The BB argument and associated specifications in the TB command documentation
Bergstrom-Boyce Hyperviscoelastic Material Model in the Structural Analysis Guide
Bergstrom-Boyce in the Mechanical APDL Theory Reference
3.6.12.3. Mullins Effect

The Mullins effect is a modification to the nearly- and fully-incompressible isotropic hyperelastic constitutive models (all TB,HYPER options with the exception of TBOPT = BLATZ or TBOPT = FOAM) and
is used with those models. The data table is initiated via the following command:
88
Viscoelasticity
TB,CDM,MAT,NTEMPS,NPTS,TBOPT
The material constants for each valid TBOPT value follow:
Modified Ogden-Roxburgh Pseudo-Elastic
TBOPT = PSE2
Constant
Meaning
Property
C1
Damage variable
parameter
C2
Damage variable
parameter
C3
Damage variable
parameter

The CDM argument and associated specifications in the TB command documentation
Mullins Effect Material Model in the Structural Analysis Guide
Mullins Effect in the Mechanical APDL Theory Reference.
3.6.12.4. User-Defined Hyperelastic Material

You can define a strain energy potential by using the option TB,HYPER,,,,USER. This allows you to provide
a subroutine USERHYPER to define the derivatives of the strain energy potential with respect to the
strain invariants. Refer to the Guide to User-Programmable Features for a detailed description on writing
a user hyperelasticity subroutine.
See User-Defined Hyperelastic Option (TB,HYPER,,,,USER) in the Structural Analysis Guide for more information on this material option.
3.7. Viscoelasticity
Viscoelastic materials are characterized by a combination of elastic behavior, which stores energy during
deformation, and viscous behavior, which dissipates energy during deformation.
The elastic behavior is rate-independent and represents the recoverable deformation due to mechanical
loading. The viscous behavior is rate-dependent and represents dissipative mechanisms within the
material.
A wide range of materials (such as polymers, glassy materials, soils, biologic tissue, and textiles) exhibit
viscoelastic behavior.
Following are descriptions of the viscoelastic constitutive models, which include both small- and largedeformation formulations. Also presented is time-temperature superposition for thermorheologically
simple materials and a harmonic domain viscoelastic model.
3.7.1. Viscoelastic Formulation
3.7.2.Time-Temperature Superposition
3.7.3. Harmonic Viscoelasticity
For additional information, see Viscoelasticity in the Structural Analysis Guide.
89
Material Models
3.7.1. Viscoelastic Formulation

The following formulation topics for viscoelasticity are available:
3.7.1.1. Small Deformation
3.7.1.2. Small Strain with Large Deformation
3.7.1.4. Dissipation
3.7.1.1. Small Deformation

The following figure shows a one dimensional representation of a generalized Maxwell solid. It consists
of a spring element in parallel with a number of spring and dashpot Maxwell elements.
Figure 3.17: Generalized Maxwell Solid in One Dimension
The spring stiffnesses are i, the dashpot viscosities are i , and the relaxation time is defined as the
ratio of viscosity to stiffness, i = i / i.
In three dimensions, the constitutive model for a generalized Maxwell model is given by:
(3.13)
where:
= Cauchy stress
e = deviatoric strain
= volumetric strain
= past time
I = identity tensor
and G(t) and K(t) are the Prony series shear and bulk-relaxation moduli, respectively:
(3.14)
90
Viscoelasticity
(3.15)
where:
G0, K0 = relaxation moduli at t = 0
nG, nK = number of Prony terms
iG, iK = relative moduli
iG, iK = relaxation time
For use in the incremental finite element procedure, the solution for Equation 3.13 (p. 90) at t1 = t0 +
t is:
(3.16)
(3.17)
where si and pi are the deviatoric and pressure components, respectively, of the Cauchy stress for each
Maxwell element.
By default, the midpoint rule is used to approximate the integrals:
(3.18)
(3.19)
An alternative stress integration method is to assume a constant strain rate over the time increment.
Then the stress update is:
(3.20)
(3.21)
The model requires input of the parameters in Equation 3.14 (p. 90) and Equation 3.15 (p. 91). The relaxation moduli at t = 0 are obtained from the elasticity parameters input using the MP command or
via an elastic data table (TB,ELASTIC). The Prony series relative moduli and relaxation times are input
via a Prony data table (TB,PRONY), and separate data tables are necessary for specifying the bulk and
shear Prony parameters.
For the shear Prony data table, TBOPT = SHEAR, NPTS = nG, and the constants in the data table follow
this pattern:
Table Location
Constant
1G
91
Material Models
Table Location
Constant
1G
...
...
2(NPTS) - 1
nGG
2(NPTS)
nGG
For the bulk Prony data table, TBOPT = BULK, NPTS = nK, and the constants in the data table follow
this pattern:
Table Location
Constant
1K
1K
...
...
2(NPTS) - 1
nKK
2(NPTS)
nKK
Use TBOPT = INTEGRATION with the Prony table (TB,PRONY) to select the stress update algorithm. If
the table is not defined, or the value of the first table location is equal to 1, then the default midpoint
formula from Equation 3.18 (p. 91) and Equation 3.19 (p. 91) are used. If the value of the first table
location is equal to 2, then the constant strain rate formula from Equation 3.20 (p. 91) and Equation 3.21 (p. 91) are used.
3.7.1.2. Small Strain with Large Deformation

This model is used when the large-deflection effects are active (NLGEOM,ON).
To account for large displacement, the model is formulated in the co-rotated configuration using the
co-rotated deviatoric stress = RTsR, where R is the rotation obtained from the polar decomposition
of the deformation gradient. The pressure component of the Cauchy stress does not need to account
for the material rotation and uses the same formulation as the small-deformation model.
The deviatoric stress update is then expressed as:
(3.22)
where R = R(t1)RT(t0) is the incremental rotation.
Parameter input for this model resembles the input requirements for the small-deformation viscoelastic
model.

The large-strain viscoelastic constitutive model is a modification of the model proposed by Simo.
Modifications are included for viscoelastic volumetric response and the use of time-temperature superposition.
The linear structure of the formulation is provided by the generalized Maxwell model. Extension to
large-deformation requires only a hyperelastic model for the springs in the Maxwell elements. Hyperelasticity is defined by a strain energy potential where, for isotropic materials:
92
Viscoelasticity
(3.23)
where:
right Cauchy-Green deformation tensor
isochoric part of C
determinant of the deformation gradient
The second Piola-Kirchhoff stress in the Maxwell element springs is then:
(3.24)
and the large-deformation stress update for the Maxwell element stresses is given by:
(3.25)
(3.26)
where:
deviatoric component of Si
pressure component of Si
An anisotropic hyperelastic model can also be used for Equation 3.23 (p. 93) , in which case the form
of the Maxwell element stress updates are unchanged.
This model requires the Prony series parameters to be input via the Prony data table (as described in
Small Deformation (p. 90)). The hyperelastic parameters for this model are input via a hyperelastic data
table (TB,HYPER). For more information, see Hyperelasticity (p. 77).
3.7.1.4. Dissipation
For a physical interpretation of the Prony series formulation, the dissipated energy in the viscoelastic
material is the energy used to deform the dashpots in the Maxwell elements. The increment of energy
used by the dashpots over a time increment is:
where, for dashpot i,

and
is the deviatoric stress,
is the increment in deviatoric strain,
is the pressure,
is the increment in volumetric strain.
For an additive decomposition of the Maxwell element strains, the dashpot strain increment is given
by:
where
is the strain increment, is the Maxwell spring compliance, and
is the stress increment.
Defining
as the instantaneous compliance, the Maxwell spring compliance is:
93
Material Models
The dashpot strain increment and compliance can be applied to both deviatoric and volumetric components, and then
corresponds to either the deviatoric or volumetric relative modulus for Maxwell
element i.
For large deformation, the incremental dissipation uses strain increments calculated from the rate of
deformation tensor and a Maxwell compliance tensor calculated from the instantaneous hyperelastic
stiffness and the relative moduli.
3.7.2. Time-Temperature Superposition

For thermorheologically simple materials, the influence on the material behavior due to changing
temperature is the same as that due to changing time. For these materials, a rate-dependent material
response, P (a function of temperature and time), can be reduced to:
(3.27)
where:
T = current absolute temperature
Tr = constant absolute reference temperature
= shifted time given by = t / A(T), where A(T) = shift function.
The constitutive equations are solved in the shifted time scale. This method has the potential to reduce
the experimental effort required to determine the material parameters but requires the determination
of the shift function.
The shift functions, A(T), are evaluated in an absolute temperature scale determined by adding the
temperature offset value (TOFFST) to the current temperature, reference temperature, and fictive
temperature in the shift functions.
The following forms of the shift function are available:
3.7.2.1. Williams-Landel-Ferry Shift Function
3.7.2.2.Tool-Narayanaswamy Shift Function
3.7.2.3. User-Defined Shift Function
3.7.2.1. Williams-Landel-Ferry Shift Function

The Williams-Landel-Ferry shift function has the form:
(3.28)
where C1 and C2 are material parameters. (The shift function is often given in the literature with the
opposite sign.)
The parameters are input via a shift function data table (TB,SHIFT).
For the Williams-Landel-Ferry shift function, TBOPT = WLF, and the required input constants are:
94
Table Location
Constant
Tr
Viscoelasticity
Table Location
Constant
C1
C2
3.7.2.2. Tool-Narayanaswamy Shift Function

Two forms of the Tool-Narayanaswamy shift function are available, one of which includes a fictive
temperature.
The first form is given by:
(3.29)
where
is the scaled activation energy.
The parameters are input in a shift function data table (TB,SHIFT).

For the Tool-Narayanaswamy shift function, TBOPT = TN, and the required input constants are:
Table Location
Constant
Tr
2
The second form of the Tool-Narayanaswamy shift function includes an evolving fictive temperature.
The fictive temperature is used to model material processes that contain an intrinsic equilibrium temperature that is different from the ambient temperature of the material. The shift function is given by:
(3.30)
where:
X = weight parameter
TF = absolute fictive temperature.
The partial fictive temperatures are calculated in the relative temperature scale defined by the input
material parameters. The evolving fictive temperature is given by:
(3.31)
where:
nf = number of partial fictive temperatures
Cfi = fictive temperature relaxation coefficient
Tfi = partial fictive temperature
The evolution of the partial fictive temperature is given by:
(3.32)
95
Material Models
where:
fictive temperature relaxation time
0 (superscript) = values from the previous time step
The fictive temperature model modifies the volumetric thermal strain model and gives an incremental
thermal strain as:
(3.33)
where:
T = temperature increment over the time step. The temperature increment in the first increment
is the body temperature at the end of the increment minus the fictive thermal strain reference
temperature, Tref, defined in the shift function table. If Tref is 0 or undefined in the shift function
table, the shift function reference temperature, Tr, is used to calculate the temperature increment
in the first time step.
g and l = glass and liquid coefficients, respectively, of thermal expansion given by:
(3.34)
(3.35)
Equation 3.34 (p. 96) and Equation 3.35 (p. 96) are evaluated at the relative current and fictive temperatures.
The parameters are input in a shift function data table (TB,SHIFT).
For the Tool-Narayanaswamy with fictive temperature shift function, TBOPT = FICT, NPTS = nf, and the
required input constants are:
Table Location
Constant
Tr
H/R
4 to 3(NPTS + 1)
Tf1, Cf1, f1, Tf2, Cf2, f2, ..., Tfn, Cfn, fn
3(NPTS + 1) + 1 to 3(NPTS + 1) + 5
g0, g1, g2, g3, g4
3(NPTS + 1) + 6 to 3(NPTS + 1) +
10
l0, l1, l2, l3, l4
3(NPTS + 1) + 11
Tref
3.7.2.3. User-Defined Shift Function

Other shift functions can be accommodated via the user-provided subroutine UsrShift, described in
the Programmer's Reference.
Given the input parameters, the routine must evolve the internal state variables, then return the current
and half-step shifted time.
96
Viscoelasticity
3.7.3. Harmonic Viscoelasticity

For use in harmonic analyses, the generalized Maxwell model can be used to provide a constitutive
model in the harmonic domain.
Assuming that the strain varies harmonically and that all transient effects have subsided, Equation 3.13 (p. 90) has the form:
(3.36)
where:
deviatoric and volumetric components of strain
storage and loss shear moduli
storage and loss bulk moduli
frequency and phase angle
Comparing Equation 3.36 (p. 97) to the harmonic equation of motion, the material stiffness is due to
the storage moduli and the material damping matrix is due to the loss moduli divided by the frequency.
The following additional topics for harmonic viscoelasticity are available:
3.7.3.1. Prony Series Complex Modulus
3.7.3.2. Experimental Data Complex Modulus
3.7.3.3. Frequency-Temperature Superposition
3.7.3.4. Stress
3.7.3.1. Prony Series Complex Modulus

The storage and loss moduli are related to the Prony parameters by:
(3.37)
(3.38)
Input of the Prony series parameters for a viscoelastic material in harmonic analyses follows the input
method for viscoelasticity in the time domain detailed above.
3.7.3.2. Experimental Data Complex Modulus

Storage and loss moduli can also be input as piecewise linear functions of frequency on a data table
for experimental data. Isotropic elastic moduli can be input for the complex shear, bulk and tensile
modulus as well as the complex Poisson's ratio.
The points for the experimental data table (input via the TBPT command) have frequency as the independent variable, and the dependent variables are the real component, imaginary component, and
tan(). If the imaginary component is empty or zero for the data point, the tan() value is used to determine it; otherwise tan() is not used.
Input complex shear modulus on an experimental data table (TB,EXPE) with TBOPT = GMODULUS. The
data points are defined by:
97
Material Models
Position
Value
2
3
4
Input complex bulk modulus on an experimental data table (TB,EXPE) with TBOPT = KMODULUS. The
data points are defined by:
Position
Value
2
3
4
Input complex tensile modulus on an experimental data table (TB,EXPE) with TBOPT = EMODULUS.
The data points are defined by:
Position
Value
2
3
4
Input complex Poisson's ratio on an experimental data table (TB,EXPE) with TBOPT = NUXY. The data
points are defined by:
Position
Value
2
3
4
Using experimental data to define the complex constitutive model requires elastic constants (defined
via MP or by an elastic data table [TB,ELASTIC]). The elastic constants are unused if two sets of complex
modulus experimental data are defined. This model also requires an empty Prony data table (TB,PRONY)
with TBOPT = EXPERIMENTAL.
Two elastic constants are required to define the complex constitutive model. If only one set of experimental data for a complex modulus is defined, the Poisson's ratio (defined via MP or by elastic data
table) is used as the second elastic constant.
98
Microplane
3.7.3.3. Frequency-Temperature Superposition

For thermorheologically simple materials in the frequency domain, frequency-temperature superposition
is analogous to using time-temperature superposition to shift inverse frequency. The Williams-LandelFerry and Tool-Narayanaswamy (without fictive temperature) shift functions can be used in the frequency
domain, and the material parameter input follows the shift table input described in Time-Temperature
Superposition (p. 94).
Frequency-temperature superposition can be used with either the Prony series complex modulus or
any of the experimental data for complex moduli or Poisson's ratio.
3.7.3.4. Stress
The magnitude of the real and imaginary stress components are obtained from expanding Equation 3.36 (p. 97) and using the storage and loss moduli from either the Prony series parameters or the
experimental data:
(3.39)
(3.40)
where:
Re() = real stress magnitude
Im() = imaginary stress magnitude
3.8. Microplane
The microplane model (TB,MPLANE) is based on research by Bazant and Gambarova [1][2] in which the
material behavior is modeled through uniaxial stress-strain laws on various planes.
Directional-dependent stiffness degradation is modeled through uniaxial damage laws on individual
potential failure planes, leading to a macroscopic anisotropic damage formulation.
The model is well suited for simulating engineering materials consisting of various aggregate compositions with differing properties (for example, concrete modeling, in which rock and sand are embedded
in a weak matrix of cements).
The microplane model cannot be combined with other material models.
The following topics concerning the microplane material model are available:
3.8.1. Microplane Modeling
3.8.2. Material Models with Degradation and Damage
3.8.3. Material Parameters Definition and Example Input
3.8.4. Learning More About Microplane Material Modeling
Also see Material Model Element Support (p. 5) for microplane.
3.8.1. Microplane Modeling

Microplane theory is summarized in three primary steps.
1. Apply a kinematic constraint to relate the macroscopic strain tensors to their microplane counterparts.
99
Material Models
2. Define the constitutive laws on the microplane levels, where unidirectional constitutive equations (such
as stress and strain components) are applied on each microplane.
3. Relate the homogenization process on the material point level to derive the overall material response.
(Homogenization is based on the principle of energy equivalence.)
The microplane material model formulation is based on the assumption that microscopic free energy
mic on the microplane level exists and that the integral of mic over all microplanes is equivalent to a
macroscopic free Helmholtz energy mac [3], expressed as:
The factor
results from the integration of the sphere of unit radius with respect to the area .
The strains and stresses at microplanes are additively decomposed into volumetric and deviatoric parts,
respectively, based on the volumetric-deviatoric (V-D) split.
The strain split is expressed as:
The scalar microplane volumetric strain v results from:
where V is the second-order volumetric projection tensor and 1 the second-order identity tensor.
The deviatoric microplane strain vector D is calculated as:
where is the fourth-order identity tensor and the vector n describes the normal on the microsphere
(microplane).
The macroscopic strain is expressed as:
The stresses can then be derived as
where v and D are the scalar volumetric stress and the deviatoric stress tensor on the microsphere,
and
.
Assume isotropic elasticity:
100
Microplane
and
where Kmic and Gmic are microplane elasticity parameters and can be interpreted as a sort of microplane
bulk and shear modulus.
The integrals of the macroscopic strain (p. 100) equation and the derived stresses (p. 100) equation are
solved via numerical integration:
where wi is the weight factor.
3.8.1.1. Discretization
Discretization is the transfer from the microsphere to microplanes which describe the approximate form
of the sphere. Forty-two microplanes are used for the numerical integration. Due to the symmetry of
the microplanes (where every other plane has the same normal direction), 21 microplanes are considered
and summarized.[3]
The following figure illustrates the discretization process:
Figure 3.18: Sphere Discretization by 42 Microplanes
3.8.2. Material Models with Degradation and Damage

To account for material degradation and damage, the microscopic free-energy function is modified to
include a damage parameter, yielding:
101
Material Models
The damage parameter dmic is the normalized damage variable
The stresses are derived by:
where
and
The damage status of a material is described by the equivalent-strain-based damage function

, where mic is the equivalent strain energy, which characterizes the damage
evolution law and is defined as:
where I1 is the first invariant of the strain tensor , J2 is the second invariant of the deviatoric part of
the strain tensor , and k0, k1, and k2 are material parameters that characterize the form of damage
function. The equivalent strain function (p. 102) implies the Mises-Hencky-Huber criterion for k0 = k1 =
0, and k2 = 1, and the Drucker-Prager-criterion for k0 > 0, k1 = 0, and k2 = 1.
The damage evolution is modeled by the following function:
where mic defines the maximal degradation, mic determines the rate of damage evolution, and
characterizes the equivalent strain energy on which the material damaging starts (damage starting
boundary).
The following figure shows the evolution of the damage variable d as a function of equivalent strain
energy mic for the implemented exponential damage model:
102
Microplane
Figure 3.19: Damage Parameter d Depending on the Equivalent Strain Energy
This figure shows the stress-strain behavior for uniaxial tension:

Figure 3.20: Stress-strain Behavior at Uniaxial Tension
3.8.3. Material Parameters Definition and Example Input

The material parameters in the model are: E, , k0, k1, k2,
, and mic.
103
Material Models
E is Youngs modulus and is Poissons ratio. Both are microplane elastic properties and are defined
via the MP command.
The parameters k0, k1, k2,
, and mic are defined via the TB command (TB,MPLANE).
The command syntax is:

TB,MPLAN,MAT,NTEMP,NPTS,TBOPT
TBDATA,1,C1,C2,C3,C4,C5,C6
The following table describes the material constants:
Constant
Meaning
Property
C1
k0
Damage function constant
C2
k1
C3
k2
C4
Critical equivalent-strain-energy
density
C5
mic
C6
mic
Maximum damage parameter

Scale for rate of damage
Example 3.21: Microplane Material Constant Input

Define elastic properties of material
MP,EX,1,60000.0
MP,NUXY,1,0.36
Define microplane model properties
TB,MPLANE,1,,6
TBDATA,1,0,0,1,0.1,0.1,0.1
3.8.4. Learning More About Microplane Material Modeling

The following list of resources offers more information about microplane material modeling:
1. Bazant, Z. P., P.G. Gambarova .Crack Shear in Concrete: Crack Band Microplane Model. Journal of Structural
Engineering . 110 (1984): 2015-2036.
2. Bazant, Z. P., B. H. Oh.Microplane Model for Progressive Fracture of Concrete and Rock. Journal for Engineering Mechanics . 111 (1985): 559-582.
3. Leukart, M., E. Ramm.A Comparison of Damage Models Formulated on Different Material Scales. Computational Materials Science. 28.3-4 (2003): 749-762.
3.9. Porous Media

3.9.1. Coupled Pore-Fluid Diffusion and Structural Model of Porous Media
Issue the TB,PM command to define material model constants for a porous medium. Fluid permeability
(PERM) and Biot coefficient (BIOT) options are available.
Material constants for TBOPT = PERM
104
Electricity and Magnetism

Constant
Meaning
Property
Units
C1
kx
Permeability coefficient
Length4/Force/Time
C2
ky
Length4/Force/Time
C3
kz
Length4/Force/Time
Material constants for TBOPT = BIOT

Constant
Meaning
Property
Units
C1
Biot coefficient
Dimensionless
C2
km
Biot modulus
Force/Length2

The PM argument and associated specifications in the TB command documentation
Pore-Fluid-Diffusion-Structural Analysis in the Coupled-Field Analysis Guide
Porous Media Flow in the Mechanical APDL Theory Reference
3.10. Electricity and Magnetism

The following material model topics related to electricity and magnetism are available:
3.10.1. Piezoelectricity
3.10.2. Piezoresistivity
3.10.3. Magnetism
3.10.4. Anisotropic Electric Permittivity
3.10.1. Piezoelectricity
Piezoelectric capability (TB,PIEZ) is available with the coupled-field elements. (See Material Model Element
Support (p. 5) for piezoelectricity.) Material properties required for the piezoelectric effects include
the dielectric (relative permittivity) constants, the elastic coefficient matrix, and the piezoelectric matrix.
Input the dielectric constants either by specifying orthotropic dielectric permittivity (PERX, PERY, PERZ)
on the MP command or by specifying the terms of the anisotropic permittivity matrix [] on the TB,DPER
command. The values input on the MP command will be interpreted as permittivity at constant strain
[S]. Using TB,DPER, you can specify either permittivity at constant strain [S] (TBOPT = 0), or permittivity
at constant stress [T] (TBOPT = 1).
Input the elastic coefficient matrix [c] either by specifying the stiffness constants (EX, EY, etc.) with MP
commands, or by specifying the terms of the anisotropic elasticity matrix with TB commands as described
in Anisotropy.
You can define the piezoelectric matrix in [e] form (piezoelectric stress matrix) or in [d] form (piezoelectric
strain matrix). The [e] matrix is typically associated with the input of the anisotropic elasticity in the
form of the stiffness matrix [c], and the permittivity at constant strain [S]. The [d] matrix is associated
with the input of compliance matrix [s] and permittivity at constant stress [T]. Select the appropriate
matrix form for your analysis using the TB,PIEZ command.
The full 6 x 3 piezoelectric matrix relates terms x, y, z, xy, yz, xz to x, y, z via 18 constants as shown:
105
Material Models
For 2-D problems, a 4 x 2 matrix relates terms ordered x, y, z, xy via 8 constants (e11, e12, e21, e22, e31,
e32, e41, e42). The order of the vector is expected as {x, y, z, xy, yz, xz}, whereas for some published materials the order is given as {x, y, z, yz, xz, xy}. This difference requires the piezoelectric matrix terms to
be converted to the expected format.
You can define up to 18 constants (C1-C18) with TBDATA commands (6 per command):
Constant
Meaning
C1-C6
Terms e11, e12, e13, e21, e22, e23
C7-C12
Terms e31, e32, e33, e41, e42, e43
C13-C18
Terms e51, e52, e53, e61, e62, e63
See Piezoelectric Analysis in the Coupled-Field Analysis Guide for more information on this material
model.
3.10.2. Piezoresistivity
Elements with piezoresistive capabilities use the TB,PZRS command to calculate the change in electric
resistivity produced by elastic stress or strain. Material properties required to model piezoresistive materials are electrical resistivity, the elastic coefficient matrix, and the piezoresistive matrix.
You can define the piezoresistive matrix either in the form of piezoresistive stress matrix [] (TBOPT =
0) or piezoresistive strain matrix [m] (TBOPT = 1).
The piezoresistive stress matrix [] uses stress to calculate the change in electric resistivity due to
piezoresistive effect, while the piezoresistive strain matrix [m] (TBOPT = 1) uses strain to calculate the
change in electric resistivity. See Piezoresistivity in the Mechanical APDL Theory Reference for more information.
The full 6x6 piezoresistive matrix relates the x, y, z, xy, yz, xz terms of stress to the x, y, z, xy, yz, xz terms
of electric resistivity via 36 constants:
Constant
Meaning
C1-C6
Terms 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16
C7-C12
Terms 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26
C13-C18
Terms 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36
106
Electricity and Magnetism

Constant
Meaning
C19-C24
Terms 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46
C25-C30
Terms 51, 52, 53, 54, 55, 56
C31-C36
Terms 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66
For 2-D problems, a 4x4 matrix relates terms ordered x, y, z, xy via 16 constants.
Constant
Meaning
C1-C4
Terms 11, 12, 13, 14
C7-C10
Terms 21, 22, 23, 24
C13-C16
Terms 31, 32, 33, 34
C19-C22
Terms 41, 42, 43, 44
The order of the vector is expected as {x, y, z, xy, yz, xz}, whereas for some published materials the order
is given as {x, y, z, yz, xz, xy}. This difference requires the piezoresistive matrix terms to be converted
to the expected format.
See Piezoresistive Analysis in the Coupled-Field Analysis Guide for more information on this material
model.
3.10.3. Magnetism
Elements with magnetic capability use the TB table to input points characterizing B-H curves. Temperature-dependent curves cannot be input.
Initialize the curves with the TB,BH command. Use TBPT commands to define up to 500 points (H, B).
The constants (X, Y) entered on TBPT (two per command) are:
Constant
Meaning
Property
Magnetomotive
force/length
Magnetic field intensity (H)
Flux/Area
Corresponding magnetic flux density

(B)
Specify the system of units (MKS or user defined) with EMUNIT, which also determines the value of the
permeability of free space. This value is used with the relative permeability property values (MP) to establish absolute permeability values. The defaults (also obtained for Lab = MKS) are MKS units and
free-space permeability of 4 E-7 Henries/meter. You can specify Lab = MUZRO to define any system
of units, then input free-space permeability.
For more information about this material option, see Additional Guidelines for Defining Regional Material Properties and Real Constants in the Low-Frequency Electromagnetic Analysis Guide
3.10.4. Anisotropic Electric Permittivity

Elements with piezoelectric capabilities use the TB,DPER command to specify anisotropic relative electric
permittivity. You can define electric permittivity at constant strain [S] (TBOPT = 0) or constant stress
[T] (TBOPT = 1)
107
Material Models
The program converts matrix [T] to [S] using piezoelectric strain and stress matrices.
The full 3x3 electric permittivity matrix relates x, y, z components of electric field to the x, y, z components
of electric flux density via 6 constants:
Constant
Meaning
C1-C6
11, 22, 33, 12, 23, 13
For 2-D problems, a 2x2 matrix relates terms ordered x, y via 3 constants (11 22 12):
Constant
Meaning
C1, C2, C4
11, 22, 12
3.11. Gasket
The gasket model (TB,GASKET) enables simulating the gasket joints with the interface elements. The
gasket material is usually under compression and is highly nonlinear. The material also exhibits quite
complicated unloading behavior when compression is released.
You can define some general parameters including the initial gap, stable stiffness for numerical stabilization, and stress cap for a gasket in tension. You can also directly input data for the experimentally
measured complex pressure closure curves for the gaskets.
Sub-options are also available to define gasket unloading behavior including linear and nonlinear unloading. Linear unloading simplifies the input by defining the starting closure at the compression curves
and the slope. Nonlinear unloading option allows you to directly input unloading curves to more accurately model the gasket unloading behavior. When no unloading curves are defined, the material behavior follows the compression curve while it is unloaded.
Enter the general parameters and the pressure closure behavior data via the TBOPT option on the
TB,GASKET command. Input the material data (TBDATA or TBPT) as shown in the following table:
Gasket
Data Type
General
parameters
TBOPT
Constants
Meaning
C1
Initial gap (default = 0,

meaning there is no initial
gap).
C2
Stable stiffness (default =

1E-7*K0, where K0 = Y1/X1
= initial compressive
loading stiffness.[1]
PARA
C3
108
Input Format
TB,GASKET,,,,PARA
TBDATA,1,C1,C2,C3
Maximum tension stress

allowed when the gasket
material is in tension
(default = 0, meaning
there is no tension stress
in the gasket material).
Gasket
Gasket
Data Type
Compression
load closure
curve
TBOPT
COMP
Linear
unloading
data
LUNL
Nonlinear
unloading
data [2]
NUNL
Transverse
shear
TSS
Constants
Meaning
Input Format
Xi
Closure value.
Yi
Pressure value.
TB,GASKET,,,2,COMP
TBPT,,X1,Y1
TBPT,,X2,Y2
Xi
Closure value on
compression curve where
unloading started.
TB,GASKET,,,2,LUNL
TBPT,,X1,Y1
TBPT,,X2,Y2
Yi
Unloading slope value.
Xi
Closure value.
Yi
Pressure value.
XY, XZ
Transverse shear values
TB,GASKET,,,2,NUNL
TBPT,,X1,Y1
TBPT,,X2,Y2
TB,GASKET,,,2,TSS
TBDATA,1,TSSXY,TSSXZ
1. Stable stiffness is used for numerical stabilization such as the case when the gasket is opened up and
thus no stiffness is contributed to the element nodes, which in turn may cause numerical difficulty.
2. Multiple curves may be required to define the complex nonlinear unloading behavior of a gasket
material.
When there are several nonlinear unloading curves defined, the program requires that the
starting point of each unloading curve be on the compression curve to ensure the gasket unloading behavior is correctly simulated. Though it is not a requirement that the temperature
dependency of unloading data be the same as the compression data, when there is a missing
temperature, the program uses linear interpolation to obtain the material data of the missing
temperature. This may result in a mismatch between the compression data and the unloading
data. Therefore, it is generally recommended that the number of temperatures and temperature
points be the same for each unloading curve and compression curve.
When using the material GUI to enter data for the nonlinear unloading curves, an indicator at
the top of the dialog box states the number of the unloading curve whose data is currently
displayed along with the total number of unloading curves defined for the particular material
(example: Curve number 2/5). To enter data for the multiple unloading curves, type the data
for the first unloading curve, then click on the Add Curve button and type the data for the
second curve. Repeat this procedure for entering data for the remaining curves. Click the Del
Curve button if you want to remove the curve whose data is currently displayed. Click the >
button to view the data for the next curve in the sequence, or click the < button to view the
data for the previous curve in the sequence. To insert a curve at a particular location in the
sequence, click on the > or < buttons to move to the curve before the insertion location point
and click on the Add Curve button. For example, if the data for Curve number 2/5 is currently
displayed and you click on the Add Curve button, the dialog box changes to allow you to enter
data for Curve number 3/6. You can define a total of 100 nonlinear unloading curves per material.
You can enter temperature-dependent data (TBTEMP) for any of the gasket data types. For the first
temperature curve, issue TB,GASKET,,,,TBOPT, then input the first temperature using TBTEMP, followed
by the data using either TBDATA or TBPT depending on the value of TBOPT as shown in the table.
The program automatically interpolates the temperature data to the material points using linear interpolation. When the temperature is out of the specified range, the closest temperature point is used.
109
Material Models
For more information, see Gasket Material in the Mechanical APDL Theory Reference.
For a detailed description of the gasket joint simulation capability, see Gasket Joints Simulation in the
Structural Analysis Guide.
3.12. Swelling
Swelling (TB,SWELL) is a material enlargement (volume expansion) caused by neutron bombardment
or other effects (such as moisture). The swelling strain rate is generally nonlinear and is a function of
factors such as temperature, time, neutron flux level, stress, and moisture content.
Irradiation-induced swelling and creep apply to metal alloys that are exposed to nuclear radiation.
However, the swelling equations and the fluence input may be completely unrelated to nuclear swelling.
You can also model other types of swelling behavior, such as moisture-induced volume expansion.
Swelling strain is modeled using additive decomposition of strains, expressed as:
where is the total mechanical strain, el is the elastic strain, pl is the plastic strain, and sw is the
swelling strain.
You can combine swelling strain with other material models such as plasticity and creep; however, you
cannot use swelling with any hyperelasticity or anisotropic hyperelasticity material model.
Irradiation-induced swelling is generally accompanied by irradiation creep for metals and composites,
such as silicon carbide (SiC). The irradiation-induced swelling strain rate may depend on temperature,
time, fluence (the flux x time), and stress, such as:
where t is time, T is the temperature, t is the fluence, and is the stress. Temperatures used in the
swelling equations should be based on an absolute scale (TOFFST). Specify temperature and fluence
values via the BF or BFE command.
The following options for modeling swelling are available:
Linear swelling defines swelling strain rate as a function of fluence rate, expressed as:
where C is the swelling constant, which may depend on temperature.

Exponential swelling defines swelling strain as a function of fluence, expressed as:
A user-defined swelling option is available if you wish to create your own swelling function. For more information, see userswstrain in the Guide to User-Programmable Features.
Swelling equations are material-specific and are empirical in nature.
110
Shape Memory Alloy (SMA)

For highly nonlinear swelling strain vs. fluence curves, it is good practice to use a small fluence step for
better accuracy and solution stability. If time is changing, a constant flux requires a linearly changing
fluence (because the swelling model uses fluence [t] rather than flux []).
Initialize the swelling table (TB,SWELL) with the desired data table option (TBOPT), as follows:
Swelling Model Options (TB,SWELL,,TBOPT)
Option (TBOPT)
Constant
Description
Constant Value Input
LINE
C1
Linear swelling
TBDATA,1,C1
EXPT
C1, C2, C3, C4
Exponential swelling
TBDATA,1,C1,C2,C3,C4
USER
C1, ..., Cn
User-defined
TBDATA,1,C1,C2,
Issue the TBDATA command to enter the swelling table constants (up to six per command), as shown
in the table.
For a list of the elements that you can use with the swelling model, see Material Model Element Support (p. 5)
For more information about this material model, see Swelling in the Structural Analysis Guide.
3.13. Shape Memory Alloy (SMA)

A shape memory alloy (SMA) is a metallic alloy that remembers its original shape. Upon loading and
unloading cycles, an SMA can undergo large deformation without showing residual strains
(pseudoelasticity effect, also often called superelasticity), and can recover its original shape through
thermal cycles (the shape memory effect).
Such distinct material behavior is due to the material microstructure in which there exists two different
crystallographic structures, one characterized by austenite (A), and another one by martensite (M).
Austenite is the crystallographically more-ordered phase, and martensite is the crystallographically lessordered phase. The key characteristic of an SMA is the occurrence of a martensitic phase transformation.
Typically, the austenite is stable at high temperatures and low stress, while the martensite is stable at
low temperatures and high stress. The reversible martensitic phase transformation results in unique
effects: the pseudoelasticity (PE) and the shape memory effect (SME).
As shown by (a) in the following figure, whenever L is positive, the specimen recovers its original shape
completely and returns to a stress-free configuration (PE).
111
Material Models
Figure 3.21: Pseudoelasticity (PE) and Shape Memory Effect (SME)
(a) PE -- High Temperature

(b) SME -- Low Temperature
As shown by (b) in the figure, when L is negative, residual strains (E and E') can be observed after unloading into a stress-free configuration. If the material is heated, then eventually L becomes positive;
however, the admissible configuration under a stress-free state points to A. The material therefore undergoes an inverse transformation process (SME).
Nitinol
A typical shape memory alloy is Nitinol, a nickel titanium (Ni-Ti) alloy discovered in the 1960s at
the U.S. Naval Ordnance Laboratory (NOL). The acronym NiTi-NOL (or Nitinol) has since been
commonly used when referring to Ni-Ti-based shape memory alloys.
Two SMA material model options (accessed via TB,SMA) are available, one for simulating superelastic
behavior and the other for simulating the shape memory effect behavior of shape memory alloys.
The material option for superelasticity is based on Auricchio et al. [1] in which the material undergoes
large-deformation without showing permanent deformation under isothermal conditions, as shown by
(a) in Figure 3.21: Pseudoelasticity (PE) and Shape Memory Effect (SME) (p. 112). The material option for
the shape memory effect is based on the 3-D thermomechanical model for stress-induced solid phase
transformations [2] [3] [4].
The following shape memory alloy topics are available:
3.13.1. SMA Model for Superelasticity
3.13.2. SMA Material Model with Shape Memory Effect
3.13.3. Result Output of Solution Variables
3.13.4. Element Support for SMA
3.13.5. Learning More About Shape Memory Alloy
3.13.1. SMA Model for Superelasticity

The following topics are available for the SMA superelasticity option:
3.13.1.1. Constitutive Model for Superelasticity
3.13.1.2. Material Parameters for the Superelastic SMA Material Model
112
3.13.1.1. Constitutive Model for Superelasticity

From a macroscopic perspective, the phase-transformation mechanisms involved in superelastic behavior are:
1. Austenite to martensite (A->S)
2. Martensite to austenite (S->A)
3. Martensite reorientation (S->S)
Figure 3.22: Typical Superelasticity Behavior
Two of the phase transformations are considered here: A->S and S->A. The material is composed of
two phases, the austenite (A) and the martensite (S). Two internal variables, the martensite fraction (S)
and the austenite fraction (A), are introduced. One of them is a dependent variable, and they are assumed
to satisfy the relation expressed as:
The independent internal variable chosen here is S.

The material behavior is assumed to be isotropic. The pressure dependency of the phase transformation
is modeled by introducing the Drucker-Prager loading function, as follows:
where is the material parameter, is the stress, and 1 is the identity tensor.
The evolution of the martensite fraction, S, is then defined as follows:
113
Material Models
where:
where
are the material parameters shown in the following figure:
Figure 3.23: Idealized Stress-Strain Diagram of Superelastic Behavior
AS
AS
s
SA
s
SA
where
are the material parameters shown in Figure 3.23: Idealized Stress-Strain Diagram
of Superelastic Behavior (p. 114).
The material parameter characterizes the material response in tension and compression. If tensile and
compressive behaviors are the same, then = 0. For a uniaxial tension-compression test, can be related
to the initial value of austenite to martensite phase transformation in tension and compression
(
, respectively) as:
114
The stress-strain relation is:
where D is the elastic stiffness tensor,

is the transformation strain tensor, and
is the material
parameter shown in Figure 3.23: Idealized Stress-Strain Diagram of Superelastic Behavior (p. 114).
3.13.1.2. Material Parameters for the Superelastic SMA Material Model

To model the superelastic behavior of shape memory alloys, initialize the data table using the TB,SMA
command's SUPE option.
Define the elastic behavior in the austenite state (MP).
The superelastic SMA option is described by six constants that define the stress-strain behavior in
loading and unloading for the uniaxial stress-state.
For each data set, define the temperature (TBTEMP), then define constants C1 through C6 (TBDATA).
You can define up to 99 sets of temperature-dependent constants in this manner.
Table 3.3: Superelastic Option Constants
Constant
Meaning
Property
C1
Starting stress value for the forward

phase transformation
C2
Final stress value for the forward phase

transformation
C3
Starting stress value for the reverse

phase transformation
C4
Final stress value for the reverse phase

transformation
C5
Maximum residual strain
C6
Parameter measuring the difference

between material responses in tension
and compression
Example 3.22: Defining Elastic Properties of the Austenite Phase

MP,EX,1,60000.0
MP,NUXY,1,0.36
Define SMA material properties
TB,SMA,1,,,SUPE
TBDATA,1, 520, 600, 300, 200, 0.07, 0.0
3.13.2. SMA Material Model with Shape Memory Effect

The following topics concerning SMA and the shape memory effect are available:
115
Material Models
3.13.2.1.The Constitutive Model for Shape Memory Effect
3.13.2.2. Material Parameters for the Shape Memory Effect Option
3.13.2.1. The Constitutive Model for Shape Memory Effect

The shape memory effect was based on a 3-D thermomechanical model for stress-induced solid phase
transformations that was presented in [2] [3][4]. Within the framework of classical irreversible thermodynamics, the model is able to reproduce all of the primary features relative to shape memory materials
in a 3-D stress state. The free energy potential is set to:
where:
D = material elastic stiffness tensor
= total strain
= total transformation strain
= deviatoric transformation strain
M(T) = a positive and monotonically increasing function of the temperature as (T - T0)+ in which
+ is the positive part of the argument (also known as Maxwell stress).
= material parameter
T = temperature
T0 = temperature below which no austenite is observed in a stress-free state
h = material parameter related to the hardening of the material during the phase transformation
= indicator function introduced to satisfy the constraint on the transformation norm [1] in
which
from which we have
where Xtr is defined as the transformation stress.

Stresses, strains, and the transformation strains are then related as follows:
Splitting the stress into deviatoric and volumetric components, we have
116

where S is the deviatoric stress and p is the volumetric stress (also called hydrostatic pressure)
The transformation stress is given as follows:
where is defined by
where
is a maximum transformation strain.
Numerous experimental tests show an asymmetric behavior of SMA in tension and compression, and
suggest describing SMA as an isotropic material with a Prager-Lode-type limit surface. Accordingly, the
following yield function is assumed:
where Xtr is the transformation stress, J2 and J3 are the second and third invariants of transformation
stress, m is a material parameter related to Lode dependency, and R is the elastic domain radius.
J2 and J3 are defined as follows:
The evolution of transformation strain is defined as:
where is an internal variable and is called as transformation strain multiplier. and F(Xtr) must satisfy
the classical Kuhn-Tucker conditions, as follows:
which also reduces the problem to a constrained optimization problem.

The elastic properties of austenite and martensite phase differ. During the transformation phase, the
elastic stiffness tensor of material varies with the deformation. The elastic stiffness tensor is therefore
assumed to be a function of the transformation strain , defined as:
117
Material Models
where DA is the elastic stiffness tensor of austenite phase, and DS is the elastic stiffness tensor of
martensite phase. The Poissons ratio of the austenite phase is assumed to be the same as the
martensite phase. When the material is in its austenite phase, D = DA, and when the material undergoes
full transformation (martensite phase), D = DS.
The following figure illustrates a number of the mechanical model features:
Figure 3.24: Admissible Paths for Elastic Behavior and Phase Transformations
The austenite phase is associated with the horizontal region abcd. Mixtures of phases are related to the
surface cdef. The martensite phase is represented by the horizontal region efgh. Point c corresponds
to the nucleation of the martensite phase. Phase transformations take place only along line cf, where
. Saturated phase transformations are represented by paths on line fg. The horizontal
region efgh contains elastic processes except, of course, those on line fg.
A backward Euler integration scheme is used to solve the stress update and the consistent tangent
stiffness matrix required by the finite element solution for obtaining a robust nonlinear solution. Because
the material tangent stiffness matrix is generally unsymmetric, use the unsymmetric Newton-Raphson
option (NROPT,UNSYM) to avoid convergence problems.
3.13.2.2. Material Parameters for the Shape Memory Effect Option

To model the shape memory effect behavior of shape memory alloys, initialize the data table using the
TB,SMA commands MEFF option.
Define the elastic behavior in the austenite state (MP).
The shape memory effect option is described by seven constants that define the stress-strain behavior
of material in loading and unloading cycles for the uniaxial stress-state and thermal loading.
118

For each data set, define the temperature (TBTEMP), then define constants C1 through C7 (TBDATA).
You can define up to 99 sets of temperature-dependent constants in this manner.
Table 3.4: Shape Memory Effect Option Constants
Constant Meaning Property
C1
Hardening parameter
C2
To
Reference temperature
C3
Elastic limit
C4
Temperature scaling parameter
C5
Maximum transformation strain
C6
Em
Martensite modulus
C7
Lode (p. 117) dependency

parameter
Example 3.23: Defining Shape Memory Effect Properties of the Austenite Phase
MP,EX,1,60000.0
MP,NUXY,1,0.36
Define SMA material properties
TB,SMA,1,,,MEFF
TBDATA,1,1000, 223, 50, 2.1, 0.04, 45000
TBDATA,7,0.05
3.13.3. Result Output of Solution Variables

For postprocessing, solution output is as follows:
Stresses are output as S.
Elastic strains are output as EPEL
Transformation strains, tr, are output as plastic strain EPPL
The ratio of the equivalent transformation strain to maximum transformation strain,
as part of nonlinear solution record NL, and can be processed as component EPEQ of NL.
, is available
Elastic strain energy density is available as part of the strain energy density record SEND (ELASTIC).
3.13.4. Element Support for SMA

Support for SMA material models with the superplasticity option (TB,SMA,,,,SUPE) is available with currenttechnology plane, solid, and solid-shell elements where 3-D stress states are applicable (including 3-D
solid elements, solid-shell elements, 2-D plane strain, axisymmetric elements, and solid pipe elements).
Support for SMA material models with the memory-effect option (TB,SMA,,,,MEFF) is available with
current-technology beam, shell, plane, solid, and solid-shell elements (including 3-D solid elements,
solid-shell elements, 2-D plane stress and strain, axisymmetric elements, and solid pipe elements).
For specific element support for SMA, see Material Model Element Support (p. 5).
119
Material Models
3.13.5. Learning More About Shape Memory Alloy

A considerable body of literature exists concerning shape memory alloy material models. The following
list of resources offers a wealth of information but is by no means exhaustive:
1. Auricchio, F.A Robust Integration-Algorithm for a Finite-Strain Shape-Memory-Alloy. International
Journal of Plasticity. 17 (2001): 971-990.
2. Souza, A. C., E. N. Mamiya, N. Zouain.Three-Dimensional Model for Solids Undergoing Stress-Induced
Phase Transformations. European Journal of Mechanics-A/Solids . 17 (1998): 789-806.
3. Auricchio, F., R. L. Taylor, J. Lubliner.Shape-Memory Alloys: Macromodeling and Numerical Simulations
of the Superelastic Behavior. Computational Methods in Applied Mechanical Engineering. 146, 1 (1997): 281312.
4. Auricchio, F., L. Petrini.Improvements and Algorithmical Considerations on a Recent Three-Dimensional
Model Describing Stress-Induced Solid Phase Transformations. International Journal for Numerical Methods
in Engineering. 55 (2005): 1255-1284.
5. Auricchio, F., D. Fugazza, R. DesRoches.Numerical and Experimental Evaluation of the Damping Properties
of Shape-Memory Alloys. Journal of Engineering Materials and Technology. 128:3 (2006): 312-319.
For an example analysis, see Shape Memory Alloy (SMA) with Thermal Effect in the Technology Demonstration Guide.
3.14. MPC184 Joint

The TB,JOIN option allows you to impose linear and nonlinear elastic stiffness and damping behavior
or Coulomb friction behavior on the available components of relative motion of an MPC184 joint element.
The stiffness and damping behaviors described here apply to all joint elements except the weld, orient,
and spherical joints. The Coulomb friction behavior described here applies only to the revolute, slot,
and translational joints.
The TB command may be repeated with the same material ID number to specify both the stiffness and
damping behavior.
The following joint material models are available:
3.14.1. Linear Elastic Stiffness and Damping Behavior
3.14.2. Nonlinear Elastic Stiffness and Damping Behavior
3.14.3. Frictional Behavior
3.14.1. Linear Elastic Stiffness and Damping Behavior

Input the linear stiffness or damping behavior for the relevant components of relative motion of a joint
element by specifying the terms as part of a 6 x 6 matrix with data table commands as described below.
The 6 x 6 matrix for linear stiffness or damping behavior is as follows:
120
MPC184 Joint
Enter the stiffness or damping coefficient of the matrix in the data table with TB set of commands.
Initialize the constant table with TB,JOIN,,,STIF (for stiffness behavior) or TB,JOIN,,,DAMP (for damping
behavior). Define the temperature with TBTEMP, followed by the relevant constants input with TBDATA
commands. Matrix terms are linearly interpolated between temperature points. Based on the joint type,
the relevant constant specification is as follows:
Joint Element
Constant
Meaning
x-axis Revolute joint
C16
Term D44
z-axis Revolute joint
C21
Term D66
Universal joint
C16, C18, C21
Terms D44, D64, D66
Slot joint
C1
Term D11
Point-in-plane joint
C7, C8, C12
Terms D22, D32, D33
Translational joint
C1
Term D11
x-axis Cylindrical joint
C1, C4, C16
Terms D11, D41, D44
z-axis Cylindrical joint
C12, C15, C21
Terms D33, D63, D66
x-axis Planar joint
C7, C8, C9, C12, C13, C16
Terms D22, D32, D42, D33, D43, D44
z-axis Planar joint
C1, C2, C6, C7, C11, C21
Terms D11, D21, D61, D22, D62, D66
General joint
Use appropriate entries based on

unconstrained degrees of freedom.
---
Screw joint
C12, C15, C21
Terms D33, D63, D66
The following example shows how you would define the uncoupled linear elastic stiffness behavior for
a universal joint at the two available components of relative motion, with two temperature points:
TB,JOIN,1,2,,STIF ! Activate JOIN material model with linear elastic stiffness
TBTEMP,100.0 ! Define first temperature
TBDATA,16,D44 ! Define constant D44 in the local ROTX direction
TBDATA,21,D66 ! Define constant D66 in the local ROTZ direction
TBTEMP,200.0 ! Define second temperature
TBDATA,16,D44 ! Define constant D44 in the local ROTX direction.
TBDATA,21,D66 ! Define constant D66 in the local ROTZ direction.
3.14.2. Nonlinear Elastic Stiffness and Damping Behavior

You can specify nonlinear elastic stiffness as a displacement (rotation) versus force (moment) curve using
the TB,JOIN command with a suitable TBOPT setting.
Use the TBPT command to specify the data points or specify the name of a function that defines the
curve on the TB command. (Use the Function Tool to generate the specified function.) The values may
be temperature-dependent.
You can specify nonlinear damping behavior in a similar manner by supplying velocity versus damping
force (or moment).
121
Material Models
The appropriate TBOPT labels for each joint element type are shown in the following tables. For a description of each TBOPT label, see Joint Element Specifications (JOINT) in the TB command documentation.
Nonlinear Stiffness Behavior
Joint Element
TBOPT on TB command
JNSA, JNS4
JNSA, JNS6
Universal joint
JNSA, JNS4, and JNS6
Slot joint
JNSA and JNS1
Translational joint
JNSA and JNS1
x-axis Planar joint
JNSA, JNS2, JNS3, and JNS4
z-axis Planar joint
JNSA, JNS1, JNS2, and JNS6
General joint

unconstrained degrees of freedom
Screw joint

Nonlinear Damping Behavior
Joint Element
TBOPT on TB command
JNDA, JND4
JNDA, JND6
Universal joint
JNDA, JND4, and JND6
Slot joint
JNDA and JND1
Translational joint
JNDA and JND1
x-axis Planar joint
JNDA, JND2, JND3, and JND4
z-axis Planar joint
JNDA, JND1, JND2, and JND6
General joint

unconstrained degrees of freedom
Screw joint
The following example illustrates the specification of nonlinear stiffness behavior for a revolute joint
that has only one available component of relative motion (the rotation around the axis of revolution).
Two temperature points are specified.
TB,JOIN,1,2,2,JNS4
TBTEMP,100.
TBPT,,rotation_value_1,moment_value_1
TBTEMP,200.0
122
MPC184 Joint
3.14.2.1. Specifying a Function Describing Nonlinear Stiffness Behavior

When specifying a function that describes the nonlinear stiffness behavior, the Function Tool allows
the force to be defined as a function of temperature and relative displacement; the two independent
variables are named as TEMP and DJU. Similarly, when specifying a function that describes the nonlinear
damping behavior, the Function Tool allows the damping force to be defined as a function of temperature and relative velocity; the two independent variables are identified as TEMP and DJV.
Example
Consider a function where the damping force varies with temperature and relative velocity:
F = (-0.005 * Temperature + 0.25) * Relative Velocity

Define the function using the Function Editor, then retrieve and load it using the Function Loader. (The
editor and the loader are both components of the Function Tool.)
Assuming a function name of dampfunc, you can then use the TB command to define the joint material:
TB, JOIN, 1, , , JND4, , %dampfunc%
For more information about the Function Tool utility, see Using the Function Tool in the Basic Analysis
Guide.
3.14.3. Frictional Behavior

Frictional behavior along the unrestrained components of relative motion influences the overall behavior of the Joints. You can model Coulomb friction for joint elements via the TB,JOIN command with
an appropriate TBOPT label. The joint frictional behavior can be specified only for the following joints:
Revolute joint, Slot joint, and Translational joint.
The friction parameters are described below.
Coulomb Friction Coefficient Specification
There are three options for defining the Coulomb friction coefficient.
Define a single value of the Coulomb friction coefficient by specifying TBOPT = MUSx, where the value of
x depends on the joint under consideration. Use the TBDATA command to specify the value of the friction
coefficient.
Define the Coulomb friction coefficient as a function of the sliding velocity. Use TBOPT = MUSx (as stated
above) and use the TBPT command to specify the data values.
Use the exponential law for friction behavior. Specify TBOPT = EXPx, where the value of x depends on the
joint under consideration, and use the TBDATA command to specify the values required for the exponential
law. In this case, the TBDATA command format is:
TBDATA, s, d, c
where s is the coefficient of friction in the static regime, d is the coefficient of friction in the dynamic
regime, and c is the decay coefficient.
Maximum or Critical Force/Moment
123
Material Models
The maximum allowable value of critical force/moment can be specified using TBOPT = TMXx, where x
depends on the joint under consideration.
Elastic Slip
The elastic slip can be specified by setting TBOPT = SLx, where x depends on the joint under consideration.
If the stick-stiffness value is not specified, then this value along with the critical force/moment is used to
determine the stick-stiffness.
If the elastic slip is not specified, then a default value is computed for stick-stiffness calculations if necessary.
The default value for the translational joint and the slot joint is set to 0.005*h, where h is a characteristic
length value computed from overall dimensions of the model. The value of h defaults to 1.0 if a characteristic length cannot be computed properly. The default value for the revolute joint is set to 0.001 radians.
The frictional behavior is implemented using a penalty method. Thus, there will be relative elastic slip even
when sticking conditions prevail. The amount of elastic slip depends on the value specified for elastic slip.
In some cases, the default values may result in large elastic slip. Therefore, you should specify an amount
of elastic slip that is appropriate for your model.
Stick-Stiffness
A stick-stiffness value can be specified for controlling the behavior in the stick regime when friction behavior
is specified. Use TBOPT = SKx, where x depends on the joint under consideration.
If the stick-stiffness value is not specified, then the following procedure is adopted:
If both maximum force/moment and elastic slip are specified, then the stick-stiffness is calculated from
these values.
If only maximum force/moment is specified, then a default elastic slip is computed and then the stickstiffness is calculated.
If only the elastic slip is specified, then the stick-stiffness value is computed based on the current normal
force/moment (Friction Coefficient * Normal Force or Moment/elastic-slip).
Interference Fit Force/Moment
If the forces that are generated during a joint assembly have to be modeled, the interference fit force/moment
can be specified using TBOPT = FIx, where x depends on the joint under consideration. This force/moment
will contribute to the normal force/moment in friction calculations.
The appropriate TBOPT labels (TB command) for each joint element type are shown in the table below:
TBOPT Labels for Elements Supporting Coulomb Friction
Friction
Parameter
x-axis Revolute
Joint
z-axis Revolute
Joint
Slot Joint
Translational
Joint
Static Friction
MUS4
MUS6
MUS1
MUS1
Exponential
Friction Law
EXP4
EXP6
EXP1
EXP1
Max. Allowable
Shear
Force/Moment
TMX4
TMX6
TMX1
TMX1
124
Contact Friction
Elastic Slip
SL4
SL6
SL1
SL1
Interference Fit
Force/Moment
FI4
FI6
FI1
FI1
Stick-Stiffness
SK4
SK6
SK1
SK1
The following examples illustrate how to specify Coulomb friction parameters for various scenarios.
Example 1 Specifying a single value of coefficient of friction and other friction parameters for an xaxis revolute joint.
TB, JOIN, 1, , , MUS4
TBDATA, 1, 0.1
TB, JOIN, 1, , , SK4
TBDATA, 1, 3.0E4
TB, JOIN, 1, , , FI4
TBDATA, 1, 10000.00
!
!
!
!
!
!
Label
Value
Label
Value
Label
Value
for friction coefficient

of coefficient of friction
for stick-stiffness
for stick-stiffness
for interference fit force
for interference fit force
Example 2 Specifying temperature dependent friction coefficient and other friction parameters for
a z-axis revolution joint.
TB, JOIN, 1,2 , 1, MUS6
TBTEMP, 10
TBDATA, 1, 0.15
TBTEMP, 20
TBDATA, 1, 0.1
!
TBDATA, 1, 3.0E4
TB, JOIN, 1, , , FI4
TBDATA, 1, 10000.00
Example 3
joint.
2 temp points, 2 data points and label for friction coefficient

1st temperature
Value of coefficient of friction
2nd temperature
Value of coefficient of friction
!
!
!
!
Label
Value
Label
Value
for
for
for
for
stick-stiffness
stick-stiffness
interference fit force
interference fit force
Specifying the exponential law for friction and other friction parameters for a z-axis revolute
TB, JOIN, 1, , , EXP6

TBDATA, 1, 0.4, 0.2, 0.5
!
TBDATA, 1, 3.0E4
Example 4
!
!
!
!
!
! Label for friction coefficient

! Static friction coeff, dynamic friction coeff, decay constant
! Label for stick-stiffness
! Value for stick-stiffness
Specifying friction as a function of sliding velocity for a slot joint.
TB, JOIN, 1, , 3, MUS1

TBPT, , 1.0, 0.15
TBPT, , 5.0, 0.10
TBPT, , 10.0, 0.09
!
TB, JOIN, 1, , , TMX1
TBDATA, 1, 3.0E4
TB, JOIN, 1, , , SL1
TBDATA, 1, 0.04
!
!
!
!
Label for friction coefficient

Sliding velocity, coefficient of friction
!
!
!
!
Label
Value
Label
Value
for max allowable frictional force

for max allowable frictional force
for elastic slip
of elastic slip
3.15. Contact Friction

Contact friction (TB,FRIC) is a material property used with current-technology contact elements. It can
be specified either through the coefficient of friction (MU) for isotropic or orthotropic friction models
or as user defined friction properties.
125
Material Models
3.15.1. Isotropic Friction

Isotropic friction is applicable to 2-D and 3-D contact and is available for all contact elements. Use the
TB,FRIC command with TBOPT = ISO to define isotropic friction, and specify the coefficient of friction
MU on the TBDATA command. This is the recommended method for defining isotropic friction.
To define a coefficient of friction that is dependent on temperature, time, normal pressure, sliding distance, or sliding relative velocity, use the TBFIELD command. Suitable combinations of up to two fields
can be used to define dependency, for example, temperature and sliding distance as shown below:
TB,FRIC,1,,,ISO
TBFIELD,TEMP,100.0
TBFIELD,SLDI,0.1
TBDATA,1,MU
TBFIELD,SLDI,0.5
TBDATA,1,MU
TBFIELD,TEMP,200.0
TBFIELD,SLDI,0.2
TBDATA,1,MU
TBFIELD,SLDI,0.7
TBDATA,1,MU
! Activate isotropic friction model

! Define first value of temperature
! Define first value of sliding distance
! Define coefficient of friction
! Define second value of sliding distance
! Define second value of temperature
! Define first value of sliding distance
! Define second value of sliding distance
See Understanding Field Variables (p. 199) for more information on the interpolation scheme used for
field-dependent material properties defined using TBFIELD.
To define a coefficient of friction that is dependent on temperature only, use the TBTEMP command
as shown below:
TB,FRIC,1,2,,ISO
TBTEMP,100.0
TBDATA,1,MU
TBTEMP,200.0
TBDATA,1,MU
!
!
!
!
!
Activate isotropic friction model

Define coefficient of friction at temp 100.0
Define coefficient of friction at temp 200.0
Alternatively, you can use MU on the MP command to specify the isotropic friction. Use the MPTEMP
command to define MU as a function of temperature. See Linear Material Properties (p. 14) for details.
Note that if the coefficient of friction is defined as a function of temperature, the program always uses
the contact surface temperature as the primary variable (not the average temperature from the contact
and target surfaces).
3.15.2. Orthotropic Friction

The orthotropic friction model uses two different coefficients of friction in two principal directions (see
Frictional Model in the Mechanical APDL Theory Reference for details). It is applicable only to 3-D contact
and is available for current-technology contact elements.
Issue the TB,FRIC command with TBOPT = ORTHO to define orthotropic friction, and specify the coefficients of friction, MU1 and MU2, on the TBDATA command.
To define a coefficient of friction that is dependent on temperature, time, normal pressure, sliding distance, or sliding relative velocity, use the TBFIELD command. Suitable combinations of up to two fields
can be used to define dependency, for example, sliding relative velocity and normal pressure as shown
below:
TB,FRIC,1,,,ORTHO
TBFIELD,SLRV,10.0
TBFIELD,NPRE,200.0
TBDATA,1,MU1,MU2
TBFIELD,NPRE,250.0
TBDATA,1,MU1,MU2
126
! Activate orthotropic friction model

! Define first value of sliding relative velocity
! Define first value of normal pressure
! Define coefficients of friction
! Define second value of normal pressure
! Define coefficients of friction
Contact Friction
TBFIELD,SLRV,20.0
TBFIELD,NPRE,150.0
TBDATA,1,MU1,MU2
TBFIELD,NPRE,300.0
TBDATA,1,MU1,MU2
!
!
!
!
!
Define
Define
Define
Define
Define
second value of sliding relative velocity

first value of normal pressure
coefficients of friction
second value of normal pressure
coefficients of friction
See Understanding Field Variables (p. 199) for more information on the interpolation scheme used for
field-dependent material properties defined using TBFIELD.
To define a coefficient of friction that is dependent on temperature only, use the TBTEMP command
as shown below:
TB,FRIC,1,2,,ORTHO
TBTEMP,100.0
TBDATA,1,MU1,MU2
TBTEMP,200.0
TBDATA,1,MU1,MU2
!
!
!
!
!
Activate orthotropic friction model

Define coefficients of friction at temp 100.0
Define coefficients of friction at temp 200.0
Note that if the coefficient of friction is defined as a function of temperature, the program always uses
the contact surface temperature as the primary variable (not the average temperature from the contact
and target surfaces).
3.15.3. Redefining Friction Between Load Steps

If the friction behavior changes between initial loading and secondary loading (for example, during
cyclic loading of seabed pipelines), you can reissue the TB,FRIC command between load steps to define
new values for the coefficient of friction. This is true for both temperature-dependent friction (isotropic
or orthotropic) defined via the TBTEMP command and field-dependent friction (isotropic or orthotropic)
defined via the TBFIELD command. The following example shows the latter case:
TB,FRIC,1,,,ORTHO
!Activate orthotropic friction model
TBFIELD,SLDI,0. !Define initial curve for coefficient of friction
TBDATA,1,0.0,0.0
TBFIELD,SLDI,0.25
TBDATA,1,0.0,1.25
TBFIELD,SLDI,0.5
TBDATA,1,0.0,1.0
TBFIELD,SLDI,20.
TBDATA,1,0.0,1.1
/SOLUTION
!* LOAD STEP 1
...
TIME,1
SOLVE
TB,FRIC,1,,,ORTHO
TBFIELD,SLDI,0.
TBDATA,1,0.0,20.0
TBFIELD,SLDI,1.1
TBFIELD,SLDI,20.25
TBDATA,1,0.0,0.0
TBFIELD,SLDI,20.5
TBDATA,1,0.0,0.8
TBFIELD,SLDI,21
TBDATA,1,0.0,0.7
TBFIELD,SLDI,35
TBDATA,1,0.0,0.75
!Activate orthotropic friction model

!Define secondary curve for coefficient of friction
!* LOAD STEP 2
...
TIME,2
SOLVE
127
Material Models
3.15.4. User-Defined Friction

As an alternative to the program-supplied friction models, you can define your own friction model with
the user programmable friction subroutine, USERFRIC. The frictional stresses can be defined as a
function of variables such as slip increments, sliding rate, temperature, and other arguments passed
into the subroutine. You can specify a number of properties or constants associated with your friction
model, and you can introduce extra solution-dependent state variables that can be updated and used
within the subroutine. User-defined friction is applicable to 2-D and 3-D contact elements.
To specify user-defined friction, use the TB,FRIC command with TBOPT = USER and specify the friction
properties on the TBDATA command, as shown below. Also, use the USERFRIC subroutine to program
the friction model.
TB,FRIC,1,,2,USER
TBDATA,1,PROP1,PROP2
! Activate user defined friction model; NPTS = 2

! Define friction properties
Field variables specified with the TBFIELD command are not available for TB,FRIC,,,,USER.
For detailed information on using the USERFRIC subroutine, see Writing Your Own Friction Law
(USERFRIC) in the Contact Technology Guide.
3.16. Contact Interaction

Contact interaction (TB,INTER) can be used to specify the type of interaction between general contact
surfaces. These interactions are defined via the GCDEF command. TB,INTER can also be used to specify
a user-defined interaction for pair-based contact elements or for general contact definitions.
3.16.1. Interaction Options for General Contact Definitions

Contact interactions for general contact definitions are specified via the TB,INTER command instead of
using KEYOPT(12) (as for pair-based contact definitions). The interaction option is specified by the TBOPT
field as shown in the table below.
TBOPT
Label
Interaction
Behavior
Description
STANDARD Standard
unilateral contact
Normal pressure equals zero if separation occurs. (Similar to KEYOPT(12)

= 0 for pair-based contact elements.)
ROUGH
Rough (no sliding)
Perfectly rough frictional contact where there is no sliding. (Similar to

KEYOPT(12) = 1 for pair-based contact elements.)
NOSEPE
No separation
No separation contact in which the target and contact surfaces are tied
(sliding permitted) for the remainder of the analysis once contact is established (although
sliding is permitted). (Similar to KEYOPT(12) = 2 for pair-based contact
elements.)
BONDED
Bonded contact
(no separation, no
sliding)
Bonded contact in which the target and contact surfaces are bonded in
all directions (once contact is established) for the remainder of the
analysis. (Similar to KEYOPT(12) = 3 for pair-based contact elements.)
ANOSEP
No separation
(always)
No separation contact in which contact detection points that are either

initially inside the pinball region or that once involve contact always
attach to the target surface along the normal direction to the contact
surface (sliding is permitted). (Similar to KEYOPT(12) = 4 for pair-based
contact elements.)
128
Contact Interaction
TBOPT
Label
Interaction
Behavior
Description
ABOND
Bonded (always)
Bonded contact in which contact detection points that are either initially
inside the pinball region or that once involve contact always attach to
the target surface along the normal and tangent directions to the contact
surface (fully bonded). (Similar to KEYOPT(12) = 5 for pair-based contact
elements.)
IBOND
Bonded (initial
contact)
Bonded contact in which the contact detection points that are initially
in a closed state will remain attached to the target surface, and the
contact detection points that are initially in an open state will remain
open throughout the analysis. (Similar to KEYOPT(12) = 6 for pair-based
contact elements.)
All of the above options use one material constant (C1) on the TBDATA command. The value of C1
defines the effect of initial penetration or gap, as described in the table below.
C1
Value
Description
[1]
Include both initial geometrical penetration or gap and offset. (Similar to KEYOPT(9) = 0 for
pair-based contact elements.)
[2]
Exclude both initial geometrical penetration or gap and offset. (Similar to KEYOPT(9) = 1 for
Include both initial geometrical penetration or gap and offset, but with ramped effects. (Similar
to KEYOPT(9) = 2 for pair-based contact elements.)
Include offset only (exclude initial geometrical penetration or gap). (Similar to KEYOPT(9) = 3
for pair-based contact elements.)
Include offset only (exclude initial geometrical penetration or gap), but with ramped effects.
(Similar to KEYOPT(9) = 4 for pair-based contact elements.)
Include offset only (exclude initial geometrical penetration or gap) regardless of the initial
contact status (near-field or closed). (Similar to KEYOPT(9) = 5 for pair-based contact elements.)
Include offset only (exclude initial geometrical penetration or gap), but with ramped effects
regardless of the initial contact status (near-field or closed). (Similar to KEYOPT(9) = 6 for
1. C1 = 0 is the default for all general contact interaction types if TBDATA is issued but C1 is not specified.
2. C1 = 1 is the default for all general contact interaction types if TBDATA is not issued.
Note that the effects of C1 input are dependent on which TBOPT label was previously defined. The indicated initial gap effect is considered only if TBOPT = ANOSE or TBOPT = ABOND is defined.
3.16.2. User-Defined Interaction

As an alternative to the program-supplied interface behaviors, you can define your own interaction
model with the user programmable subroutine, USERINTER. You can specify a number of properties
or constants associated with your interaction model, and you can introduce extra solution-dependent
state variables that can be updated and used within the subroutine. User-defined interaction is applicable
to 2-D and 3-D contact elements used in pair-based contact definitions or general contact definitions.
129
Material Models
After writing a USERINTER subroutine to program your interaction model, you incorporate the model
in your analysis by using the command TB,INTER with TBOPT = USER and specifying the interaction
properties on the TBDATA command as shown below.
TB,INTER,1,,2,USER
TBDATA,1,PROP1,PROP2
! Activate user defined contact interaction; NPTS = 2

! Define interaction properties
For detailed information on using the USERINTER subroutine, see Defining Your Own Contact Interaction
(USERINTER) in the Contact Technology Guide.
3.17. Cohesive Material Law

Cohesive zone materials can be used with interface elements (INTERnnn) and contact elements (CONTAnnn), as described here:
3.17.1. Exponential Cohesive Zone Material for Interface Elements and Contact Elements
3.17.2. Bilinear Cohesive Zone Material for Interface Elements and Contact Elements
3.17.3. Viscous Regularization of Cohesive Zone Material for Interface Elements and Contact Elements
3.17.4. Cohesive Zone Material for Contact Elements
3.17.5. Post-Debonding Behavior at the Contact Interface
Also see User-Defined Cohesive Material (UserCZM) (p. 144).
For more detailed information about cohesive zone materials, see Cohesive Zone Material (CZM) Model
3.17.1. Exponential Cohesive Zone Material for Interface Elements and Contact
Elements
Interface elements and contact elements allow exponential cohesive zone materials to be used for
simulating interface delamination and other fracture phenomena. To define exponential material behavior, issue the TB,CZM,,,,EXPO command, then specify the following material constants via the TBDATA
command:
Constant
Meaning
Property
C1
max
Maximum normal traction at the interface
C2
Normal separation across the interface where the

maximum normal traction is attained
C3
Shear separation where the maximum shear

traction is attained
To define a temperature dependent material, use the TBTEMP command as shown below:
TB,CZM,1,2,,EXPO
TBTEMP,100.0
TBDATA,1,max,n,t
TBTEMP,200.0
TBDATA,1,max,n,t
!
!
!
!
!
Activate exponential material model

Define material constants at temp 100.0
3.17.2. Bilinear Cohesive Zone Material for Interface Elements and Contact
Elements
Interface elements and contact elements allow bilinear cohesive zone materials to be used for simulating
interface delamination and other fracture phenomena. To define bilinear material behavior, issue the
TB,CZM,,,,BILI command, then specify the following material constants via the TBDATA command:
130
Cohesive Material Law

Constant
Meaning
Property
C1
max
Maximum normal traction
C2
Normal displacement jump at the completion of

debonding
max
C3
Maximum tangential traction
C4
Tangential displacement jump at the completion

of debonding
C5
C6 [1]
Ratio of
to
, or ratio of
to
Non-dimensional weighting parameter
1. C6 must be the constant at all temperatures.

To define a temperature-dependent material, issue the TBTEMP command as shown in the following
example input fragment:
TB,CZM,1,2,,BILI
! Activate bilinear CZM material model
!
!
TBTEMP,100.0
!
!
Define Mode I dominated material constants at temp 100.0:
!
!TBDATA,1,max, ,-max, ,
!
!
TBTEMP,200.0
TBTEMP,200.0
!
!
Define Mode I dominated material constants at temp 200.0:
TBDATA,1,max,
,-max,
Debonding Interface Modes

Three modes of interface debonding comprise bilinear CZM law:
Case
Input on the TBDATA command as follows:
Mode I Dominated
C1, C2, C3, C4, C5 (where C3 = -max)
Mode II Dominated
C1, C2, C3, C4, C5 (where C1 = -max)
Mixed-Mode
C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, C6 (where C1 = max and C3 = max)
3.17.3.Viscous Regularization of Cohesive Zone Material for Interface Elements

and Contact Elements
Interface elements and contact elements allow viscous regularization to be used for stabilizing interface
delamination. Viscous regularization is valid with the exponential cohesive zone material model (TBOPT
= EXPO) and the bilinear cohesive zone material model (TBOPT = BILI).
To define viscous regularization parameters, issue the TB,CZM,,,,VREG command, then specify the following material constant via the TBDATA command:
131
Material Models
Constant
Meaning
Property
C1
Damping coefficient
To define a temperature-dependent material, use the TBTEMP command as shown in the following
! define first temperature
TBTEMP,100.0
!define damping coefficient at temp 100.0
TBDATA,1,c1
!define second temperature
TBTEMP,200.0
!define damping coefficient at temp 200.0
TBDATA,1,c1
For more information, see Viscous Regularization in the Mechanical APDL Theory Reference.
3.17.4. Cohesive Zone Material for Contact Elements

To model interface delamination, also known as debonding, the contact elements support an additional
cohesive zone material model with bilinear behavior. This model allows two ways to specify material
data.
Bilinear Material Behavior with Tractions and Separation Distances
To define bilinear material behavior with tractions and separation distances, issue the TB,CZM,,,,CBDD
command, then specify the following material constants via the TBDATA command:
Constant
Meaning
Property
C1
max
Maximum normal contact stress [1]
C2
Contact gap at the completion of debonding

max
C3
Maximum equivalent tangential contact stress [1]
C4
Tangential slip at the completion of debonding
C5
Artificial damping coefficient
C6
Flag for tangential slip under compressive normal

contact stress; must be 0 (off ) or 1 (on)
1. For contact elements using the force-based model (see the description of KEYOPT(3) for
CONTA175, CONTA176, and CONTA177), input a contact force value for this quantity.
To define a temperature dependent material, use the TBTEMP command as shown below:
TB,CZM,1,2,,CBDD
TBTEMP,100.0
! Activate bilinear material model with tractions

! and separation distances
TBDATA,1,max,
TBTEMP,200.0
,max,
,, ! Define material constants at temp 100.0
TBDATA,1,max,
,max,
,,
! Define material constants at temp 200.0
Bilinear Material Behavior with Tractions and Critical Fracture Energies

Use the TB,CZM command with TBOPT = CBDE to define bilinear material behavior with tractions and
critical fracture energies, and specify the following material constants using the TBDATA command.
132
Cohesive Material Law

Constant
Meaning
Property
C1
max
Maximum normal contact stress [1]
C2
Gcn
C3
max
C4
Gct
C5
Artificial damping coefficient
C6
Flag for tangential slip under compressive

normal contact stress; must be 0 (off ) or 1
(on)
Critical fracture energy density (energy/area)

for normal separation [2]
Maximum equivalent tangential contact
stress [1]
Critical fracture energy density (energy/area)
for tangential slip [2]
CONTA175, CONTA176, and CONTA177), input a contact force value for this quantity.
CONTA175, CONTA176, and CONTA177), this quantity is critical fracture energy.
To define a temperature dependent material, use the TBTEMP command as shown in the following
TB,CZM,1,2,,CBDE
TBTEMP,100.0
TBDATA,1,max,Gcn,max,Gct,,
TBTEMP,200.0
!
!
!
!
!
!
Activate bilinear material model with

tractions and facture energies
Debonding Modes
Debonding involves separation of surfaces forming an interface. The direction of separation determines
the debonding mode. The program detects the debonding mode based on material data that you input
for normal and tangential directions:
Mode I debonding involves separation normal to the interface. It is activated by inputting data items
C1, C2, and C5 on the TBDATA command.
Mode II debonding involves slip tangent to the interface. It is activated by inputting data items C3,
C4, and C5 on the TBDATA command.
Mixed mode debonding involves both normal separation and tangential slip. It is activated by inputting
data items C1, C2, C3, C4, C5, and C6 on the TBDATA command.
3.17.5. Post-Debonding Behavior at the Contact Interface

When the cohesive zone material defined at a contact interface is completely debonded, the contact
behavior at that interface is changed to standard contact (KEYOPT(12) = 0) by default. This default behavior can be changed for certain CZM materials.
For the cohesive zone materials with bilinear material behavior (TBOPT = CBDD, CBDE or BILI on the
TB command), you can specify that the cohesive zone interface be healed if the surfaces come into
contact again after debonding. To activate this option, use the TBFIELD,CYCLE command to define the
CZM material as a function of healing cycle number. You can use multiple TBFIELD commands to specify
133
Material Models
the material properties for any number of healing cycles, but be sure to start with a cycle number of
zero.
For example, the following commands specify healing of the CZM interface if the contact surfaces come
into contact after they are completely debonded:
TB,CZM,1,,,CBDE
TBFIELD,CYCLE,0
TBFIELD,CYCLE,1
TBDATA,1, ...
!
!
!
!
!
Activate the CBDE bilinear material behavior

Initial CZM definition (before healing)
CZM properties
CZM definition for first healing cycle
CZM properties to be used after first healing
When the contact interface is completely debonded and the surfaces come into contact again, the debonding parameter is set to 0 thus effectively healing the CZM. The healing cycle is incremented by
one and the appropriate material data is interpolated for this healing cycle.
This healing option is only available when one of the supported cohesive zone materials is used with
contact elements. It is not available when a cohesive zone material is used with interface elements.
3.18. Contact Surface Wear

Contact surface wear can be simulated by defining a wear model (TB,WEAR) as a material assigned to
contact elements. Two options are available: the Archard wear model and a user-defined wear model
(the USERWEAR subroutine). These two options are discussed below. For additional information, see
Contact Surface Wear in the Contact Technology Guide.
3.18.1. Archard Wear Model

The Archard wear model defines the rate of wear as a function of contact pressure, sliding velocity, and
material hardness. The direction of wear is opposite to the contact normal.
The Archard model is defined by the TB,WEAR command with TBOPT = ARCD. The material constants
required by the model are specified as data items C1 through C4 on the TBDATA command, as described
below:
Constant Meaning
C1
Wear coefficient, K
C2
Material hardness, H
C3
Pressure exponent, m
C4
Velocity exponent, n
C5
Optional flag to control how the wear increment is calculated (see below)
The fifth constant, C5, can be used to specify additional controls:

Set C5 to 1 to base the wear calculation on nodal stresses. The nodal stresses of the solid element underlying the contact element are used to calculate traction along the contact normal direction. The
traction value is used instead of contact pressure to calculate the amount of wear.
Set C5 to 10 or 11 to average the wear increment over the contact area of the contact pair. Use C5 =
10 to base the wear calculation on contact pressure; use C5 = 11 to base the wear calculation on nodal
stress.
134
Acoustics
Set C5 to -99 to calculate wear for postprocessing purposes only. The Archard model is used to calculate
the wear, but the contact nodes are not moved; thus wear is just a postprocessing variable and does
not affect the solution.
Use the TBFIELD command to define the constants as a function of temperature and/or time. A sample
input with constants as a function of time is shown below:
TB,WEAR,1,,,ARCD
TBFIELD,TIME,0
TBDATA,1,K,H,m,n
TBFIELD,TIME,1
TBDATA,1,K,H,m,n
!
!
!
!
!
Activate Archard wear model

Define the first value of time
Define wear material constants for the first value of time
Define the second value of time
Define wear material constants for the second value of time
Alternatively, you can use the TBTEMP command to define the constants as a function of temperature
alone. A sample input is shown below:
TB,WEAR,1,,,ARCD
TBTEMP,100
TBDATA,1,K,H,m,n
TBTEMP,200
TBDATA,1,K,H,m,n
!
!
!
!
!
Activate Archard wear model

Define the first value of temperature
Define wear material constants for the first value of temperature
Define the second value of temperature
Define wear material constants for the second value of temperature
3.18.2. User-Defined Wear Model

As an alternative to the Archard wear model, you can define your own wear model via the user-programmable subroutine, USERWEAR. This subroutine allows you to define the increment of wear for a
substep. The default wear direction is opposite to the contact normal. However, you can redefine it inside
of USERWEAR.
The user-defined wear model is activated by the TB,WEAR command with TBOPT = USER. A sample
command input is shown below:
TB,WEAR,1,,4,USER
TBDATA,1,C1,C2,C3,C4
! Activate user defined wear model that requires 4 (NPTS = 4) constants

! Define the wear model constants
3.19. Acoustics
The following topics related to acoustic materials are available:
3.19.1. Equivalent Fluid Model of Perforated Media
3.19.2. Acoustic Frequency-Dependent Materials
3.19.3. Low Reduced Frequency (LRF) Model of Acoustic Viscous-Thermal Media
3.19.1. Equivalent Fluid Model of Perforated Media

The following related topics are available:
3.19.1.1. Johnson-Champoux-Allard Equivalent Fluid Model of Perforated Media
3.19.1.2. Delany-Bazley Equivalent Fluid Model of Perforated Media
3.19.1.3. Miki Equivalent Fluid Model of Perforated Media
3.19.1.4. Complex Impedance and Propagating-Constant Equivalent Fluid Model of Perforated Media
3.19.1.5. Complex Density and Velocity Equivalent Fluid Model of Perforated Media
3.19.1.6.Transfer Admittance Matrix Model of Perforated Media
3.19.1.7.Transfer Admittance Matrix Model of a Square or Hexagonal Grid Structure
3.19.1.1. Johnson-Champoux-Allard Equivalent Fluid Model of Perforated Media

To define a Johnson-Champoux-Allard equivalent fluid model of a perforated medium in an acoustic
full harmonic analysis, issue this command:
135
Material Models
TB,PERF,,,,JCA
The effective density is given by:
(3.41)
where:
0 = density of fluid
= fluid resistivity
= porosity
= tortuosity
= viscous characteristic length
= dynamic viscosity
The effective bulk modulus is given by:
(3.42)
where:
= specific heat ratio
P0 = static reference pressure
Prt = Prandtl number
' = thermal characteristic length
The constants C1 through C5 (entered via the TBDATA command) are:
Constant
Meaning
C1
Fluid resistivity (N s/m4)
C2
Porosity (defaults to 1)
C3
Tortuosity (defaults to 1)
C4
Viscous characteristic length (m)
C5
Thermal characteristic length (m)
Additional material parameters are input with the MP and R commands. For more information, see
Equivalent Fluid of Perforated Materials in the Mechanical APDL Theory Reference.
3.19.1.2. Delany-Bazley Equivalent Fluid Model of Perforated Media

To define a Delany-Bazley equivalent fluid model of a perforated medium in an acoustic full harmonic
analysis, issue this command:
TB,PERF,,,,DLB
The impedance is given by:
136
Acoustics
The propagating constant is given by:
where:
= fluid resitivity
f = frequency
= angular frequency
The constant C1 (entered via the TBDATA command) is:
Constant
Meaning
C1
3.19.1.3. Miki Equivalent Fluid Model of Perforated Media

To define a Miki equivalent fluid model of a porous medium in an acoustic full harmonic analysis, issue
this command:
TB,PERF,,,,MIKI
where:
= fluid resitivity
f = frequency
= angular frequency
137
Material Models
Constant
Meaning
C1
3.19.1.4. Complex Impedance and Propagating-Constant Equivalent Fluid Model of

Perforated Media
To define a complex impedance and propagating-constant equivalent fluid model of a porous medium
in an acoustic full harmonic analysis, issue this command:
TB,PERF,,,,ZPRO
where:
R = Resistance
X=
= attenuation constant
= phase constant
Constant
Meaning
C1
Resistance (Pas /m)
C2
Reactance (Pas /m)
C3
Attenuation constant (Nepers/m)
C4
Phase constant (Rad/m)
3.19.1.5. Complex Density and Velocity Equivalent Fluid Model of Perforated Media
To define a complex impedance-propagating constant equivalent fluid model of a porous medium in
an acoustic full harmonic analysis, issue this command:
TB,PERF,,,,CDV
The complex density is given by:
= r + ji
The complex sound speed is given by:
c = cr + jci
where:
138
Acoustics
r = real part of complex density (kg/m3)
i = imaginary part of complex density (kg/m3)
cr = real part of complex sound speed (m/s)
ci = imaginary part of complex sound speed (m/s)
Constant
Meaning
C1
Real part of complex density (kg/m3)
C2
Imaginary part of complex density (kg/m3)
C3
Real part of complex sound speed (m/s)
C4
Imaginary part of complex sound speed

(m/s)
3.19.1.6. Transfer Admittance Matrix Model of Perforated Media

To define a transfer admittance matrix model of a porous medium in an acoustic full harmonic analysis,
issue this command:
TB,PERF,,,,YMAT
A two-port transfer admittance matrix is given by:
where:
n1 = normal velocity at port 1
1 = pressure at port 1
n2 = normal velocity at port 2
2 = pressure at port 2
Y11, Y12, Y13 = complex admittance elements
1 = internal source related to port 1 (usually zero in acoustic applications)
2 = internal source related to port 2 (usually zero in acoustic applications)
Constant
Meaning
C1
Real part of complex Y11 (m/Pas)
C2
Imaginary part of complex Y11 (m/Pas)
C3
C4
C5
C6
C7
C8

139
Material Models
Constant
Meaning
C9
Real part of complex 1 (m/s)
C10
Imaginary part of complex 1 (m/s)
C11
Real part of complex 2 (m/s)
C12
Imaginary part of complex 2 (m/s)
For an acoustic 2 x 2 transfer admittance matrix, the port number (SF,Nlist,PORT) can be any positive
integer.
If the two ports of the transfer admittance matrix are connecting to the fluid, the smaller port number
corresponds to port 1 of the 2 x 2 transfer admittance matrix and the greater port number corresponds
to port 2.
If one port of the transfer admittance matrix is connecting to the acoustic-structural interaction interface
and another port is connecting to the fluid, the FSI interface (SF,Nlist,FSI) corresponds to port 1 and
the defined port number (SF,Nlist,PORT) corresponds to port 2 of the transfer admittance matrix.
A pair of ports of the 2 x 2 transfer admittance matrix must be defined in the same element.
3.19.1.7. Transfer Admittance Matrix Model of a Square or Hexagonal Grid Structure

To define a transfer admittance matrix model of a square grid structure in an acoustic full harmonic
analysis, issue this command:
TB,PERF,,,,SGYM
To define a hexagonal grid structure, issue this command:
TB,PERF,,,,HGYM
A two-port transfer admittance matrix is given by:
where:
Y = Complex admittance elements determined by geometric dimension and material
= Ratio of inner and outer radius for cylindrical structure (default = 1)
Constant
Meaning
C1
Radius of the hole (m)
C2
Period of the square or hexagonal grid

structure (m)
C3
Thickness of the structure (m)
C4
Mass density of fluid (kg/m3)
C5
Dynamic viscosity of fluid (Pas)
140
Acoustics
Constant
Meaning
C6
Ratio of inner and outer radius for

cylindrical structure
3.19.2. Acoustic Frequency-Dependent Materials

To define frequency-dependent material in an acoustic full harmonic analysis, issue this command:
TB,AFDM,,,,MAT
Constant
Meaning
C1
Mass density (kg/m3)
C2
Sound speed (m/s)
C3
Dynamic viscosity (Pas)
C4
Thermal conductivity (W/mK)
C5
Specific heat (J/kgK)
C6
Heat coefficient at constant volume per

unit of mass (J/kgK)
C7
Bulk viscosity (Pas)
3.19.3. Low Reduced Frequency (LRF) Model of Acoustic Viscous-Thermal

Media
The low reduced frequency (LRF) model is available for three cases:
3.19.3.1.Thin Layer
3.19.3.2.Tube with Rectangular Cross-Section
3.19.3.3.Tube with Circular Cross-Section
3.19.3.1. Thin Layer

To define the low reduced frequency model in an acoustic full harmonic analysis for a thin layer, issue
this command:
TB,AFDM,,,,THIN
Constant
Meaning
C1
Thickness of the layer
3.19.3.2. Tube with Rectangular Cross-Section

To define the low reduced frequency model in an acoustic full harmonic analysis for a tube with a
rectangular cross-section, issue this command:
TB,AFDM,,,,RECT
141
Material Models
Constant
Meaning
C1
Width of the rectangular cross-section
C2
Height of the rectangular cross-section
3.19.3.3. Tube with Circular Cross-Section

To define the low reduced frequency model in an acoustic full harmonic analysis for a tube with a circular cross-section, issue this command:
TB,AFDM,,,,CIRC
Constant
Meaning
C1
Radius of the circular cross-section
3.20. Fluids
Fluid material models can be used with hydrostatic fluid elements to model compressible fluids. For
theoretical background on these materials, see Fluid Material Models in the Mechanical APDL Theory
Reference. For more information on using these fluid material models with the hydrostatic fluid elements,
see Modeling Hydrostatic Fluids in the Structural Analysis Guide.
There are three ways to define material data for compressible fluids: liquid, gas, or pressure-volume
data.
Liquid
Use the TB,FLUID command with TBOPT = LIQUID to define material behavior for a liquid, and specify
the following material constants using the TBDATA command:
Constant
Meaning
Property
C1
Bulk modulus
C2
Coefficient of thermal expansion
C3
0f
Initial density
You can define a temperature dependent liquid material with up to 20 temperatures (NTEMP = 20 max
on the TB command) by using the TBTEMP command, as shown in the example below:
TB,FLUID,1,2,,LIQUID
TBTEMP,100.0
TBDATA,1,K,,0f
TBTEMP,200.0
TBDATA,1,K,,0f
!
!
!
!
!
Activate liquid material model

When specifying temperature dependent density values for a liquid, keep in mind that the current
density (f) for hydrostatic fluid elements is computed at each iteration as a function of pressure change
(P), bulk modulus (K), coefficient of thermal expansion (), and temperature change (T). A reference
temperature may be input using the TREF or MP,REFT command. For details on how the current
density is calculated, refer to Liquid in the Mechanical APDL Theory Reference.
Gas
142
Custom Material Models

Use the TB,FLUID command with TBOPT = GAS to define material behavior for a gas, and specify the
following material constant using the TBDATA command:
Constant
Meaning
Property
C1
0f
Initial density
You can define a temperature dependent gas material with up to 20 temperatures (NTEMP = 20 max
on the TB command) by using the TBTEMP command, as shown in the example below:
TB,FLUID,1,2,,GAS
TBTEMP,100.0
TBDATA,1,0f
TBTEMP,200.0
TBDATA,1,0f
!
!
!
!
!
Activate gas material model

When specifying temperature dependent density values for a gas, keep in mind that the current density
(f ) for hydrostatic fluid elements is computed at each iteration based on the Ideal Gas Law. For details
on how the current density is calculated, refer to Gas in the Mechanical APDL Theory Reference.
To use the Ideal Gas Law, you also need to define a reference pressure (input as real constant PREF)
and a reference temperature (input with the TREF or MP,REFT command) with temperature offset (input
with the TOFFST command).
Pressure-Volume Data
Use the TB,FLUID command with TBOPT = PVDATA to define compressible fluid behavior in terms of
a pressure-volume curve. You can specify up to 20 temperature-dependent pressure-volume curves
(NTEMP = 20 max on the TB command). The temperature for the first curve is input with TBTEMP, followed by TBPT commands for up to 100 pressure-volume data points. The data points (X, Y) entered
on TBPT are:
Constant
Meaning
Pressure value
Corresponding volume
value
The pressure-volume data point must be defined in terms of total pressure and total volume of the
fluid in the containing vessel.
3.21. Custom Material Models

The following topics related to creating your own custom material models are available:
3.21.1. User-Defined Material Model (UserMat)
3.21.2. User-Defined Thermal Material Model (UserMatTh)
3.21.3. User-Defined Cohesive Material (UserCZM)
3.21.4. Using State Variables with User-Defined Materials
3.21.1. User-Defined Material Model (UserMat)

The user-defined material option (TB,USER) describes input parameters for defining your own material
model via the UserMat subroutine, which defines any material type except incompressible materials.
The subroutine supports current-technology elements only. For more information, see Subroutine
UserMat (Creating Your Own Material Model) in the Guide to User-Programmable Features.
143
Material Models
Input for the user-defined option is determined by constants which you define. The TB,USER command
initializes the constant table. The constants are defined via TBDATA commands (six per command). The
number of constants can be any combination of the number of temperatures (NTEMP) and the number
of data points per temperature (NPTS), to a maximum of NTEMP x NPTS = 1000.
Define temperatures via TBTEMP commands.
Example 3.24: Input for a User-Defined Material
TB,USER,1,2,4
TBTEMP,1.0
TBDATA,1,19e5,0.3,1e3,100,
TBTEMP,2.0
TBDATA,1,21e5,0.3,2e3,100,
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
Set material 1 as a user-defined

material with two temperatures
and four data points at each
temperature point.
First temperature.
Four material constants for
first temperature.
Second temperature.
second temperature.
For information about state variable support, see Using State Variables with the UserMat Subroutine (p. 145).
3.21.2. User-Defined Thermal Material Model (UserMatTh)

The user-defined thermal material option (TB,USER) describes input parameters for defining your own
thermal material model via the UserMatTh subroutine. The subroutine supports current-technology
elements only. For more information, see Subroutine UserMatTh (Creating Your Own Thermal Material
Model) in the Guide to User-Programmable Features.
Input for the user-defined option is determined by constants which you define. The TB,USER command
initializes the constant table. The constants are defined via TBDATA commands (six per command). The
number of constants can be any combination of the number of temperatures (NTEMP) and the number
of data points per temperature (NPTS), to a maximum of NTEMP x NPTS = 1000.
Define temperatures via TBTEMP commands.
Example 3.25: Input for a User-Defined Thermal Material
TB,USER,1,2,4
TBTEMP,1.0
TBDATA,1,19e5,0.3,1e3,100,
TBTEMP,2.0
TBDATA,1,21e5,0.3,2e3,100,
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

material with two temperatures
temperature point.
First temperature.
first temperature.
Second temperature.
second temperature.
For information about state variable support, see Using State Variables with the UserMatTh Subroutine (p. 145).
3.21.3. User-Defined Cohesive Material (UserCZM)

Support is available for creating a user-defined cohesive material (TB,CZM,,,,USER) via the UserCZM
subroutine. The subroutine supports interface elements (INTERnnn) only. For more information, see
Subroutine userCZM (Defining Your Own Cohesive Zone Material) in the Programmer's Reference.
144
Custom Material Models

Input is determined by user-specified constants (TBDATA). Up to six constants can be define per TBDATA
command. The number of constants can be any combination of the number of temperatures (NTEMP)
and the number of data points per temperature (NPTS), such that NTEMP x NPTS <= 1000.
Example 3.26: Input for a User-Defined Cohesive Material Law
TB,CZM,1,2,4,USER
TBTEMP,1.0
TBDATA,1,19e5,0.3,1e3,100,
TBTEMP,2.0
TBDATA,1,21e5,0.3,2e3,100,
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!
!

cohesive material option with two temperatures
temperature point.
First temperature.
Four cohesive material constants for
first temperature.
Second temperature.
Four cohesive material constants for
second temperature.
Contact elements do not support a user-defined cohesive material. However, a similar capability can
be achieved by defining your own contact interface behavior via the userinter subroutine. For more
information, see Defining Your Own Contact Interaction (USERINTER) in the Contact Technology Guide.
For information about state variable support, see Using State Variables with the UserCZM Subroutine (p. 146).
3.21.4. Using State Variables with User-Defined Materials

The following topics related to using state variables with subroutines for creating your own custom
materials are available:
3.21.4.1. Using State Variables with the UserMat Subroutine
3.21.4.2. Using State Variables with the UserMatTh Subroutine
3.21.4.3. Using State Variables with the UserCZM Subroutine
3.21.4.1. Using State Variables with the UserMat Subroutine

The UserMat subroutine for creating user-defined material models supports state variables. To use
them, initialize the constant table (TB,STATE), then define the constants (TBDATA).
Example 3.27: Initializing the Values of State Variables for a User-Defined Material
TB,STATE,1,,4,
TBDATA,1,C1,C2,C3,C4,
! Define material 1, which

! has four state variables.
! Initialize the four state variables.
You can define a maximum of 1000 state variables (NPTS = 1000).
3.21.4.2. Using State Variables with the UserMatTh Subroutine

The UserMatTh subroutine for creating user-defined thermal material models supports state variables.
To use them, initialize the constant table (TB,STATE), then define the constants (TBDATA).
Example 3.28: Initializing the Values of State Variables for a User-Defined Material
TB,STATE,1,,4,

! has four state variables.
You can define a maximum of 1000 state variables (NPTS = 1000).
145
Material Models
3.21.4.3. Using State Variables with the UserCZM Subroutine

The UserCZM subroutine for creating user-defined CZM models supports state variables. To use them,
initialize the constant table (TB,STATE), then define the initial constants (TBDATA).
By default, the initial values of state variables are set to zero.
Example 3.29: Initializing the Values of State Variables for a User-Defined Cohesive Material Law
TB,STATE,1,,4,

!
has four state variables.
3.22. Material Strength Limits

Material strength limits represent maximum stresses or strains that a material can sustain. This data
table defines the strength limits and other related constants required for computing failure criteria (FC)
index of a material under various loading conditions. Specify a TBOPT value on the TB,FCLI command
to correspond to the stress limits (TBOPT = 1) or strain limits (TBOPT = 2). The following table lists the
coefficient values that are addressed for the available TBOPT values:
Strength
Limit
Constants
146
TBOPT = 1
TBOPT = 2
Stress Limits (NPTS = 16)
Strain Limits (NPTS = 9)
C1
XTEN -- Allowable tensile stress

in material X-direction (must be
positive)
XTEN -- Allowable tensile strain in

material X-direction (must be
positive)
C2
XCMP -- Allowable compressive

XCMP -- Allowable compressive
stress in material X-direction
strain in material X-direction
(default to the negative of XTEN) (default to the negative of XTEN)
C3
YTEN -- Allowable tensile stress

in material Y-direction (must be
positive)
C4
YCMP -- Allowable compressive

YCMP -- Allowable compressive
stress in material Y-direction
strain in material Y-direction
(default to the negative of YTEN) (default to the negative of YTEN)
C5
ZTEN -- Allowable tensile stress

in material Z-direction (must be
positive)
C6
ZCMP -- Allowable compressive

ZCMP -- Allowable compressive
stress in material Z-direction
strain in material Z-direction
(default to the negative of ZTEN) (default to the negative of ZTEN)
C7
XY -- Allowable XY shear stress

(must be positive)
XY -- Allowable XY shear strain

(must be positive)
C8
YZ -- Allowable YZ shear stress

(must be positive)
YZ -- Allowable YZ shear strain

(must be positive)
C9
XZ -- Allowable XZ shear stress

(must be positive)
XZ -- Allowable XZ shear strain

(must be positive)
YTEN -- Allowable tensile strain in

material Y-direction (must be
positive)
ZTEN -- Allowable tensile strain in

material Z-direction (must be
positive)
Material Strength Limits

Strength
Limit
Constants
TBOPT = 1
TBOPT = 2
Stress Limits (NPTS = 16)
Strain Limits (NPTS = 9)
C10
XYCP -- XY coupling coefficient

for Tsai-Wu strength index
(default = -1.0)
--
C11
YZCP -- YZ coupling coefficient

for Tsai-Wu failure index (default
= -1.0)
--
C12
XZCP -- XZ coupling coefficient

for Tsai-Wu failure index (default
= -1.0)
--
C13
XZIT -- XZ tensile inclination

parameter for Puck failure index
(default = 0.0)
--
C14
XZIC -- XZ compressive
inclination parameter for Puck
failure index (default = 0.0)
--
C15
YZIT -- YZ tensile inclination

parameter for Puck failure index
(default = 0.0)
--
C16
YZIC -- YZ compressive
inclination parameter for Puck
failure index (default = 0.0)
--
C17
G1G2 -- Fracture toughness ratio

between GI (mode I) and GII
(mode II)
--
C18
ETAL -- Longitudinal friction

coefficient
--
C19
ETAT -- Transverse friction

coefficient
--
C20
ALP0 -- Fracture angle under

pure transverse compression
--
To determine physical failure criteria in unidirectional fiber-reinforced composite materials, including

Puck and Hashin, LaRc03, and LaRc04 criteria, always define the reinforced fiber direction as the material X direction.
The following table summarizes the applicable strength-limit constants for each failure criterion:
Strength
Max
Max
Tsai-Wu
Puck
Hashin
LaRc03/04
Limit
Strain
Stress
Strength
User-Defined
Criterion Criterion Criterion
Constants Criterion Criterion
Ratio
C1
C2
C3
C4
147
Material Models
Strength
Max
Max
Tsai-Wu
Puck
Hashin
LaRc03/04
Limit
Strain
Stress
Strength
User-Defined
Criterion Criterion Criterion
Constants Criterion Criterion
Ratio
C5
--
--
--
C6
--
--
--
C7
C8
--
--
C9
--
--
--
C10
--
--
--
--
--
C11
--
--
--
--
--
C12
--
--
--
--
--
C13
--
--
--
--
--
C14
--
--
--
--
--
C15
--
--
--
--
--
C16
--
--
--
--
--
C17
--
--
--
--
--
C18
--
--
--
--
--
C19
--
--
--
--
--
C20
--
--
--
--
--
3.23. Material Damage

The following topics concerning material damage initiation and evolution are available:
3.23.1. Damage Initiation Criteria
3.23.2. Damage Evolution Law
3.23.1. Damage Initiation Criteria

This data table defines the criteria type for determining the onset of material damage under loading.
Specify the TBOPT value on the TB,DMGI command to correspond to failure criteria (TBOPT = 1 or
FCRT).
The following table shows the coefficient values addressed for the available TBOPT values:
Constants
148
TBOPT = 1 or FCRT
NPTS = 4
C1
Failure criteria type [1] for the tensile fiber

failure mode
C2
Failure criteria type [1] for the compressive

fiber failure mode
C3
Failure criteria type [1] for the tensile matrix

failure mode
C4
Failure criteria type [1] for the compressive

matrix failure mode
Material Damage
1. The available failure criteria are as follows:
1 -- Maximum strain
2 -- Maximum stress
3 -- Puck
4 -- Hashin
5 -- LaRc03
6 -- LaRc04
11 -- User-defined #1
...
19 -- User-defined #9
To complete the material damage definition, it is also necessary to specify a compatible material damage
evolution law (TB,DMGE). Without a damage evolution law, the damage-initiation criteria have no effect
on the material. The following table summarizes the compatible damage evolution laws with specific
damage-initiation criteria:
TB,DGMI Input
TBOPT
value
C1, C2, C3, C4
Compatible TB,DMGE,,,,TBOPT
Option
1, 2, ..., 19
1 or MPDG
4 (Hashin failure
criteria only)
2 or CDM
3.23.2. Damage Evolution Law

This data table defines the material damage evolution law (or the way a material degrades) following
the initiation of damage (TB,DMGE).
Specify the TBOPT value on the TB,DMGE command to correspond to the instant stiffness reduction
(TBOPT = 1 or MPDG).
The following table shows the coefficient values addressed for the available TBOPT values:
Constants
TBOPT = 1 or MPDG
NPTS = 4
C1
Tensile fiber stiffness reduction [1]
C2
Compressive fiber stiffness reduction [1]
C3
Tensile matrix stiffness reduction [1]
C4
Compressive matrix stiffness reduction [1]

1. The allowable values of C1, C2, C3, and C4 are between 0 and 1, where 0 = no reduction in
material stiffness in the affected mode after damage initiation, and 1 = complete stiffness
loss in the affected mode.
Constants
C1
TBOPT = 2 or CDM
NPTS = 4
Energy dissipated per unit area from tensile
fiber damage [1]
149
Material Models
Constants
TBOPT = 2 or CDM
NPTS = 4
C2
Viscous damping coefficient for tensile fiber

damage [2]
C3
Energy dissipated per unit area from

compressive fiber damage [1]
C4
Viscous damping coefficient for compressive

fiber damage [2]
C5
Energy dissipated per unit area from tensile

matrix damage [1]
C6
Viscous damping coefficient for tensile matrix

damage [2]
C7
Energy dissipated per unit area from

compressive matrix damage [1]
C8
Viscous damping coefficient for compressive

matrix damage [2]
1. Energies dissipated per unit area Gc are specified individually for all damage modes (fiber
tension, fiber compression, matrix tension, and matrix compression). For a specific damage
mode, Gc is given by:
For complex stress state, the equivalent stresses and strains are calculated based on Hashin
failure criteria.
150
Material Damage
2. Viscous damping coefficients are also specified respectively for all four damage modes.
For a specific damage mode, the damage evolution is regularized as follows:
To complete the material damage definition, it is also necessary to specify a compatible material damage
initiation criterion (TB,DMGI). Without a damage initiation criterion, the damage evolution law has no
effect on the material. The following table summarizes the compatible damage-initiation criteria with
specific damage evolution laws:
TB,DGME,,,,TBOPT option
Compatible TB,DMGI Input C1,

C2, C3, C4
TBOPT
value
C1, C2, C3, C4
1 or MPDG
1, 2, ..., 19
2 or CDM
4 (Hashin failure
criteria only)
3.23.2.1. Predicting Post-Damage Degradation of Brittle Anisotropic Materials

Use the progressive damage model (TB,DMGE) to predict post-damage degradation of brittle anisotropic
materials, typically in fiber-reinforced composites. The undamaged material must be linearly elastic. The
onset of damage is determined via failure criteria (TB,DMGI). For more information, see Failure Criteria
Following the onset of damage, material stiffness reduction occurs immediately. The constitutive relationship for a damage material is given as:
For a general orthotropic material, the damaged elastic matrix is defined as:
151
Material Models
For a transversely isotropic material with plane stress state, primarily adopted for thin fiber-reinforced
composite structures, the damaged elastic matrix can be expressed as:
Four damage modes (fiber tension [rupture], fiber compression [kinking], matrix tension [cracking], and
matrix compression [crushing]) are accounted for. Four damage variables (one for each mode) are used
to measure damage. The damage variables for calculating the damaged elasticity matrix are determined
as follows:
152
Material Damage
When a damage mode is initiated, the damage progresses immediately, indicated by the increasing
damage variable for the mode.
Two damage evolution methods are available:
Material property degradation method (TB,DMGE,,,,MPDG)
The material stiffness is instantly reduced based on the damage variables, explicitly specified via the
TB,DMGE command. Any physical failure criteria can be used to detect the onset of the damage.
Continuum damage mechanics method (TB,DMGE,,,,CDM)
Damage variables increase gradually based on the energy amounts dissipated for the various damage
modes. To achieve an objective response, the dissipated energy for each damage mode is regularized
as follows:
The characteristic length Le is calculated from the element area A via the following expressions:
With this characteristic length, the constitutive relation is converted from stress-strain to stress-displacement relation. The damage evolution function is derived from Hashin failure criteria; therefore,
only Hashin failure criteria are allowed via TB,DMGI for detecting damage onset. For a plane stress
state, the equivalent displacements
and equivalent stresses
are given below for all damage
modes.
3.23.2.1.1. Damage Modes

Four damage modes can be accounted for via the progressive damage model:
Fiber Tension Damage Mode
To ensure the continuity near the free fiber stress state

, the coupling factor is chosen as follows:
153
Material Models
Fiber Compression Damage Mode
Matrix Tension Damage Mode
Matrix Compression Damage Mode
In expressions above,
is the McCauley operator, defined as
The damage variable d for a given mode is given as follows:
154
Chapter 4: Explicit Dynamics Materials

Material properties used in explicit dynamic analyses (ANSYS LS-DYNA User's Guide program) differ
somewhat from those used in implicit analyses (described in Linear Material Properties (p. 14) and
Material Models (p. 13).)
Most explicit dynamics material models require data table input. A data table is a series of constants
that are interpreted when they are used. Data tables are always associated with a material number and
are most often used to define nonlinear material data (that is, stress-strain curves). The form of the data
table (referred to as the TB table) depends on the material model being defined.
For a complete description of all explicit dynamics material models, including detailed data table input,
see Material Models in the ANSYS LS-DYNA User's Guide.
155
156
Chapter 5: Material Curve Fitting

Material curve fitting allows you to derive coefficients from experimental data that you provide for your
material. Curve fitting involves comparing your experimental data to certain preexisting nonlinear material models. With this capability, you compare experimental data versus program-calculated data for
different nonlinear models; based on those comparisons, you can determine the best material model
to use during solution.
Curve fitting is based on the data table configurations outlined in the TB command. The data manipulations and constructions are performed via the TBFT command.
The following material curve-fitting topics are available:
5.1. Hyperelastic Material Curve Fitting
5.2. Viscoelastic Material Curve Fitting
5.3. Creep Material Curve Fitting
5.4. Chaboche Material Curve Fitting
5.1. Hyperelastic Material Curve Fitting

Hyperelastic curve fitting is a tool for estimating your material constants by inputting your experimental
data and comparing it to the hyperelastic material models. Your stress-strain curves can be converted
to any of the supported hyperelastic models, including Mooney-Rivlin, Ogden, Neo-Hookean, Polynomial,
Arruda-Boyce, Gent, and Yeoh. Compressible hyperelastic Ogden hyper-foam and Blatz-Ko models are
also supported.
You perform curve fitting either interactively (GUI) or via batch commands. You input your experimental
data, choose a model from one of nine supplied hyperelastic models, perform a regression analysis,
graphically view the curve-fitting results, compare the fits to the experimental data, and write the fitted
coefficients to the database as nonlinear data table commands for the subsequent finite element analyses.
Hyperelastic models can define three types of behavior: purely incompressible, nearly incompressible,
and compressible. Hyperelastic curve fitting is based on the HYPER option of the TB command.
5.1.1. Understanding the Hyperelastic Material Curve-Fitting Process

The steps for hyperelastic curve fitting are defined as follows:
1 Step 1. Prepare Experimental
Data (p. 158)
The experimental data must be a plain text file delimited

by a space or a comma.
2 Step 2. Input the Experimental

Data (p. 159)
The experimental data can be read in by browsing to the

file location (GUI) or by specifying the filename and path
(batch) on the command line.
3 Step 3. Select a Material Model

Option (p. 160)
The material options for the applicable curve-fitting regimen

are defined in the TB command. Nine hyperelastic models
are supported. After you pick a model, you can still change
to another model if an ideal fit is not realized.
157
Material Curve Fitting

4 Step 4. Initialize the
Coefficients (p. 161)
Depending on the model, hyperelastic curve fitting can be

a linear or nonlinear regression process. The hyperelastic
material models, along with the associated process for each
are listed in Table 5.3: Hyperelastic Curve-Fitting Model
Types (p. 160).
5 Step 5. Specify Control

Parameters and Solve (p. 162)
You will specify the type of error norm to be used to

generate the curve fit.
6 Step 6. Plot Your Experimental

Data and Analyze (p. 163)
You review and verify the results by comparing the

experimental data and the regression errors. If the results
you obtain are not acceptable, repeat steps 3 to 5 to
perform a new curve-fitting solution.
7 Step 7. Write Data to the TB

Command (p. 164)
Write your curve-fitting results to the database in the TB

command table format.
5.1.2. Step 1. Prepare Experimental Data

Curve fitting requires experimental test data. Your hyperelastic curve-fitting data needs to be a comma
or space delimited file, referencing your stress vs. strain values.
Hyperelastic curve fitting supports three main behaviors:
Case 1 - Totally Incompressible Models (see Table 5.1: Experimental Details for Case 1 and 2 Models and
Blatz-Ko (p. 158))
Case 2 - Nearly Incompressible Models (see Table 5.1: Experimental Details for Case 1 and 2 Models and
Blatz-Ko (p. 158))
Case 3 - Compressible Models (see Table 5.2: Experimental Details for Case 3 Models (p. 158))
The types of data required for each of these cases is defined in the tables below.
Table 5.1: Experimental Details for Case 1 and 2 Models and Blatz-Ko
Experimental Type
Column 1
Column 2
Uniaxial Test
Engineering Strain
Engineering Stress
Biaxial Test
Engineering Strain
Engineering Stress
Planar/Shear Test
Engineering Strain
(in loading
direction)
Engineering Stress
Simple Shear Test
Engineering Shear
Strain
Engineering Shear
Stress
Volumetric Test
Volume Ratio (J)
Hydrostatic Pressure
Column 3
(Optional) Engineering
Normal Stress (normal to
the edge of shear stress)
Table 5.2: Experimental Details for Case 3 Models

Experiment Type
Column 1
Column 2
Column 3
Uniaxial Test
Engineering Strain
Lateral Direction Engineering

Strain
Engineering
Stress
158
Hyperelastic Material Curve Fitting

Experiment Type
Column 1
Column 2
Column 3
Biaxial Test
Engineering Strain
Engineering Strain (in

thickness direction)
Engineering
Stress
Shear Test

loading direction)

thickness direction)
Engineering
Stress
Simple Shear Test
Engineering Shear Strain Engineering Shear Stress
Volumetric Test
Volume Ratio (J)
(Optional)
Engineering
Normal Stress
(normal to the
edge of shear
stress)
Hydrostatic Pressure
J is the ratio of current volume to the original volume.

All stresses output in POST1/POST26 are true stresses and logarithmic strains.
5.1.3. Step 2. Input the Experimental Data

Use the EADD option on the TBFT command to input your data files. First, designate whether they are
uniaxial, biaxial, shear, simple shear, or volumetric, and then designate the location in the Option2,
Option3, and Option4 fields. All of the stress values will be engineering stress, except for the volumetric option (true stress). The file should be a simple, delimited set of stress and strain values similar
to the following:
0.9703
0.9412
0.9127
0.8847
60.00
118.2
175.2
231.1
For temperature-dependent curve fitting, specify your temperature values at the top of the experimental
data using the
/temp,value
line. This header format specifies the attribute (temp) and its value (100). An example of a typical data
input using these attributes follows:
/temp,100
0.9703 60.00
0.9412 118.2
0.9127 175.2
0.8847 231.1
Adding this header introduces a temperature attribute of 100 degrees. You can add additional data
sets at other temperatures, in additional files. One file can have data at only one temperature.
For compressible materials, the curve-fitting tool's default behavior is to solve only for stress as a function
of strain and lateral strain. To force the curve-fitting tool to also fit experimental lateral strain data to
generate the coefficients for the Ogden compressible foam model, add the line /USEL,1 near the top
of the experimental data file. This option is valid for uniaxial, biaxial and shear test data.
5.1.3.1. Batch
TBFT,EADD,ID,Option1,Option2,Option3,Option4
! experimental data input
where:
159

ID = Index corresponding to the material number
Option1 = UNIA, BIAX, SHEA, SSHE or VOLU
Option2 = name of file containing experimental data
Option3 = file name extension
Option4 = file directory
5.1.3.2. GUI
The Material Properties GUI provides an input field where you can type in the filename of your data
file, and also include the appropriate path. You can also browse to a file in a specified location. Separate
input is performed for each Option1 value (UNIA, BIAX, SHEA, etc.).
5.1.4. Step 3. Select a Material Model Option

Use the FADD option on the TBFT command to define your constitutive model. Table 5.3: Hyperelastic
Curve-Fitting Model Types (p. 160) below lists the models that are available for hyperelastic curve fitting.
When volumetric data is supplied, a compressible or nearly incompressible model is implied, and only
the designated options will be available. When no volumetric data is supplied, the model is understood
to be incompressible, and those model options will be available. Supplying zero coefficients for the
volumetric data field will also denote an incompressible model.
Table 5.3: Hyperelastic Curve-Fitting Model Types
Model Name
Abbreviation
Order/Options
No. of
Coefficients [1]
Linear/Nonlinear
Fitting
Mooney-Rivlin
moon
2, 3, 5, 9
2/3/5/9+1
Linear
Polynomial
poly
1 to N
see below [2]
Linear
Yeoh
yeoh
1 to N
N+N
Linear
Neo-Hookean
neoh
1+1
Linear
Ogden
ogde
1 to N
2*N+N
Nonlinear
Arruda-Boyce
boyc
2+1
Nonlinear
Gent
gent
2+1
Nonlinear
Blatz-Ko
blat
Nonlinear
Ogden
Hyper-foam
foam
1 to N
2*N+N
Nonlinear
1. The number of coefficients is usually the sum of the number of deviatoric coefficients and the number of
volumetric coefficients.
2. The number of coefficients for a polynomial will be dependent on the polynomial order N.
Blatz-Ko and Ogden hyper-foam are compressible models. For Ogden hyper-foam, the experimental
data you supply will require additional fields.
160

For more information about the hyperelastic models available for curve fitting, see Hyperelasticity in
the Material Reference.
5.1.4.1. Batch Method

TBFT,FADD,ID,HYPER,Option2,Option3
! material model options input
where:
Option2 = model name, as specified in Table 5.3: Hyperelastic Curve-Fitting Model Types (p. 160)
(above)
Option3 = order or number of coefficients, where applicable. Table 5.3: Hyperelastic Curve-Fitting
Model Types (p. 160) (above) specifies the number and type of coefficient(s) necessary for each hyperelastic model type.
5.1.4.2. GUI Method

A pull-down selection menu in the material GUI allows you to pick the applicable material model option.
The options displayed will be dependent on the format of your experimental data file.
5.1.5. Step 4. Initialize the Coefficients

Depending on the model you choose, hyperelastic curve fitting can be a linear or a nonlinear regression
process. In both cases, the initial coefficients you supply will determine how accurate and efficient your
curve fit will be. The initial values of the coefficients generally come from experience, and also from
studying the function that defines the model you are attempting to compare/fit your data to. For most
hyperelastic models, 1 or -1 is a good starting point. However, coefficient values can vary greatly depending on the model chosen. The Gent model, for instance, provides good fit with initial coefficient
values as high as 1000.
You can also fix (hold constant) your coefficients (Option4 = FIX on the TBFT command). You specify
a value for a coefficient and keep it unchanged, while allowing the other coefficients to be operated
on. You can then release the coefficient you fixed and operate on it after the others are optimized. By
default, all of the coefficients are free to vary. The capability to fix coefficients applies only to nonlinear
curve fits (as listed in Table 5.3: Hyperelastic Curve-Fitting Model Types (p. 160)).
For temperature-dependent experimental data, enable temperature-dependency and specify a reference
temperature before solving for the coefficients. You can set the reference temperature only to values
specified using the /temp,value header line in the experimental data.
You can also specify tref = all and initiate multiple solves to evaluate coefficients at all available discrete
temperature values. In this case, for data at three temperatures (t1, t2, and t3), a single TBFT,SOLVE
entry will initiate three different solve operations at those three discrete temperatures.
With temperature dependency on and the reference temperature set to a particular value, a TBFT,SOLVE
command solves for coefficients only at that temperature. To solve for coefficients at other temperatures,
you set the reference temperature to each desired discrete temperature value and solve again.
You can initialize the coefficients before or after turning temperature dependency on. If the coefficients
are initialized before turning temperature dependency on, the specified coefficients will become the
initial coefficients for all future solves for that particular model. These coefficients are, however, overridden
when temperature dependency is turned on and another set of initial values are specified at discrete
temperature values. The curve-fitting tool looks for the initial coefficients at a particular temperature.
161

If no coefficients are specified at a discrete temperature, the initial coefficients set before temperature
dependency was turned on are used.
5.1.5.1. Batch
TBFT,SET,ID,HYPER,Option2,Option3,Option4,Option5
! initialize coefficients
where:
Option2 = model name (see Table 5.3: Hyperelastic Curve-Fitting Model Types (p. 160) (above) for
the available models)
Option3 = order, if applicable
Option4 = index of coefficient
Option5 = value of the coefficient
To set Option4 for a reference temperature, or for temperature dependency:
TBFT,SET,ID,HYPER,Option2,Option3,Option4,Option5
where:
Option2 = model name. See Table 5.3: Hyperelastic Curve-Fitting Model Types (p. 160) (above) for
the available models.
Option4 = tdep or tref
Option5 = If Option4 = tdep, Option5 = 1 turns on temperature dependency, and Option5
= 0 turns it off. If Option4 = tref, Option5 will be either all, or the reference temperature.
TBFT,FIX,ID,HYPER,Option2,Option3,Option4,Option5
where:
Option2 = model name See Table 5.3: Hyperelastic Curve-Fitting Model Types (p. 160) (above) for
the available models.
Option3 = (Blank--not applicable)
Option5 = 1 for fixed and 0 to vary
5.1.5.2. GUI
The GUI automatically updates your coefficient tables depending on the model you pick. You can
modify individual coefficients to initialize them at values you believe are more appropriate.
5.1.6. Step 5. Specify Control Parameters and Solve

Depending on the model, your hyperelastic curve fitting will be either a linear or nonlinear regression
process (see Table 5.3: Hyperelastic Curve-Fitting Model Types (p. 160) (above) for details). Your error
norms can be either normalized or non-normalized. Normalized error norms (the default regression
option) generally give better results than the non-normalized error norms, since normalized error gives
equal weight to all of your data points.
The solution control parameters of a nonlinear regression include:
162

1. Number of iterations
2. Residual tolerance
3. Coefficient change tolerance
The solution stops when both the residual tolerance and the coefficient change tolerance of your error
norm are met, or if the number of iterations criteria is met. When you use nonlinear regression, you
must initialize your coefficients.
5.1.6.1. Batch
TBFT,SOLVE,ID,HYPER,Option2,Option3,Option4, ..., Option7
! set control parameters and solve
where:
the models available.
Option3 = order or number of your coefficients. See Table 5.3: Hyperelastic Curve-Fitting Model
Types (p. 160) (above) for possible values.
Option4 = curve-fitting procedure: 0 = non-normalized least squares, 1 = normalized least squares
Option5 = maximum number of iterations
Option6 = tolerance of residual changes
Option7 = tolerance of coefficient changes
Other solution parameters are available. See the TBFT command for details.
5.1.6.2. GUI
The GUI lets you specify all of your control parameters (error norm, solution control parameters, and
the solver options) interactively. You select the appropriate options from the provided menus, and solve
to generate the coefficients. You can change the parameters and repeat the solution as necessary to
ensure an accurate result. The unused options are disabled whenever necessary.
5.1.7. Step 6. Plot Your Experimental Data and Analyze

After you initiate Solve, the coefficient tables will contain the fitted coefficients and also the residual
errors. You can then plot your data and visually interpret the results. The first column is always your Xaxis, with each additional column plotted separately as a function of column one.
You should try to reserve column one for the variable that you would like to see vary in the plot. For
example, if your data contains time, temperature, stress, and creep strain, and you wish to see the creep
strain vary as a function of time at different temperatures and stresses in the plot, you add your experimental data using multiple TBFT,EADD commands (or the corresponding GUI operations) by splitting
the file into multiple experimental files as prescribed earlier, one for each combination of temperature
and stress.
5.1.7.1. GUI
Use the GRAPH button to plot the data. Your plots will show columns 2 and above as separate curves,
plotted as a function of column 1. The data in column 1 is always the X-axis. By default, all the experiments are plotted in the GUI window. To view specific data and its corresponding fitting result, you
163

can click the right mouse button (RMB) on the specific data set, and pick a desired option to view the
results. Other RMB plotting utilities can be found for different data fields in the curve-fitting GUI window.
Use RMB functions to Zoom, Fit, Save Plot to File, View/Hide Legend and View/Hide Grid. Two or more
fitted functions can also be compared in the same plot. For example, you can view Mooney2 Uniaxial
and Mooney9 Uniaxial plots directly on top of each other, provided you have already solved for both
of these functions. RMB also allows you to set the number of points used to generate the plot, and also
change the minimum X value and the maximum X value in a plot. You can also hide a particular curve
within a graph, turn the legend and/or axis displays on and off, and switch the scales between log scale
and regular scale. Use the middle-mouse button to eliminate a specific curve and clarify or refine the
remaining curve.
5.1.7.2. Review/Verify
The two factors you consider in determining results acceptability are visual fit and the error norm/residual
values. When you plot the curve, the error norm/residual values are printed in the curve-fitting GUI
window. Error norm values help you determine the quality of curve fitting and whether to accept the
results, but are not always the best indicator of a valid curve fit. Plotting the curves and visually assessing
the result is usually the best indication. If the results are unacceptable, you may want to go back to
step 3 and solve again, either by picking a different model, increasing the order, or redefining your
initial values of the coefficients or other control parameters. You can continue to use your original experimental data, repeating step 3 through step 7 until you get an acceptable solution.
5.1.8. Step 7. Write Data to the TB Command

After you are satisfied with your curve-fitting results, you can write the curve-fitting data to the database
using TBFT,FSET. Both the GUI and the command line convert the coefficients to the appropriate form
before writing to TB tables. The program stores the data as part of the material property set for use in
subsequent analyses.
5.1.8.1. Batch
TBFT,FSET,ID,HYPER,Option2,Option3
! write data to TB
where:
the models available.
Option3 = order or number of your coefficients. See Table 5.3: Hyperelastic Curve-Fitting Model
Types (p. 160) (above) for possible values.
5.1.8.2. GUI
Once you complete the process and update your material data properties with the representative curve
data, you are returned to the material properties dialog. The curve data can now be accessed for the
full range of material behavior.
5.2. Viscoelastic Material Curve Fitting

Viscoelastic material curve fitting determines your material constants by relating your experimental
data to the Prony series expansion for both the shear and bulk modulus of the hypoviscoelastic material option.
164
Viscoelastic Material Curve Fitting

Curve fitting is performed either interactively or via batch commands. You input the experimental data,
define the order of Prony series expansion, perform nonlinear regression, view the curve-fitting results
graphically, compare the experimental data, and write the fitted coefficients to the database as nonlinear
data table commands for the subsequent finite elements analyses. You can fit shear modulus and/or
bulk modulus and/or shift functions, along with discrete temperature dependencies for multiple data
sets.
5.2.1. Understanding the Viscoelastic Material Curve-Fitting Process

The steps for viscoelastic curve fitting are defined as follows:
1 Step 1. Prepare Experimental
Data (p. 165)
The experimental data must be a plain text file delimited

by a space or a comma.
2 Step 2. Input the Data (p. 166)
The experimental data can be read in from the GUI or via

batch commands, as a plain text file.
3 Step 3. Select a Material Model

Option (p. 167)
This includes Prony series expansion of shear and/or bulk

moduli as well as shift function. The supported shift
functions include WLF and TN.
4 Step 4. Initialize the

Viscoelastic curve fitting is a nonlinear regression; the initial

value of your coefficients is very important for a successful
solution.
5 Step 5. Specify Control

Specify the error norm to be used, the solution control

parameters, and perform the nonlinear regression.
6 Step 6. Plot the Experimental

Graphically view the curve-fitting results. Review and verify

the results by comparing them with the experimental data
and the regression errors. If any factor is not acceptable,
repeat steps 3 to 7 to obtain a new curve-fitting solution.
7 Step 7. Write Data to the TB

Command (p. 173)
Write your curve-fitting results in TB command format to

the database.

Viscoelastic curve fitting allows for experimental data in both the time and frequency domains.
To input experimental data for viscoelastic materials in the time domain, the data must be shear modulus and/or bulk modulus as a function of time and temperature. The experimental data is named sdec
or bdec to distinguish it from other data types, such as hyperelastic or creep, and to allow convenient
analysis documentation.
To input experimental data for viscoelastic materials in the frequency domain, the data must be storage
modulus and loss modulus as a function of frequency, and optionally temperature. The experimental
data is named sdec or bdec. The data must be represented in three columns, and a /1,freq entry
at the top of the experimental data file is necessary to indicate that column 1 is frequency. Similar to
time domain data, it is possible to input data for shear (experiment type sdec) and bulk behavior (experiment type bdec). Frequency values are entered in cycles-per-second (which the program converts
to radians-per-unit-time).
Your viscoelastic test data must be a plain text file with headers to define the test data. The data file
should be in table form, delimited by a space or a comma. The header defines the test data type and
the temperature for your test data. For viscoelastic curve fitting with multiple temperatures, you can
evaluate coefficients at each discrete temperature point and write it as a temperature-dependent Prony
165

data table, or you can use the Williams-Landau-Ferry (WLF) or Tool-Narayanaswamy (TN) shift functions
to account for the temperature dependency. (See Shift Functions in the Mechanical APDL Theory Reference.)
A separate data file must be provided for each discrete temperature. The viscoelastic test data can be
any of 4 data types, see Table 5.4: Viscoelastic Data Types and Abbreviations (p. 166).
Table 5.4: Viscoelastic Data Types and Abbreviations
Time
time
Shear modulus
smod
Bulk modulus
bmod
Temperature
temp
The headers are used to describe the data types that characterize the test data columns or attributes
of the data.
The following listing contains the appropriate headers, followed by the delimited data:
/temp,100 ! define temperature attribute
0.01 2992.53
1 2978.514207
2 2965.45541
4 2942.293214
6 2922.530649
8 2905.612202
10 2891.073456
20 2842.506984
40 2798.142793
60 2772.383729
80 2750.631843
100 2730.398114
200 2643.125432
400 2517.475394
600 2431.262053
800 2366.580897
1000
2313.955396
2000
2117.922594
4000
1833.734397
6000
1627.199197
8000
1470.6806
10000 1347.264527
20000 964.0141125
40000 586.1405449
60000 392.186777
80000 277.2706253
100000 202.0025278
200000 46.87056342
400000 2.669209118
600000 0.156653269
800000 0.0137224
1000000 0.005591539
5.2.3. Step 2. Input the Data

You use the EADD option of the TBFT command to input your data files. The experimental data must
be read in from a plain text file. The experimental data must be prepared as discussed in the previous
section, and include both the header information and the formatted test data. Each file is viewed as a
data set, and can be the complete set of experimental test data or a part of an experimental test data.
You can include several data sets, including tests performed at different temperatures. Although different
data sets can have the same/or different temperature, each file can have only one temperature. Multiple
temperature data sets must be input with multiple files.
166

Two types of data may be required for viscoelastic curve fitting, either shear modulus vs. time and/or
bulk modulus vs. time. The data can also be a function of temperature, which can then be accounted
for by either WLF or TN shift function. You can use the GUI or batch command to input your experimental
data.
5.2.3.1. Batch
! input data
where:
ID = index corresponding to the material number
Option1 = experimental data type, either sdec or bdec
Option2 = name of file containing experimental data
Option3 = file name extension
Option4 = file directory
The sdec coefficient refers to the shear modulus as a function of time. The bdec coefficient refers to
the bulk modulus as a function of time.
5.2.3.2. GUI
Click on the Add Dataset button and type the filename into the area provided. You can also browse
to a file in a specified location. Separate input is performed for each data type (Option1 = sdec, or
bdec)

The TBFT command provides the curve-fitting tools for viscoelastic material modeling. You represent
your viscoelastic material behavior by a set of Prony-series expansions of shear and/or bulk moduli to
characterize the shear and the bulk deformation of the material. You can also use the shift functions
to characterize the material's temperature dependency.
First you define a case name to associate the set of coefficients for the Prony expansions with the shift
functions that characterize the material behavior. You can use the case name to define several different
options that characterize the same test data, and then to compare the curve-fitting results. To define
the material model, you must first define a case name, and then specify the order of shear and bulk
moduli and the type of the shift function(s), if required. You need to create an additional case to define
different shear order, bulk order or shift options. Once you create a case, the number of shear terms,
bulk terms, or shift options cannot be changed.

You define a viscoelastic material with the Prony series expansion by creating a case and setting the
order of shear modulus, bulk modulus, and shift options. You create the case with the TBFT,FCASE
command. The first line will include FCASE,ID,NEW. Then you specify the number of shear terms, bulk
terms, and the shift function. The case is actually created only after the option is issued. The following
syntax examples and argument descriptions illustrate the relationship of these activities:
TBFT,FCASE,ID,NEW,Option2,Option3
where:
Option2 = PVHE (refers to Prony Viscohypoelastic)
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Option3 = Case name
TBFT,FADD,ID,CATEGORY,Option2,Option3
where:
CATEGORY = VISCO
Option2 = pshear or pbulk or shift
Option3 = dependent on Option2 as follows:
Option2 = pshear or bulk, Option3 = NONE, or 1 to N
Option2 = shift, Option3 = NONE or TN or WLF
TBFT,FCASE,ID,FINI
5.2.4.2. GUI Method

You can use the GUI to interactively navigate the tree structure of the curve-fitting window. Each of
the shear, bulk and shift options can be selected, and you can fill in the appropriate case name in a
text box field. As you choose the options, the coefficient table is automatically created.

The initial values chosen for your coefficients determine the success of your viscoelastic curve-fitting
operations. A complete model has (2*NG+1) + (2* Nk +1) + NS number of the coefficients, where:
NG is the order of the Prony series expansion of the shear modulus,
Nk is the order of the Prony series expansion of the bulk modulus, and
NS is the number of coefficients of the shift function. (NS = 2 for the TN option, and NS = 3 for the WLF option.)
The coefficients are ordered as shear terms first, then the bulk terms, and then the shift function. The
coefficients are ordered as A0G, A1G, 1G, A2G, 2G, AnG, and nG for shear modulus, and A0K, A1K, 1K,
A2K, 2K, AnK, and nK for bulk modulus.
A shift function must be used together with your shear and/or bulk modulus for temperature-dependent
experimental data.
The default coefficient is set to 1, but it is good practice to redefine the initial values before solving.
When initializing your coefficients, set AnKs to 1 and nKs to time values that are equally distributed in
the log scale, spanning the data range from minimum to maximum time for the time domain data.
For example, consider the shear-decay versus time-data file. If the time values vary from 1 to 10000,
and if you use third-order Prony, logical guesses for 1G , 2G and 3G that span this range could be 1G
= 1, 2G = 100, and 3G = 10,000 (also (1), (10) and (10,000) or (1), (1,000) and (10,000), respectively).
For the frequency domain data, a trial-and-error process is necessary. Enter values at different orders
of magnitude (1E-5,1E-3,1E-1,1E1,1E2. ...). The A (alpha values) values can be set to 1, and the leastsquares solver generally converges to the best possible alpha values irrespective of the initial values.
168

The following equations describe the relationship between the Prony Coefficient (n) and the corresponding coefficient generated in curve fitting (An). K and G are the shear modulus and bulk modulus
at t = 0. This was done to keep all nG and nK values used in the TB tables positive.
nK = (AnK * AnK) / K
nG = (AnG * AnG) / G
A good guess for the WLF or TN parameter is the reference temperature you used during your partial
solve for shear and bulk. The index of the reference/base temperatures is the sum of NumShear +
NumBulk + 1.
You can also fix (hold constant) your coefficients. You specify a value for a coefficient and keep it unchanged, while allowing the other coefficients to be operated on. You can then release the fixed coefficient later if desired. By default, all of the coefficients are free to vary.
You estimate coefficients for temperature-dependent data either by using the shift function or by setting
the temperature-dependency flag and setting a reference temperature before solving for the coefficients.
You can set the reference temperature only to values specified using the /temp,value header line in
the experimental data.
command initiates three separate solve operations at those three discrete temperature values, and
generate data at three corresponding discrete temperatures.
With temperature dependency specified and the reference temperature set to a particular value, a
TBFT,SOLVE command solves for coefficients only at that discrete temperature. To solve for coefficients
at other temperatures, set the reference temperature to each of the desired discrete temperature values
and solve again.
You can initialize the coefficients before or after activating temperature dependency. If the coefficients
initialize before setting temperature dependency, the specified coefficients become the initial coefficients
for all future solves for that particular model. These coefficients are, however, overridden when temperature dependency is active and another set of values is specified at a discrete temperature value. The
curve-fitting tool looks for the initial coefficients at a particular temperature. If no coefficients are specified
at discrete temperature values, the initial coefficients set before temperature dependency was activated
are used.

TBFT,SET,ID,CASE,Option2,Option3,Option4,Option5
where:
Option2 = Case name
Option4 = Index of coefficient
Option5 = Value of coefficient
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Example 5.1: Initializing Coefficients Using the Batch Method
TBFT,SET,1, myvisco1,,1,1.2 ! Initialize the first coefficient to 1.2
TBFT,SET,1, myvisco1,,2,1.5 ! Initialize the second coefficient to 1.5
Use the TBFT,FIX command to fix a coefficient to a value set by the TBFT, SET command or to release
a previously fixed coefficient. By default, coefficients are not fixed.
TBFT,FIX,ID,CASE,Option2,Option3,Option4,Option5
where:
Option2 = Case name
Option5 = 1 to fix, 0 to vary
Example 5.2: Fixing Coefficient Values
TBFT,FIX,1, myvisco1,,1,1.! Fix the first coefficient to a value set via TBFT,SET
TBFT,FIX,1, myvisco1,,2,1 ! Fix the second coefficient to a value set via TBFT,SET
Temperature dependency uses Option4, and references data files you entered with the appropriate
temp header.
TBFT,SET,ID,VISCO,Option2,Option3,Option4,Option5
where:
Option2 = Model name. See Table 5.4: Viscoelastic Data Types and Abbreviations (p. 166) (above)
for the models available.
Option5 = If Option 4 = tdep, then 1 turns temperature dependency on and 0 turns it off. If
Option 4 = tref, this value will be a specific temperature, or ALL.
5.2.5.2. GUI Method

The coefficients table is automatically updated in the viscoelastic curve-fitting GUI window when the
order of shear modulus and/or bulk modulus and/or shift function are defined. Specify values for your
coefficients in the coefficients table in the curve-fitting GUI window, and check the appropriate boxes
to fix them or allow them to vary.

Viscoelastic curve fitting is a nonlinear regression process. You can use either normalized or non-normalized error norm for the regression. The normalized error norm is the default regression option for
calculating the error. This error norm generally gives better results than the non-normalized error norm,
since the normalized error gives equal weight to all data points.
The solution control parameters for nonlinear regression include number of iterations, residual tolerance,
and coefficient change tolerance. The solution stops when both residual tolerance of error norm and
coefficient change tolerance is met or if the number of iterations criteria is met. The coefficients are
updated when the solution is completed. In general it is very difficult to directly solve a complete case
including coefficients of the shear modulus, the bulk modulus and the shift function. Three solver options
170

including shear modulus only, bulk modulus, and shift function (or all) are provided to allow you to
solve only Prony coefficients of the shear modulus, Prony coefficients of the bulk modulus, and coefficients of the shift function. In many cases, however, the coefficients of shift function can't be solved
until the shear or bulk modulus are solved. It is normal for a solution to not converge at first, but to
stop when the maximum iterations criteria is reached. At that point, you should examine the curve-fitting
results and the solution history before proceeding any further. You can then adjust parameters and
resolve the problem whenever it is necessary.
5.2.6.1. Temperature-Dependent Solutions Using the Shift Function

For viscoelastic curve fitting using the shift function, follow these three steps to perform the regression:
1. Solve the shear coefficients (if there are any):
Set the partial solve option using TBFT, SET,,,,,COMP, PSHEAR.
Set the reference temperature at which your partial solution will be performed using TBFT,
SET,,,,,TREF, TX. Only data at temperature TX will be used to estimate shear coefficients
Solve
2. Solve the bulk coefficients (if there are any):
Set the partial solve option using TBFT, SET,,,,,COMP, PBULK.
SET,,,,,TREF, TX. The reference temperature should be the same for both shear and bulk. Only
data at temperature TX will be used to estimate shear coefficients
TBFT,SOLVE
3. Solve the shift function (or all) coefficients:
Set the partial solve option using TBFT, SET,,,,,COMP, PVHE.
TREF is not used when solving for all parameters. All temperature data is used to estimate the
coefficients.
TBFT,SOLVE
For GUI operations, when only the shear and bulk buttons are checked, only your shear coefficients are
solved. To solve for both shear and bulk, you must check all three buttons.
5.2.6.2. Temperature-Dependent Solutions Without the Shift Function

If you do not use the shift function, discrete data must be supplied to account for temperature dependency. Follow these steps to perform the regression:
1. Set the temperature-dependency flag using the command TBFT, SET,,,,,TDEP,1.
2. Solve the shear coefficients (if there are any):
Set the partial solve option using TBFT, SET,,,,,COMP, PSHEAR.
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SET,,,,,TREF, TX. Only data at temperature TX will be used to estimate shear coefficients
Initialize the coefficients.
TBFT,SOLVE
Repeat the above steps for all temperatures.
3. Solve the bulk coefficients (if there are any):
Set the partial solve option using TBFT, SET,,,,,COMP, PBULK.
SET,,,,,TREF, TX. Only data at temperature TX will be used to estimate the shear coefficients.
TBFT,SOLVE
Repeat the above steps for all temperatures.
Alternatively, you can solve for both shear and bulk data at the same time.
1. Set the temperature dependency flag using the command TBFT, SET,,,,,TDEP,1.
2. Solve for ALL coefficients.
Set the partial solve option using TBFT, SET,,,,,COMP, PVHE.
SET,,,,,TREF, TX. Only data at temperature TX will be used to estimate shear and bulk coefficients
TBFT,SOLVE
Repeat the above steps for all of the desired temperatures.

Solution option command is:
where:
Option2 = Case name
Option3 = (Blank -- not applicable)
Option4 = comp
Option5 = pshea (for Shear only) or pbulk (for bulk only)
The SOLVE option allows you to specify procedure types, tolerances, and number of iterations.
TBFT,SOLVE,ID,CASE,Option2,Option3,Option4, ..., Option7
172

where:
Option2 = visco function name (See Table 5.4: Viscoelastic Data Types and Abbreviations (p. 166).)
Option4 = Curve-fitting procedure: 0 = non-normalized least squares, 1 = normalized least squares
(default)
Option5 = Maximum number of iterations
Option6 = Tolerance of residual changes
Option7 = Tolerance of coefficient changes
Other solving parameters are available. See the TBFT command for details.
5.2.6.4. GUI Method

The GUI provides access for you to choose your error norm, solution control parameters, and solver
options. Once you complete these specifications and SOLVE, you can go back and modify your parameters as necessary to obtain a good curve fit.
5.2.7. Step 6. Plot the Experimental Data and Analyze

The best way to verify a good fit between your experimental data and the provided curves is to plot
your curves and visually inspect them. The Graph button provides direct means to plot the data.
5.2.7.1. Analyze Your Curves for Proper Fit

All of your data is plotted as a function of column 1 for the X-axis. Columns 2 and above are each
plotted in a separate graph, in a separate window, with the corresponding fitted data as a function of
column 1. By default, all the shear data sets and/or the bulk data sets as well as the corresponding fitting
results are plotted in two separated graphs in a GUI window. To view a specific data and its corresponding
fitting result, you click the right mouse button (RMB) on the specific data set, and pick a desired option.
You can also use the right mouse button to turn the legend and/or axis on and off. The scales can be
also switched between log scale and regular scale. With the middle button, you can eliminate certain
curves from each window's display in order to see the remaining data more clearly.
Right mouse button (RMB) functions allow you to Zoom, Fit, Save Plot to File, View/Hide Legend, and
View/Hide Grid. Two or more fitted functions can also be compared in the same plot. RMB also allows
you to see the number of points used to generate the plot, and also change the minimum X value and
the maximum X value in a plot. You can use the middle-mouse button (context sensitive) to hide a
particular curve within a graph.
Reviewing your curve-fitting result graphically is the only way to ensure a good fit. After plotting the
curve-fitting results, you can then review multiple plots and also verify the error norm/residual value
that is printed in the curve-fitting GUI window. This information helps you determine the quality of a
curve fit and decide whether to accept the results. If not, you may want to go back to step 3, solve
again by changing the order of the Prony series, redefining certain initial values of the coefficients, and
possibly other control parameters. You can continue to use your original data, repeating step 3 through
step 6 until you are satisfied with the solution.

After a successful curve fitting, the last step is to write the curve-fitting data as a Prony data table (the
TB,PRONY command) to the database.
173

The curve-fitting tool (TB,FSET) calculates coefficients that differ from those shown in the TB,PRONY
table. The curve-fitting tool uses the following equations to automatically convert the calculated coefficients to the TB,PRONY format:
Curve-Fitting Equation in Time Domain:
Prony Equation:
i and i (i = 1 to N) are the Prony coefficients (entered via the TB,PRONY) command. A0 is not entered
in the Prony table.
Conversion Procedure:
Curve-Fitting Equation in Frequency Domain:

G is the storage modulus, G is the loss modulus, is the frequency in radians-per-unit-time, n is the
order of the Prony model. A and are the fitted Prony parameters.
Conversion Procedure:

TBFT,FSET,ID,Option2,Option3
where:
Option2 = Case
Option3 = Case name
174
Creep Material Curve Fitting
5.2.8.2. GUI Method

Click the Write to Database button and the fitted coefficients are automatically written to the material
database according Prony data table. Please note that the coefficients you see in the curve-fitting
module are different from those in the TB tables. The values remain the same, but the values are
different. The values shown are the square of the values derived during curve fitting. They are also
normalized to make at time 0 = 1.
5.3. Creep Material Curve Fitting

Use curve fitting to determine your creep material behavior. Thirteen creep models are available, along
with the tools to generate and fit derived coefficients to your experimental data. Interactive (GUI) or
command line (batch) input is available.
The following topics concerning creep material curve fitting are available:
5.3.1. Understanding the Creep Material Curve-Fitting Process
5.3.9.Tips For Curve Fitting Creep Models
5.3.1. Understanding the Creep Material Curve-Fitting Process

The general process for creep curve fitting is defined as follows:
Step Detailed Information Found
Here
Comments
Step 1. Prepare Experimental

Data (p. 176)
The experimental data must be a plain text file with

headers to describe the data types and attributes. The
test data must be delimited by a space or a comma.
Step 2. Input the Experimental

Data (p. 177)
The experimental data can be read into the program

by browsing to the file location in the GUI or by
specifying the location on the command line.
Step 3. Select a Material Model

Option (p. 178)
The material options for the applicable curve-fitting

regimen are defined via the TB command. Support is
offered for 13 implicit creep models. After you choose
a model, you can still switch to another model if an
ideal fit is not realized.
Step 4. Initialize the

Creep curve fitting is a nonlinear regression; the initial

values of the coefficients to be determined can be
very important for a successful solution.
Step 5. Specify Control

Choose the error norm to be used for an acceptable

curve fit.
Step 6. Plot the Experimental

Review and verify the results by comparing them with

the experimental data and the regression errors. If
175

Here
Comments
they are unacceptable, repeat steps 3 through 5 to
obtain a new curve-fitting solution.
Step 7. Write Data to the TB

Command (p. 182)
Write the curve-fitting results in the TB command

format to the database.

You need to provide accurate experimental test data in order to achieve valid curve-fitting results. For
creep analyses, you use either the creep strain value or creep strain rate, derived as a function of time,
temperature, stress, and/or creep strain. The type of data you need to provide will depend on the creep
model you choose. The experimental data is named "creep" to distinguish it from other types of data,
such as uniaxial, tension, biaxial, etc. The creep data must be a plain text file that contains the headers
and the test data in table form, delimited by a space or a comma.
The header is used to describe the data types that characterize the test data columns or attributes of
the data. Five different creep data types are available:
Table 5.5: Creep Data Types and Abbreviations
Time
time
Equivalent Creep Strain
creq
Equivalent Creep Strain Rate
dcreq
Equivalent Stress
seqv
Temperature
temp
The header format to define each column's data type is /n, abbr, where n is the index of the data column
in the file, and abbr is the abbreviation for the type of data in the column, as described in Table 5.5: Creep
Data Types and Abbreviations (p. 176).
Following is a typical data input file:
/1,seqv ! indicates first column is stress
/2,creq ! indicates second column is creep strain
/3,temp ! indicates third column is temperature
/4,dcreq ! indicates fourth column is creep strain rate
4000
0.00215869 100
0.000203055
4000
0.00406109 100
0.000181314
4000
0.00664691 100
0.000165303
4000
0.0102068 100
0.000152217
4000
0.0151416 100
0.000140946
When a particular column is unchanged over the loading history, you can define it as an attribute. For
instance, in the above example, the stress and temperature are constant throughout the range. You
define this data as an attribute.
The header format to define a data attribute is /attr, value, where attr is the data-type abbreviation, and
value is the value of the attribute. The constant stress and temperature values above can be written
into the file header, as follows:
/seqv,4000 ! indicate this creep has a constant stress of 4000
/temp,100 ! indicate this creep data is at a constant temperature of 100
/1,creq ! indicate first column is creep strain
/2,dcreq ! indicate second column is creep strain rate
0.00215869 0.000203055
176

0.00406109 0.000181314
0.00664691 0.000165303
0.0102068 0.000152217
0.0151416 0.000140946
0.0220102 0.000130945
Thirteen model types are available for creep curve fitting. The model you choose determines the experimental data required for the curve-fitting process. The following table describes the creep data required
to perform curve fitting for each model type. For strain hardening and modified strain hardening, you
must input both creep strain and creep strain rate in the experimental data.
Table 5.6: Creep Model and Data/Type Attribute
Creep Model
Strain Hardening
creq
dcreq
time
seqv
temp
Time Hardening
Generalized Exponential
Generalized Graham
Generalized Blackburn
Generalized Garofalo
Exponential Form
Norton
Modified Time Hardening
Modified Strain Hardening
Combined Time Hardening
Prim+Sec Rational Polynomial

Generalized Time Hardening
x
x

The experimental data must be read in from a plain text file. Prepare this file according to the previous
section, including both header information and formatted test data. The header portion is required for
creep analyses.
Each file is viewed as a data set, and can be a complete set of experimental test data or a part of a
series of files of experimental test data. You can include several data sets, such as tests performed at
different loading conditions, strain ranges, and temperatures in separate files. Each file can have only
one header.
Input your experimental data using either the batch method or the GUI method.

The EADD argument on the TBFT command is used to identify and specify the location of your data
files. The command syntax is:
where:
177

Option1
Option2
Option3
Option4
=
=
=
=
creep
name of file containing experimental data
file name extension
file directory
5.3.3.2. GUI Method

In interactive mode, you can input experimental data by typing the filename (with the appropriate path
if the file is not in the default directory) into the appropriate area. You can also browse to a file in a
particular location. Click on Add Data Set to add additional data sets for creep curve fitting. There is
no restriction on the number of data sets you can add.

The models available for creep curve fitting are defined in Table 5.7: Creep Models and Abbreviations (p. 178). Select the one that best satisfies your requirements, and use the creep model abbreviation
from the table in subsequent fitting operations. It is helpful to view the formula before solving, as you
can better determine the initial coefficients to use and the format of your experimental data.
See Table 5.7: Creep Models and Abbreviations (p. 178) to determine a starting point for the initial creep
model coefficients.

TBFT,FADD,ID,CREEP,Option2,Option3
where:
Option2 = creep model abbreviation. See Table 5.7: Creep Models and Abbreviations (p. 178).
Option3 = not used for creep curve fitting.
The following table describes the creep models available and their abbreviated names for Option2
(above).
Table 5.7: Creep Models and Abbreviations
Model
Number
Name
Fitting
Name/Option2
Strain Hardening
shar
Time Hardening
thar
Generalized Exponential
gexp
Generalized Graham
ggra
gbla
Modified Time Hardening
mtha
Modified Strain Hardening
msha
ggar
Exponential Form
expo
10
Norton
nort
11
Prim+Sec Time Hardening
psth
178

Model
Number
Name
Fitting
Name/Option2
12
Prim+Sec Rational Polynomial
psrp
13
Generalized Time Hardening
gtha
The experimental data must be consistent with the creep model you choose. See Table 5.6: Creep
Model and Data/Type Attribute (p. 177) for the data types required for each creep model.
5.3.4.2. GUI Method

You can pick the appropriate model option from a menu in the data entry area. All of the options and
constraints are listed for batch input apply.

Creep curve fitting is a nonlinear regression process. A successful curve fit depends greatly on the initial
coefficient values; certain variances will prevent your curve fit from converging. When a solution doesn't
converge, you can adjust the initial value of specific coefficients and rerun the problem (you do not
need to input the data again). In general, the more parameters a model has, the more difficult it is to
get the solution to converge.
Models with many parameters will sometimes converge more easily if you fix (hold constant) your
coefficients. You specify a value for a coefficient and keep it unchanged, while allowing the other
coefficients to be operated on. You can then release the fixed coefficients to obtain a solution. By default,
all of the coefficients are free to vary.
Although some creep models implicitly address temperature dependency, other models lack this capability. For both types of models, you can account for temperature dependency by generating coefficients
at discrete temperature values.
Solve for separate coefficients at each of your desired discrete temperatures. If the equation implicitly
supports temperature dependency already, that portion is eliminated by appropriately fixing the coefficient to a specific value. For example, if you have e(-C*T), then C is set to 0 to eliminate this term. To
do this, you activate temperature dependency by setting the tdep parameter to 1.
For temperature-dependent experimental data, you enable temperature-dependency and specify a
reference temperature before solving for the coefficients. You can set the reference temperature only
to values specified using the /temp,value header line in the experimental data.
entry will initiate three different solve operations at those three discrete temperatures.
With temperature dependency on and the reference temperature set to a particular value, a TBFT,SOLVE
command solves for coefficients only at that temperature. To solve for coefficients at other temperatures,
you set the reference temperature to each of the desired discrete temperature values and solve again.
You can initialize the coefficients before or after turning temperature dependency on. If the coefficients
are initialized before turning temperature dependency on, the specified coefficients will become the
initial coefficients for all future solves for that particular model. These coefficients are, however, overridden
when temperature dependency is turned on and another set of initial values is specified at discrete
temperatures. The curve-fitting tool looks for the initial coefficients at a particular temperature. If no
179

coefficients are specified at discrete temperatures, the initial coefficients set before temperature dependency was turned on are used.

Define your coefficient values and temperature dependency using the SET option of the TBFT command,
as follows:
TBFT,SET,ID,CREEP,Option2,Option3,Option4,Option5
where:
Option2 = creep model name
Option5 = value of coefficient
To modify the coefficients, use the FIX option of the TBFT command.
TBFT,FIX,ID,CREEP,Option2,Option3,Option4,Option5
where:
Option5 = 0 - variable, 1 - fixed
TBFT,SET,ID,CREEP,Option2,Option3,Option4,Option5
where:
Option5 = For Option4 = tdep, 1 to activate, 0 to deactivate. For Option4 = tdep, a specific
temp value, or all.
5.3.5.2. GUI Method

The models listed in Table 5.7: Creep Models and Abbreviations (p. 178) are available directly from the
GUI. When you select a model from the available options, the program automatically configures the
coefficients for the model. You can then make modifications, including initializing and/or fixing certain
coefficients.

Your error norm, your maximum number iterations allowed, and your error tolerance will affect the
accuracy of your results. There are two available error norms available for the regression. The default
error norm calculation option is normalized curve fitting. It usually yields better results than non-normalized curve fitting, since normalized fitting gives equal weight to all data points when minimizing
the error norms.
180

Other available solve criteria are number of iterations, residual tolerance, and coefficient change tolerance.
The solution stops when both residual tolerance and coefficient change tolerance is met or if the
number of iterations criteria is met. The coefficients are updated after every iteration during the solve
process.

The batch command is:
TBFT,SOLVE,ID,CREEP,Option2,Option3,Option4, ..., Option7
where:
Option2 = creep function name (See Table 5.7: Creep Models and Abbreviations (p. 178))
Option3 = ((Blank--not applicable for creep models)
Option4 = Error norm: 0 = non-normalized, 1 = normalized (default)
Option6 = Tolerance of residual changes
Option7 = Tolerance of coefficient changes
Other solving parameters are available. See the TBFT command for details.
5.3.6.2. GUI Method

After you fill in the last set of coefficient values, the analysis moves automatically to the solution phase.
Each of the options specified in the command line description is presented as a pull down menu or fill
in box, and each option must be specified before Solve will begin. The coefficients are updated in the
GUI after the solution is complete.

After you initiate Solve, the coefficient tables will contain the fitted coefficients and also the residual
errors. You can then plot your data and visually interpret the results. Column one is your X- axis, with
each additional column plotted separately as a function of column one.
You should reserve column one for the variable that you would like to see vary in the plot. For example,
if your data contains time, temperature, stress and creep strain, you may wish to see the creep strain
vary as a function of time, at different temperatures and stresses in the plot. Add your experimental
data using multiple TBFT,EADD commands (or the corresponding GUI method). Split the file into multiple
experimental fields as prescribed earlier, one for each combination of temperature and stress.
Right mouse button (RMB) functions allow you to Zoom, Fit, Save Plot to File, View/Hide Legend and
View/Hide Grid. Two or more fitted functions can also be compared in the same plot. For example, you
can view Mooney2 Uniaxial and Mooney9 Uniaxial plots right on top of each other, provided both of
these function are already solved for. RMB also allows you to see the number of points used to generate
the plot, and also change the Minimum X Value and the Maximum X Value in a plot. You can use the
middle-mouse button (context sensitive) to hide a particular curve within a graph.
5.3.7.1. GUI Method

You can simultaneously display many data sets for each function plotted. Each window of your display
can be used to display each one of the data sets you are plotting against column one.
181
5.3.7.2. Analyze Your Curves for Proper Fit

Use the GUI to graphically review the curve-fitting result and ensure a good fit throughout the range
of data. Use the plotted curve-fitting results both to determine the degree of fit at various locations
and to verify the error norm/residual value. You can then determine the quality of a curve fitting and
decide whether to accept the results. If the results are unacceptable, you may want to go back to step
3, and then solve again with a new model, redefining certain initial values of the coefficients, and also
modifying some of the other control parameters. You can continue to use your experimental data, repeating step 3 through step 6 until you obtain a satisfactory solution.

After you are satisfied with your curve-fitting results, you can write the curve-fitting data to the database
using TBFT, FSET. The GUI or the command line converts the coefficients to the appropriate form before
writing to TB tables. The data is stored as part of the material property set for use in subsequent analyses.

TBFT,FSET,ID,CREEP,Option2,Option3
where:
Option2 = Creep model abbreviation
5.3.8.2. GUI Method

When you complete the process, click the Write to Database button to write the fitted coefficients of
your creep model as a creep data table in the material database. You are then returned to the material
properties dialog. The curve data can now be accessed for the full range of material behavior.
5.3.9. Tips For Curve Fitting Creep Models

The following tips can help to ensure successful curve fitting. They are only suggestions, and do not
represent a singular method or strategy. Also, following them does not guarantee a solution. Refer to
Creep for additional details about each implicit creep model.
Strain Hardening
Strain hardening has 4 coefficients, with C4 dedicated to

temperature dependency. If you do not have
temperature-dependent data, set C4 to zero. If you have difficulty
solving temperature-dependent data, use experimental data for
only one temperature and fix C4 to zero. Solve, and then add data
for your other temperatures. Then release C4 and solve for all
coefficients. You can also solve for just C4 by fixing the C1, C2 and
C3 values.
Time Hardening
Time hardening has 4 coefficients, with C4 dedicated to temperature

dependency. If you do not have temperature-dependent data, set
C4 to zero. If you have difficulty solving temperature-dependent
data, use experimental data for only one temperature and fix C4
to zero. Solve, and then add data for your other temperatures. Then
release C4 and solve for all coefficients. You can also solve for just
C4 by fixing the C1, C2 and C3 values.
182

Generalized
Exponential
Generalized exponential has 5 coefficients, with C4 dedicated to

temperature-dependent data, set C4 to zero. Use a low value for
C5 (e.g., 1e-3) to avoid floating-point overflows in the exponential
term. If you have difficulty solving for temperature-dependent data,
use experimental data for only one temperature, fix C4 to zero,
then solve. Then add data for your other temperatures, release C4
and solve for all coefficients. You can also solve for just C4 by fixing
C1, C2 and C3.
Generalized Graham
Generalized Graham has 8 coefficients. You use C8 for temperature

C8 to zero. If you have difficulty solving temperature-dependent
data, use experimental data for only one temperature, fix C8 to
zero, and solve. Then add data for other temperatures, release C8
and solve for the remaining coefficients individually.
Generalized Blackburn has 7 coefficients. It is advisable to look at

the exponential terms and try to keep them from floating-point
overflows. To keep eC2 within floating-point range, make sure the
initial value of C2 is such that C2 is close to 1. Similarly try to keep
/C4 and C7 close to 1.
Modified Time
Hardening
Modified time hardening has 4 coefficients. C4 is for temperature

dependency. If you do not have temperature-dependent data, fix
C4 to zero.
Modified Strain
Hardening
Modified Strain Hardening has 3 coefficients. This model can be
Generalized Garofalo has 4 coefficients, with C4 dedicated to

temperature-dependent data, set C4 to zero. To keep the Sinh term
within floating-point range, keep c2 close to one when you
initialize the coefficients.
Exponential Form
Exponential form has 3 coefficients, with C3 dedicated to

temperature-dependent data, set C3 to zero. To keep eC2 within
floating-point range, keep /C2 close to one.
Norton
Norton model has 3 coefficients, with C3 dedicated to temperature

C3 to zero.
Prim+Sec Time
Hardening
Time hardening has 7 coefficients. This is a complex model. Here

it is advisable to solve for temperature independent data first and
then introduce temperature related data.
Prim+Sec Rational
Polynomial
Rational polynomial is a very complex model for curve fitting, with

10 coefficients. If you find it hard to fit this data, it is advisable that
you split the experimental data into primary creep data and
secondary creep data. Primary creep data is the initial part of the
curve that covers the nonlinearity in the strain rate. Fit only the
secondary data by fixing C1 to 1 and then set all other coefficients
except C2, C3 and C4 to zero. Use a low value of C3 to keep 10C3
complex for curve fitting. To keep the

term from
2
going negative, C1 is replaced with C1 but converted to the proper
form before beings written to the database.
183

within floating-point range. Coefficients C5 to C10 in curve fitting
refers to coefficients C7 to C12 in the implicit creep equation
(rational polynomial). Then add the primary creep data, release all
coefficients, and solve.
Generalized Time
Hardening
Generalized time hardening has 6 coefficients. Set C6 to zero if you

have temperature independent data. When initializing coefficients
set C5 close to 1 to avoid floating-point overflows.
5.4. Chaboche Material Curve Fitting

Chaboche material curve fitting determines your material constants by relating your experimental data
to the Chaboche nonlinear kinematic hardening model.
Curve fitting is performed either interactively or via batch commands. You can fit uniaxial plastic strain
vs. stress data, along with discrete temperature dependencies for multiple data sets.
The following topics concerning Chaboche material curve fitting are available:
5.4.1. Understanding the Chaboche Material Curve-Fitting Process
5.4.1. Understanding the Chaboche Material Curve-Fitting Process

Chaboche material curve fitting determines your material constants by relating your experimental data
to the Chaboche nonlinear kinematic hardening model. Isotropic hardening can also be modeled by
including a supported isotropic hardening model with the kinematic hardening model in the curve-fitting
process.
Following is the general process for using curve fitting to determine the coefficients for the Chaboche
material model:
Here
Comments
Step 1. Prepare Experimental

Data (p. 185)
The experimental data must be a plain text file with

headers to describe the data types and attributes. The
test data must be delimited by a space or a comma.
Step 2. Input the Experimental

Data (p. 186)
The experimental data can be read into the program

by browsing to the file location in the GUI or by
specifying the location on the command line.
Step 3. Select a Material Model

Option (p. 186)
The material options for the applicable curve-fitting

regimen are defined (TBFT). This step includes
selecting the kinematic hardening model.
Step 4. Initialize the

Chaboche curve fitting is a nonlinear regression; the

initial values of the coefficients to be determined is
important for a successful solution.
184
Chaboche Material Curve Fitting

Here
Comments
Step 5. Specify Control

Specify the error norm to be used, the solution control

parameters, and perform the nonlinear regression.
Step 6. Plot the Experimental

Review and verify the results by comparing them with

the experimental data and the regression errors. If any
factor is unacceptable, repeat steps 3 through 5 to
obtain a new curve-fitting solution.
Step 7. Write Data to the TB

Command (p. 191)
Write the curve-fitting results in the TB command

format to the database.

Curve fitting requires experimental test data. To use curve fitting with plasticity, the only experimental
data supported is uniaxial test data. Uniaxial test data has two columns, plastic strain and true stress.
Experimental data for plasticity is path dependent.
Your uniaxial test data must be a plain text file with headers to define the test data. The data file should
be in table format, delimited by spaces or commas. Headers can be used to describe the data types
that characterize the test data columns or additional attributes of the data.
For Chaboche curve fitting with multiple temperatures, you can evaluate coefficients at each discrete
temperature point and write it as a temperature-dependent Chaboche data table. A separate data file
is necessary for each discrete temperature.
Issue this command at the top of the experimental data file to specify the temperature for the experiment:
/temp,TempValue
where TempValue is your specified temperature.

Following is a typical data input file:
/temp,100 ! define temperature attribute
4.57E-06 2.43E+02
4.89E-04 2.67E+02
1.01E-03 2.83E+02
1.55E-03 2.94E+02
2.11E-03 3.02E+02
2.68E-03 3.09E+02
3.26E-03 3.14E+02
3.84E-03 3.18E+02
4.42E-03 3.22E+02
4.42E-03 7.78E+01
4.41E-03 -1.65E+02
3.54E-03 -2.31E+02
2.51E-03 -2.66E+02
1.40E-03 -2.84E+02
2.49E-04 -2.95E+02
-9.11E-04 -3.03E+02
-2.08E-03 -3.10E+02
-3.24E-03 -3.17E+02
-4.41E-03 -3.24E+02
-4.41E-03 -7.95E+01
-4.40E-03 1.63E+02
-3.53E-03 2.30E+02
-2.50E-03 2.65E+02
-1.39E-03 2.83E+02
-2.44E-04 2.94E+02
9.16E-04 3.02E+02
2.08E-03 3.09E+02
185

3.25E-03
4.41E-03
4.41E-03
4.41E-03
3.53E-03
2.51E-03
1.40E-03
2.48E-04
3.16E+02
3.23E+02
7.87E+01
-1.64E+02
-2.31E+02
-2.66E+02
-2.84E+02
-2.95E+02
Uniaxial test data can include loading, unloading, and cyclic loading.
For plasticity, experimental data is path-dependent and the stress-strain behavior depends on the history
of the loading and/or unloading.

The experimental data must be read in from a plain text file (TBFT,EADD). Prepare this file as described
in Step 1. Prepare Experimental Data.
Each file is viewed as a data set, and can be a complete set of experimental test data or a part of a
series of files of experimental test data. You can include several data sets, such as tests performed at
different stress levels and/or temperatures, when you perform creep curve fitting.
Input your experimental data using either the batch method or the GUI method.

Issue this command to identify and specify the location of a data file:
where:
Option1 = Experimental data type UNIA (uniaxial test data)
Option2 = Experimental data file name
Option3 = File name extension
Option4 = File directory
5.4.3.2. GUI Method

Click on Add Data Set and enter the experimental data file name in the field provided. You can also
browse to a file in a specified location. Separate input is performed for each data type (Option1 =
SDEC or BDEC) /

The TBFT command provides the curve-fitting tools for Chaboche material modeling.
To define the material model, you must specify a case name, the order of Chaboche kinematic model,
and finally the isotropic hardening option if needed.
After you create a case, the number of Chaboche terms or the isotropic hardening options cannot be
changed without deleting the case. Additional cases with different case names can be created to
model Chaboche kinematic hardening with different orders.
186

Define a Chaboche material model by defining a case (TBFT,FCASE), then specifying the order of kinematic hardening model. The case is created only after the TBFT,FCASE,ID,FINISH command executes.
The following syntax example and argument descriptions illustrates a complete case definition:
TBFT,FCASE,ID,NEW,Option2,Option3
! define case
where:
Option2 = CPLA
Option3 = Your specified case name
TBFT,FADD,ID,Category,Option2,Option3
! specify kinematic hardening model
where:
Category = PLAS
Option2 = One of the following: CHABOCHE, BISO, MISO, VOCE, or POWER
Option3 = Dependent on Option2, as follows:
When Option2 = CHABOCHE, Option3 = 1 to N
When Option2 = MISO, Option3 = 1 to Niso
When Option2 = BISO, VOCE, or POWER, Option3 is not used
TBFT,FCASE,ID,FINISH
! create case
5.4.4.2. GUI Method

Interactively navigate the tree structure of the curve-fitting window. Select the order of the Chaboche
model, select the isotropic hardening option if needed, then specify the appropriate case name in the
text box field. As you select the options, the coefficient table is created automatically.

The initial values chosen for your coefficients (TBFT,SET) determines the success of the curve-fitting
operation.
The number of parameter depends on the order of the Chaboche model. For a Chaboche model of order
N, there are 2*N+1 coefficients. Coefficients 1 through 2*N are Chaboche parameters, and coefficient
2*N+1 is the yield stress. The odd coefficients in the Chaboche model refer to the slope of the curve
and the even coefficients are decay function parameters. The number of terms depend on the complexity
of the curve. Evenly distributed estimates of the slope over the range of the curve can be used as initial
guesses for the curve-fitting process. Different terms can dominate at different parts of the curve. Initial
guesses for the decay parameters can typically be chosen one or two orders less than odd coefficients
(slope).
5.4.5.1. Including Isotropic Hardening Models with Chaboche Kinematic Hardening

When isotropic hardening models are included with Chaboche kinematic hardening, the number of
coefficients is 2*N+Niso, where Niso is:
187

2 for the BKIN option
2*Ni for the MISO option (where Ni is the number of MISO terms)
3 for the NLISO POWER option
4 for the NLISO VOCE option
The third coefficient for the power law is shear modulus, which must be set to the correct value and
fixed before solving.
The index of the isotropic hardening coefficients start from 2*N+1. Initial yield stress is generally estimated
from separate experiments outside of curve fitting and is generally fixed in the curve-fitting process.
For the BKIN, VOCE, and POWER options, the first isotropic hardening coefficient refers to yield stress.
5.4.5.2. General Process for Initializing MISO Option Coefficients

The MISO option used here is same as the TB,PLAS,,,MISO option. It has Ni coefficients, and the second
isotropic hardening coefficient refers to the yield stress. Odd isotropic coefficients are plastic strain
values and the even coefficients are stress values. The actual index of the coefficient is 2*N+Niso, where
N is the order of the Chaboche model.
If the experiment has a maximum accumulated plastic strain of pl,max, set the odd coefficients to values
equally distributed from 0 to pl,max. These values are then fixed (TBFT,FIX) before solving (TBFT,SOLVE).
If you require greater accuracy at certain strain ranges, you can distribute the strain values unevenly as
you wish.
To fix (hold constant) your coefficients (TBFT,FIX), specify a value for a coefficient and keep it unchanged,
while allowing the other coefficients to be operated on. You can then release the fixed coefficient later
if desired. By default, all of the coefficients are free to vary.
Estimate coefficients for temperature-dependent data by setting the temperature-dependency flag and
setting a reference temperature before solving for the coefficients. You can set the reference temperature
only to values specified via the /temp,TempValue header line in the experimental data.
You can also specify tref = all and initiate multiple solves to evaluate coefficients at all available
discrete temperature values. In this case, for data at three temperatures (t1, t2, and t3), a single
TBFT,SOLVE command initiates three separate solve operations at those three discrete temperature
values, and generates data at three corresponding discrete temperatures.
With temperature dependency specified and the reference temperature set to a specific value, a
TBFT,SOLVE command solves for coefficients only at that discrete temperature. To solve for coefficients
at other temperatures, set the reference temperature to each of the desired discrete temperature values
and solve again.
You can initialize the coefficients before or after activating temperature dependency. If the coefficients
initialize before setting temperature dependency, the specified coefficients become the initial coefficients
for all future solves for that particular model. These coefficients are, however, overridden when temperature dependency is active and another set of values is specified at a discrete temperature value. The
curve-fitting tool looks for the initial coefficients at a particular temperature. If no coefficients are specified
at discrete temperature values, the initial coefficients set before temperature dependency was activated
are used.
188
5.4.5.2.1. Batch Method

The following syntax example and argument descriptions illustrate coefficient initialization:
where:
Option2 = Case name
Option5 = Value of coefficient
Example 5.3: Initialize Coefficients
TBFT,SET,1,case,case1,,1,1.2
TBFT,SET,1,case,case1,,2,1.5
! Initialize the first coefficient to 1.2

! Initialize the second coefficient to 1.5
By default, coefficients are not fixed. To fix a coefficient to a value (p. 188) set via the TBFT,SET command,
or to release a previously fixed coefficient, issue the TBFT,FIX command.
TBFT,FIX,ID,CASE,Option2,Option3,Option4,Option5
where:
Option2 = Case name
Option5 = 1 to fix, 0 to vary (default)
Temperature dependency uses Option4 and references your specified data files with the appropriate
temp header:
where:
Option2 = Case name
Option5 = If Option4 = tdep, then 1 activates temperature dependency 0 deactivates it. If Option4 = tref, this value is either a specific temperature or all temperatures (ALL (p. 188)).
Example 5.4: Fixing Coefficient Values
TBFT,FIX,1,case,case1,,1,1
TBFT,FIX,1,case,case1,,2,1
! Fix the first coefficient to a value set via TBFT,SET

! Fix the second coefficient to a value set via TBFT,SET
5.4.5.2.2. GUI Method

The coefficients table is updated automatically in the Chaboche curve-fitting window when the order
of kinematic hardening model is specified. Specify values for your coefficients in the coefficients table
in the curve-fitting GUI window, and check the appropriate boxes to fix them or allow them to vary.
189

Chaboche curve fitting is a nonlinear regression process. Only the non-normalized error norm is available
for the regression.
The solution control parameters for nonlinear regression include number of iterations, residual tolerance,
and coefficient change tolerance. The solution stops when both residual tolerance of the error norm
and coefficient change tolerance is met, or if the number of iterations criteria is met. The coefficients
are updated when the solution is completed.
5.4.6.1. Temperature-Dependent Solutions

Separate coefficients at each temperate must be calculated to account for temperature dependency.
Perform the regression as follows:
1. Set the temperature-dependency flag (TBFT,SET,,,,,TDEP,1).
2. Solve for all (tref = ALL) coefficients.
a. Set the reference temperature at which your partial solution should be performed (TBFT,SET,,,,,TREF,TX).
Only data at temperature TX is used to estimate the combined plasticity coefficients.
b. Initialize the coefficients.
c. Solve (TBFT,SOLVE).
Repeat the regression process for all desired temperatures.

The following syntax examples and argument descriptions illustrate how to set control parameters and
solve:
where:
Option2 = Case name
Option4 = tdep
Option5 = 1 to activate temperature dependency, 0 to deactivate (default)
where:
Option2 = Case name
Option4 = tref
Option5 = Valid temperature values found in the experimental data
The SOLVE option allows you to specify procedure types, tolerances, and the number of iterations:
TBFT,SOLVE,ID,CASE,Option2,Option3,Option4, ... , Option7
190

where:
Option2 = Case name
Option4 = Curve-fitting procedure: 0 = non-normalized least squares
Option6 = Residual change tolerance
Option7 = Coefficient change tolerance
Other parameters for solving are available. See the TBFT command for more information.
5.4.6.3. GUI Method

The GUI allows you to choose your error norm, solution control parameters, and solver options. After
you complete these specifications and solve, you can go back and modify your parameters as necessary
to obtain a good curve fit.

The best method for ensuring a good fit between your experimental data and the provided curves is
to plot your curves and visually inspect them via the GUI. The Graph button provides a direct means
for plotting the data.
5.4.7.1. Analyzing Your Curves for Proper Fit

All of your data is plotted as a function of column 1 (X axis). Column 2 (Y axis) and the corresponding
fitted data are plotted as a function of column 1. Two or more fitted functions can be compared in the
same plot.
Take advantage of the right-mouse-button (RMB) functions to zoom, fit, save your plot to a file, view
or hide objects, toggle between log scale and regular scale, and so on. With the middle mouse button,
you can eliminate specific curves from each window's display in order to view the remaining data more
clearly.
After plotting the curve-fitting results, you can then review multiple plots and also verify the error
norm/residual value displayed in the curve-fitting GUI window. This information helps you to determine
the quality of a curve fit and decide whether or not to accept the results.
If the curve-fitting results are unsatisfactory, you may want to go back to Step 3. Select a Material
Model Option and solve again by changing the order of the Chaboche model or other options, redefining
certain initial values of the coefficients, and possibly redefining other control parameters. You can
continue to use your original data, repeating step 3 through step 6 until you are satisfied with the
solution.

After a successful curve fitting, the last step is to write the curve-fitting data as a Chaboche data table
(TB,CHABOCHE) to the database. The program converts the coefficients to the appropriate form before
writing to the database.
191
192
Chapter 6: Material Model Combinations

You can combine some material models to simulate various material behaviors. The following table
presents the model options you can combine along with the associated TB command labels, and links
to sample input listings located under Material Model Combinations in the Structural Analysis Guide. If
a material model does not appear in the table, it cannot be combined with another material model
unless specifically noted elsewhere.
Table 6.1: Material Model Combination Possibilities
Model
With ...
Combination
Type
Command, Label
Link to Example
Plasticity
Combined
Hardening
Bilinear
TB,BISO + TB,CHAB
BISO and CHAB

Example
Plasticity
Combined
Hardening
Multilinear
TB,MISO + TB,CHAB
MISO and CHAB

Example
Plasticity
Combined
Hardening
Multilinear
TB, PLAS,,,,MISO +
TB,CHAB
PLAS (MISO) and

CHAB Example
Plasticity
Combined
Hardening
Nonlinear
TB,NLISO + TB,CHAB
NLISO and CHAB

Example
Plasticity
Combined
Hardening
Multilinear
TB,PLAS,,,,MISO +
TB,EDP
PLAS (MISO) and EDP

Example
Plasticity
Combined
Hardening
Multilinear
TB,MISO+ TB,EDP
MISO and EDP

Example
Viscoplasticity
Isotropic
Hardening
Bilinear
TB,PLAS,,,,BISO +
TB,EDP
BISO and RATE

Example
Viscoplasticity
Isotropic
Hardening
Multilinear
TB,MISO + TB,RATE
MISO and RATE

Example
Viscoplasticity
Isotropic
Hardening
Multilinear
TB,PLAS,,,,MISO +
TB,RATE
PLAS (MISO) and

RATE Example
Viscoplasticity
Isotropic
Hardening
Nonlinear
TB,NLISO + TB,RATE
NLISO and RATE

Example
Viscoplasticity
Combined
Hardening
Nonlinear
TB,CHAB+
TB,RATE+TB,BISO
CHAB and RATE and

BISO Example
Viscoplasticity
Combined
Hardening
Nonlinear
TB,CHAB+
TB,RATE+TB,MISO
CHAB and RATE and

MISO Example
Viscoplasticity
Combined
Hardening
Nonlinear
TB,CHAB+
TB,RATE+TB,PLASTIC
CHAB and RATE and

PLASTIC Example
Viscoplasticity
Combined
Hardening
Nonlinear
TB,CHAB+
TB,RATE+TB,NLISO
CHAB and RATE and

NLISO Example
Gurson Plasticity
Isotropic
Hardening
Bilinear
TB,GURS + TB,BISO
GURSON and BISO

Example
193
Material Model Combinations

Model
With ...
Combination
Type
Command, Label
Link to Example
Gurson Plasticity
Isotropic
Hardening
Multilinear
TB,GURS + TB,MISO
GURSON and MISO

Example
Gurson Plasticity
Isotropic
Hardening
Multilinear
TB,GURS + TB,PLAS,,,
MISO
GURSON and PLAS

(MISO) Example
Gurson Plasticity
Isotropic
Hardening
Nonlinear
TB,GURS + TB,NLISO
GURSON and NLISO

Example
Gurson Plasticity
Isotropic
Hardening
Nonlinear
TB,GURS + TB,CHAB
GURSON and CHAB

Example
Gurson Plasticity
Isotropic
Hardening
Nonlinear
TB,GURS + TB,CHAB
+ TB,BISO or MISO or
NLISO, or
TB,PLAS,,,,MISO
Plasticity and
Creep (Implicit)
Isotropic
Hardening
Bilinear
TB,BISO + TB,CREEP
BISO and CREEP

Example
Plasticity and
Creep (Implicit)
Isotropic
Hardening
Multilinear
TB,MISO + TB,CREEP
MISO and CREEP

Example
Plasticity and
Creep (Implicit)
Isotropic
Hardening
Multilinear
TBPLAS,,,,MISO +
TB,CREEP
PLAS (MISO) and

CREEP Example
Plasticity and
Creep (Implicit)
Isotropic
Hardening
Nonlinear
TB,NLISO + TB,CREEP
NLISO and CREEP

Example
Plasticity and
Creep (Implicit)
Kinematic
Hardening
Bilinear
TB,BKIN + TB,CREEP
BKIN and CREEP

Example
Plasticity and
Creep (Implicit)
Kinematic
Hardening
Nonlinear
TB,CHAB + TB,CREEP
CHAB and CREEP

Example
Plasticity and
Creep (Implicit)
Combined
Hardening
Nonlinear
TB,CHAB + TB,CREEP
+ TB,BISO or TB,MISO
or TB,NLISO or
TB,PLAS,,,,MISO
Anisotropic
Plasticity
Isotropic
Hardening
Bilinear
TB,HILL + TB,BISO
HILL and BISO

Example
Anisotropic
Plasticity
Isotropic
Hardening
Multilinear
TB,HILL + TB,MISO
HILL and MISO

Example
Anisotropic
Plasticity
Isotropic
Hardening
Multilinear
TB,HILL +
TBPLAS,,,,MISO
HILL and PLAS (MISO)

Example
Anisotropic
Plasticity
Isotropic
Hardening
Nonlinear
TB,HILL + TB,NLSIO
HILL and NLISO

Example
Anisotropic
Plasticity
Kinematic
Hardening
Bilinear
TB,HILL + TB,BKIN
HILL and BKIN

Example
Anisotropic
Plasticity
Kinematic
Hardening
Multilinear
TB,HILL + TB,MKIN
HILL and MKIN

Example
Anisotropic
Plasticity
Kinematic
Hardening
Multilinear
TB,HILL + TB,/ KINH
HILL and KINH

Example
Anisotropic
Plasticity
Kinematic
Hardening
Multilinear
TB,HILL + TBPLAS,,,,
KINH
HILL and PLAS (KINH)

Example
194
GURSON and CHAB

and BISO Example
CHAB and CREEP and

NLISO Example
Model
With ...
Anisotropic
Plasticity
Kinematic
Hardening
Chaboche
TB,HILL + TB,CHAB
Anisotropic
Plasticity
Combined
Hardening
Bilinear
Isotropic
and
Chaboche
TB,HILL + TB,BISO +
TB,CHAB
Anisotropic
Plasticity
Combined
Hardening
Multilinear
Isotropic
and
Chaboche
TB,HILL + TB,MISO +
TB,CHAB
Anisotropic
Plasticity
Combined
Hardening
Multilinear
Isotropic
and
Chaboche
TB,HILL +
TB,PLAS,,,,MISO +
TB,CHAB
Anisotropic
Plasticity
Combined
Hardening
Nonlinear
Isotropic
and
Chaboche
TB,HILL + TB,NLISO +
TB,CHAB
Anisotropic
Viscoplasticity
Isotropic
Hardening
Bilinear
TB,HILL + TB,RATE +
TB,BISO
HILL and RATE and

BISO Example
Anisotropic
Viscoplasticity
Isotropic
Hardening
Multilinear
TB,HILL + TB,RATE +
TB,MISO
HILL and RATE and

MISO Example
Anisotropic
Viscoplasticity
Isotropic
Hardening
Nonlinear
TB,HILL + TB,RATE +
TB,NLISO
HILL and RATE and

NLISO Example
TB,HILL + TB,CREEP
HILL and CREEP

Example
Anisotropic
Creep (Implicit)
Anisotropic
Creep and
Plasticity
(Implicit)
--Isotropic
Hardening
Anisotropic
Creep and
Plasticity
(Implicit)
Isotropic
Hardening
Anisotropic
Creep and
Plasticity
(Implicit)
Isotropic
Hardening
Anisotropic
Creep and
Plasticity
(Implicit)
Isotropic
Hardening
Anisotropic
Creep and
Plasticity
(Implicit)
Combination
Type
Kinematic
Hardening
Bilinear
Command, Label
TB,HILL + TB,CREEP
+ TB,BISO
Multilinear
TB,HILL + TB,CREEP
+ TB,MISO
Multilinear
TB,HILL + TB,CREEP
+ TB,MISO
Nonlinear
TB,HILL + TB,CREEP
+ TB,NLISO
Bilinear
TB,HILL + TB,CREEP
+ TB,BKIN
Link to Example
HILL and CHAB
Example
HILL and BISO and
CHAB Example
HILL and MISO and

CHAB Example
HILL and PLAS (MISO)

and CHAB Example
HILL and NLISO and

CHAB Example
HILL and CREEP and

BISO Example
HILL and CREEP and

MISO Example
HILL and CREEP and

PLAS (MISO) Example
HILL and CREEP and

NLISO Example
HILL and CREEP and

BKIN Example
195
Material Model Combinations

Model
With ...
Anisotropic
Creep and
Plasticity
(Implicit)
Kinematic
Hardening
Anisotropic
Creep and
Plasticity
(Implicit)
Combined
Hardening
Combination
Type
Command, Label
Link to Example
Chaboche
TB,HILL + TB,CHAB +
TB,CREEP
HILL and CHAB and

CREEP Example
Chaboche
TB,HILL + TB,CHAB +
TB,CREEP
TB,BISO or TB,MISO or
TB,NLISO or
TB,PLAS,,,,MISO
CHAB and CREEP and

HILL and MISO
Example
Anisotropic
Hyperelasticity
and
Viscoelasticity
Finite Strain
Nonlinear
Visco-AnisotropicAnisotropic
Hyperelasticity Elasticity
TB,AHYPER +
TB,PRONY
Hyperelasticity
and
Viscoelasticity
Nonlinear
Finite Strain
Isotropic
Visco-Hyperelasticity
Elasticity
TB,HYPER +
TB,PRONY
Extended
Drucker-Prager
(EDP) and Creep
(Implicit)
Isotropic
Hardening
Bilinear,
Multilinear,
or Nonlinear
TB,EDP + TB,CREEP +
TB,BISO or TB,MISO
or TB,NLISO
Cap and Creep

(Implicit)
Isotropic
Hardening
Bilinear,
Multilinear,
or Nonlinear
TB,EDP + TB,CREEP +
TB,BISO or TB,MISO
or TB,NLISO
AHYPER and PRONY

Example
HYPER and PRONY

Example
EDP and CREEP and
PLAS (MISO) Example
CAP and CREEP and

PLAS (MISO) Example
Following are cross-reference links to other sections in the documentation that provide descriptions of
the individual material model options represented in the table above.
Bilinear Isotropic Hardening (TB,BISO)
Bilinear Kinematic Hardening (TB,BKIN)
Chaboche Nonlinear Kinematic Hardening (TB,CHAB)
Creep (Implicit) (TB,CREEP) -- Also see Creep in the Structural Analysis Guide.
Hill Anisotropy (TB,HILL]
Multilinear Isotropic Hardening (TB,MISO)
Multilinear Kinematic Hardening (TB,MKIN or KINH)
Nonlinear Isotropic Hardening (TB,NLISO).
Rate-Dependent Plasticity (TB,RATE)
Hyperelasticity (TB,HYPER)
Anisotropic Hyperelasticity (TB, AHYPER) -- Also see Anisotropic Hyperelasticity in the Mechanical APDL
Theory Reference.
196
Viscoelasticity
197
198
Chapter 7: Understanding Field Variables

When you define field-dependent material properties (TBFIELD and related TB commands), the program
uses linear interpolation between the data points you provide to determine specific material property
values. To do so, the program:
1. Creates a grid using your defined field data values.
2. Assumes that you have defined curve-based data and automatically provides the missing grid data points.
3. Performs linear interpolation on this populated grid to find material property values.
4. Allows you to edit the initialized field variables during solution if needed.
The following related topics are available:
7.1. User-Defined Field Variables
7.2. Data Processing
7.3. Logarithmic Interpolation and Scaling
7.4. Example: One-Dimensional Interpolation
7.5. Example: Two-Dimensional Interpolation
7.6. Example: Multi-Dimensional Interpolation
7.1. User-Defined Field Variables

User-defined field variables (TBFIELD) are supported for the following material models:
Creep (TB,CREEP)
Elasticity (TB,ELASTIC)
Extended Drucker-Prager (TB,EDP)
Hyperelasticity (TB,HYPER)
Plasticity (TB,PLASTIC)
Rate-dependent plasticity (TB,RATE)
Thermal expansion (TB,CTE)
Valid user-defined field variables are UF01 through UF09.
Use your field variables with initial state loading to define a field of material properties. When you define
a field variable as node-based field data over the finite element model (INISTATE), the solver reads the
initial-state data at the nodes and determines the correct value of the material property necessary for
performing the finite element calculations. Initial state loading with user-defined variables defines material models as continuous functions over the models, thus facilitating advanced modeling such as
functionally-graded composite materials.
199
Understanding Field Variables

Nonlinear material models sometimes include both linear and nonlinear parameters in the equation.
For example, in the equation Y = a * xb, a is a linear parameter and b is a nonlinear parameter. You
might have values of a and b at two states, UF01 = T1 and UF01 = T3. It may not always be meaningful
to interpolate values of b to obtain coefficients at an intermediate field variable value UF01 = T2. It is
best to keep the values of the nonlinear parameters constant at all states during the curve-fitting process
for these material models.
The following example input shows how to define Youngs Modulus as a function of global Y using the
elastic material model and the node-based initial state capability:
Example 7.1: Defining Youngs Modulus as Function of Global Y
TB,ELASTIC,1
TBFIELD,UF01,0.0
TBDATA,1,1e6,0.3
TBFIELD,UF01,1.0
TBDATA,1,1e7,0.3
! Define a UF01 field over the finite element model
INISTATE,SET,NODE,1
INISTATE,SET,DTYP,UF01
*GET,NumNodes,node,,num,max
*DO,iI,1,NumNodes
iExis=NSEL(iI)
*IF,iExis,eq,1,then
yval=NY(iI)
INISTATE,DEFINE,iI,,,,yval
*ENDIF
*ENDDO
7.1.1. Subroutine for Editing Field Variables

During the solution, you can edit any initialized user-defined field variables via the UserFld subroutine.
Following is a description of the API:
! Routine to read current value
!
Call fldgetvar( variable type, curvalue )
Variable type can be any of the user field variables 1-10 and are names such as
FLD_USER_1_TYPE, FLD_USER_2_TYPE, FLD_USER_9_TYPE
The current value of the field variable is returned in the double precision
number curvalue
!
!
! Routine to update current value
!
Call fldsetvar( variable type, curvalue )
Variable type can be any of the user field variables 1-10 and are names such as
FLD_USER_1_TYPE, FLD_USER_2_TYPE, FLD_USER_9_TYPE
The current value of the field variable is set to the double precision
number curvalue provided/newly calculated by the user
For more information, see Subroutine UserFld (Update User-Defined Field Variables) in the Programmer's
Reference
You can use any appropriate API subroutine in the Programmer's Reference to query and update the
user-defined field variables.
7.2. Data Processing

Consider a case where isotropic friction (TB,FRIC) field data is dependent on both temperature and
sliding distance. Assume the following command input:
200
Data Processing
TB,FRIC,1,2, ,ISO
TBFIELD,TEMP,100.0
TBFIELD,SLDI,0.1
TBDATA,1,0.3
TBFIELD,SLDI,0.5
TBDATA,1,0.5
TBFIELD,TEMP,200.0
TBFIELD,SLDI,0.2
TBDATA,1,0.2
TBFIELD,SLDI,0.7
TBDATA,1,0.1
Listing the data shows a user-defined 4x2 grid:

(FRIC) Table For Material
Data for Isotropic friction

TEMPERATURE
SLIDE DIST
= 100.00
= 0.10000
FRICTION DIR.
1
TEMPERATURE
SLIDE DIST
FRICTION COEFF.
0.30000
= 100.00
= 0.50000
FRICTION DIR.
1
TEMPERATURE
SLIDE DIST
FRICTION COEFF.
0.50000
= 200.00
= 0.20000
FRICTION DIR.
1
TEMPERATURE
SLIDE DIST
FRICTION COEFF.
0.20000
= 200.00
= 0.70000
FRICTION DIR.
1
FRICTION COEFF.
0.10000
A tabular format represents the data in the 4x2 grid as shown:

Sliding
Distance
Temperature 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.7
100
200
0.3
0.5
0.2
0.1
When defining tabular data, the first specified field variable forms the rows of the table. The subsequent
variables form the columns. In this example, Temperature is the first defined field variable.
In this case, the user defined only four out of a possible eight grid locations.
To populate the interpolation search space, the program fills the missing grid points in each row from
left to right. If the first or subsequent grid locations of a row are not defined, the program uses the first
defined value within the row to backfill the grid. The program then fills any undefined locations within
the grid by linearly interpolating between defined points in each row. If the last value(s) along a row
are not defined, the program gives them the last previously defined value within that row.
Therefore, based on the defined field-dependent friction values, the program generates the following
grid automatically (where values in italics represent those provided by the program):
201

Sliding
Distance
Temperature 0.1 0.2 0.5 0.7
100
0.3 0.35 0.5 0.5
200
0.2 0.2 0.14 0.1
7.3. Logarithmic Interpolation and Scaling

Specified material parameters (TBDATA) can be interpolated (TBIN) in both the linear scale and natural
log scale. Logarithmic interpolation is available for material table data specified as a function of any
single field variable type.
Supported material data table types (TB) include: AFDM , CGCR, CREEP, CTE, CZM, DMGE, DMGI, EDP,
ELASTIC, FCLI, FLUID, FRIC, HYPER, INTER, PERF, PM, RATE, SWELL, WEAR
Example 7.2: Forcing the Interpolation to a Scale of Your Choice
TB,ELASTIC,1
! Interpolate Youngs modulus in LOG-LINEAR SCALE
TBIN,SCAL,UF01,1,LOG,LINE
! Interpolate Poissons Ratio in LOG-LOG SCALE
TBIN,SCAL,UF01,2,LOG,LOG
TBFIELD,UF01,0.0
TBDATA,1,1e6,0.3
TBFIELD,UF01,1.0
TBDATA,1,1e7,0.4
7.4. Example: One-Dimensional Interpolation

To demonstrate the interpolation of data in a sparsely defined grid, consider the results of a 2-D interpolation at a temperature of 100 and a sliding distance of 0.40. In this case, the program performs only
a 1-D interpolation because the defined temperature value (100) lies directly on the defined grid field.
For this case, the program obtains a friction coefficient value of 0.45 based on the following calculations:
Equation (1)
where
Equation (2)
Substituting the tabular values

x = 0.4,
x0 = 0.2,
y0 = 0.35
y1 = 0.5
x1 = 0.5
Substituting these values into Equation (2):

Equation (3)
and solving for the interpolated values using Equation (1), we obtain
202
Example: Multi-Dimensional Interpolation

Equation (4)
7.5. Example: Two-Dimensional Interpolation

Consider the case where a true 2-D interpolation is required at a temperature of 180 and a sliding distance
of 0.40. The program performs three different linear interpolations to determine the property value
within the grid. When performing two-dimensional interpolation, the program always interpolates first
along the two relevant rows of the grid (Temperature in this case), then between the rows.
In this example, the program performs the first interpolation at a temperature of 100 and a sliding distance of 0.4, yielding the result of 0.45 (as shown in Equation (4)).
The program performs the second interpolation for a temperature of 200 and a sliding
distance of 0.4. In this case, we find that
x = 0.4,
x0 = 0.2,
y0 = 0.2
y1 = 0.14
x1 = 0.5

Equation (5)
Equation (6)
Finally, the program performs a third interpolation between the temperature value of
100 and 200 at a sliding distance of 0.4.
t = 180,
t0 = 100,
y0 = 0.45
y1 = 0.16
t1 = 200

Equation (7)
Equation (8)
7.6. Example: Multi-Dimensional Interpolation

The program uses a radial-basis interpolation function to perform interpolation when more than two
field variables are input. You can input a random collection of data points where the material property
was experimentally evaluated. It is not necessary to input data in any specific grid format. It is your responsibility to provide enough data to cover the region that you intend to interpolate your experimental
data.
203

Nonlinear interpolation can produce results slightly different from that of a linear interpolation function.
Because the data is a random sampling, the algorithm creates an n-dimensional rectangular bounding
box, and the queries outside of the bounding box are projected to fall on the surface or edge of the
bounding box. The projection is done by calculating a normal to each axis until it finds a position
within the bounding box.
In the following figure, the stars represent the data points input that you provide, and the blue stars
represent queries outside of the bounding box:
The figure shows how the data points are projected first in one dimension and then in the second dimension. This method was extrapolated and implemented for multiple dimensions.
Implementation of the radial basis function is expressed as:
where N is the number of data points and O is the number of free variables (or the order of the interpolation). Input data is (xj,1, xj,2, , zj) where j varies from 1 to the N.
The unknown values are ai (where i varies from 1 to N ) and c. The equation is evaluated for all data
points provided in the input to calculate the ai and c values.
Reference
For further information about multidimensional field-variable interpolation, consult this reference:
1. Amidror, Isaac.Scattered Data Interpolation Methods for Electronic Imaging Systems: A Survey . Journal
of Electronic Imaging 11:2 (2002: 157-176.
204
Chapter 8: GUI-Inaccessible Material Properties

The following material properties are not available via the material property menus of the interactive
GUI. You can specify them from the command line or input file. Subsequent graphic display and postprocessing is still displayed.
TB Command Lab Value
Material Property
AFDM
Acoustic frequency
dependent material
AHYPER
Anisotropic hyperelasticity
BB
Bergstrom-Boyce
CDM
Mullins effect
CGCR
Crack growth fracture

criterion
CTE
Coefficient of thermal
expansion
CZM
Cohesive zone
DMGE
Damage evolution law
DMGI
Damage initiation criteria
EDP
Extended Drucker-Prager
ELASTIC
Elasticity
EXPE
Experimental data
FCLI
Failure criteria material

strength limits
FLUID
Fluid
FRIC
Coefficient of friction
GURSON
Gurson pressure-dependent
plasticity
INTER
User-defined contact
interaction
MPLANE
Microplane
PERF
Acoustic perforated medium
PM
Porous media
WEAR
Contact surface wear
205
206

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Chapter 1: Introduction to Material Models

1.1. Material Models for Displacement Applications

The response is the stresses that are directly

The deformation of the material includes a

The behavior of these models is defined by a

Hyperelastic models are

Introduction to Material Models

mathematical formulation is convenient for

Rate effects and

This is a general behavior in which the response

Metal alloys that show

Materials often respond to changes in the

An elastic constitutive model with an internal

The phase transformation

1.2. Material Models for Temperature Applications

1.3. Material Models for Electromagnetic Applications

Gives the magnetomotive force in response to the magnetic

For electric and magnetic current conductivities that model

Gives the energy storage in a material in response to an

Represents the energy lost in electromagnetic and dielectric

1.4. Material Models for Coupled Applications

1.5. Material Parameters

Chapter 2: Material Model Element Support

SHELL181, PLANE182, PLANE183, SOLID185, SOLID186,

Anisotropic elasticity SOLID5, PLANE13, SOLID98, SHELL181, PLANE182, PLANE183,

Anisotropic plasticity SOLID65

PLANE182, PLANE183, SHELL181, SOLID185, SOLID186,

SOLID5, PLANE13, PLANE53, SOLID96, SOLID97, SOLID98,

von Mises plasticity:

Material Model Element Support

von Mises plasticity:

PLANE182 (not applicable for plane stress), PLANE183 (not

SHELL181, PLANE182, PLANE183, SOLID185, SOLID186,

CHABOCHE Chaboche nonlinear

von Mises or Hill plasticity:

Explicit dynamic elements PLANE162, SHELL163, SOLID164,

Implicit creep with von Mises or Hill potential:

LINK180, SHELL181, PLANE182, PLANE183, SOLID185,

CONTA171, CONTA172, CONTA173, CONTA174, CONTA175,

Progressive damage evolution (MPDG option):

LINK180, SHELL181, PLANE182, PLANE183, SOLID185,

Material Model Element Support

PLANE223, SOLID226, SOLID227

PLANE182 (not applicable for plane stress), PLANE183 (not

LINK180, SHELL181, PLANE182, PLANE183, SOLID185,

Explicit dynamic elements only

Explicit dynamic elements BEAM161, PLANE162, SOLID164,

Used only with other material models

All structural elements

Explicit dynamic elements PLANE162, SOLID164, SOLID168

CONTA171, CONTA172, CONTA173, CONTA174, CONTA175,

INTER192, INTER193, INTER194, INTER195

Explicit dynamic elements SOLID164, SOLID168