The Seismic Wave Equation

Rick Aster
February 15, 2011
Waves in one dimension. The wave equation is a partial differential equation
that relates second time and spatial derivatives of propagating wave disturbances
in a simple way. For a nondispersive system (where all frequencies of excitation
propagate at the same velocity), the formula for sinusoidal or harmonic waves
of displacement with amplitude A as a function of space and time is just
uy (x, t) = A sin(kx t) = A sin(kx kct)

(1)

where k = 2/ = /c is the wavenumber for a disturbance of wavelength ,

= 2f is the radian frequency, and c is the phase velocity. We can construct
the 1-dimensional wave equation by noting that
2 uy
= k 2 A sin(kx kct)
x2

(2)

and

2 uy
= k 2 c2 A sin(kx kct)
(3)
t2
Thus, the proportionality constant between the two second partial derivatives
is just c2 , so that
2 uy
1 2 uy
=
(4)
x2
c2 t2
which is the 1-dimensional scalar wave equation.
An instructional 1-dimensional wave system that we will examing before
considering (the considerably more complicated) 3-d seismic wave system is
transverse waves on a string aligned in the x
direction, with a linear density ,
and under a tension, (e.g., a guitar string). To derive the properties of waves
in this system (Figure 1) we apply the equation of motion, F = ma. For a string
element displaced in the y direction, the net vertical force is
fy = sin 2 sin 1

(5)

If the angles are small (this is the string equivalent of small strain), using
sin =

5
3
+
+
3!
5!
1

(6)

Figure 1: A Tensioned String Element in Disequilibrium

and
tan = +

3
25
+
+
3
15

we have
sin tan
and thus
fy

uy
x


 !
uy 
uy 

x x+x
x x

where
=



uy 
uy 

x x+x
x x

(7)

(8)

(9)

(10)

is the change in slope over the element. The equation of motion can now be
written as
2 uy
fy = ma = x 2 =
(11)
t
or

2 uy
(12)
2 =
t
x
Taking the limit as the segment becomes small we have

2 uy
=
x0 x
x2
lim

(13)

so the equation of motion becomes

2 uy
2 uy
=
.
t2
x2

(14)

(14) is just a 1-dimensional scalar wave equation for waves with a phase propagation velocity in the x
direction of
s

.
(15)
c=

Note that the simplicity of this result hinges on the small angle approximation (8). This provides the necessary linear relationship between stress
(the y component of tension) and strain (
y displacement). A similar situation will occur with seismic waves, which commonly have small or infinitesimal
strains in earthquake or exploration seismology, so that first order terms in
the stress-strain relationship are adequate to characterize the constitutive relationship. Because of the linear stress-strain relationship, transverse waves on
a string obey the principals of superposition, i.e., if y1 (x, t) is a solution, and
y2 (x, t) is a solution, then so is y1 + y2 . On the other hand, if the angles of
the string perturbation become large, the first-order stress-strain theory will not
be an adequate representation of the balance of forces and displacements, and
3

Figure 2: An Inhomogeneous String

the system will become appreciably nonlinear. Nonlinear systems do not obey
superposition, and, also unlike linear systems, their behavior also depends on
the amplitude of the disturbance.
Superposition makes the analysis of string, seismic, or other linear wave
systems much easier. In particular, it enables us to apply Fourier theory. For a
linear system, can decompose any propagating wave, g(x, t) into its constituent
harmonic components
Z Z
g(x, t) =
(f, k)e2f t e2kx df dk
(16)

(16) is an inverse Fourier transform and is the f k, or frequency-wavenumber

spectrum of the wave g(t kx). Note that k in this context is just 1/ rather
than the customary 2/ to make it analagous to f = 1/T , where T is the
period. For a particular frequency, f0 , and wavenumber constituent of g, k0 ,
the complex gives the amplitude and phase. To find , we apply a forward
Fourier transform
Z Z
(f, k) =
g(x, t)e2f t e2kx dt dx .
(17)

For harmonic waves, which have only a single frequency, we can readily see what
the f-k spectrum is by noting that
g(x, t) = A cos(2f0 t k0 x) =


A  (2f0 tk0 x)
e
+ e(2f0 tk0 x) .
2

(18)

(16) tells us that the proper to recover this function must be

(f, k) =

A
((f f0 , k k0 ) + (f + f0 , k + k0 ))
2

(19)

where (f, k) is the 2-dimensional delta function.

We next address the question as to how waves behave when there is a spatial
change in properties (either density or elasticity). Consider an infinite-length
4

spliced string where the density takes an abrupt change at x = 0 as x increases

(Figure 2). The system is excited by a harmonic wave traveling to the right at
x = . To investigate the wave-propagation physics of this simple inhomogeneous system, we construct a composite solution to the wave equation and apply
physical matching conditions at the splice. Where = 1 , we will have a general
wave consisting of right-going (incident) and left-going (reflected) components
will be
u1 (x, t) = Ae(tk1 x) + Be(t+k1 x)
(20)
where
k1 =

=
c1

1
.

(21)

and where = 2 , we will have only a right-going (transmitted) component

u2 (x, t) = Ce(tk2 x)
where

=
k2 =
c2

2
.

(22)

(23)

Our first matching condition has already been applied; as we are exciting the
splice by a harmonic disturbance of frequency , all other wave components in
the system will also only consist of harmonic disturbances of the same frequency.
This is a consequence of linear systems; it would not generally be true in a
nonlinear system. The second matching condition is that the string does not
disassociate, so that the y displacement will be continuous at the splice
u1 (0, t) = u2 (0, t)

(24)

A+B =C .

(25)

which implies that

The final matching condition is that the y forces are continuous at the splice.
This is analogous to the continuity of stress that we discussed earlier for elastic
media (a force discontinuity within a connected string would result in a string
element having an infinite acceleration). The force balance is


u2 
u1 
f0 = f0+ =
=
(26)
x x=0
x x=0+
which implies that
k1 A + k1 B = k2 C

(27)

k1 (A B) = k2 C .

(28)

or
Converting the wavenumbers to frequency, densities, and tension gives
s
r
r
1
2

(A B)
= C
= (A B)1
= (A B)1 c1 = C2 c2 (29)

1
5

where the density-velocity products are called acoustic impedances.

To solve for the reflection and transmission coefficients, R12 = B/A and
T12 = C/A, respectively we need to solve the linear system of equations


 

1 1
R12
1
=
.
(30)
1 21 cc21
T12
1
(30) is easily solved to obtain the coefficients

1 2
B
1 c1 2 c2
=
R12 =
=
1 c1 + 2 c2
1 + 2
A
and
T12 =

2 1
C
21 c1
=
.
=
1 c1 + 2 c2
1 + 2
A

(31)

(32)

Note that the coefficients depend only on the density change, which should be
expected as the only other physical property, the tension, is constant in this
system. Note that if 1 < 2 , then T < 1, and the amplitude of the transmitted
wave will be less than that of the incident wave, while if 2 < 1 , then T > 1,
and the amplitude of the transmitted wave is greater than that of the incident
wave.
Reversing the indices, gives the equivalent expressions for waves incident
from the right
2 c2 1 c1
R21 =
= R12
(33)
1 c1 + 2 c2
and
T21 =

22 c2
= 2 T12 .
1 c1 + 2 c2

(34)

We can evaluate the kinetic and potential energy in waves on a string by

noting that the kinetic energy of an element of length dx is

2
1
uy
1
dx
(35)
EK = mv 2 =
2
2
t
and its potential energy stored as strain is
EP =  dx

(36)

where  is the strain, which in this case is just the normalized lengthening of
the string element
s
p

2
(dx2 ) + (duy )2 dx
uy
=
= 1+
1 .
(37)
dx
x
For small slopes, this gives
1
=1+
2

uy
x

2

1
1=
2

uy
x

2
(38)

so that for infinitesimal strains we have


2
1
uy
EP =
dx .
2
x

(39)

Now consider a harmonic wave

u(x, t) = A cos(t kx) .

(40)

The potential energy density (energy/length) averaged over one wavelength is

EP =

A2
2

k 2 sin2 (t kx) dx =

A2 k 2
2

sin2 (t kx) dx .

(41)

Substituting = 2/k and = t kx gives

EP =

A2 k 3
4
=

2/k

sin2 (t kx) dx =

A2 k 2
4

Z
0

sin2 d =

A2 k 2
4

t2

sin2 d

(42)

A2 c2 k 2
A2 2
A2 k 2
=
=
.
4
4
4

Following a similar development for the energy density over one wavelength,
we have
Z
A2 2
EK =
sin2 (t kx) dx
(43)
2 0
Z
A2 k 2/k 2
A2 2
=
sin2 (t kx) dx =
= EP .
4 0
4
Strain and kinetic energy in elastic waves are thus equal and are each proportional to density, and proportional to the square of amplitude and frequency.
The total energy per wavelength is
ET = EP + EK =

A2 2
2

(44)

Although all motion in string waves is perpendicular to the direction of

propagation, the traveling wave still carries energy. The energy flux is given by
A2 2 c
E = ET c =
.
(45)
2
The energy fluxes for incident, reflected, and transmitted waves for the inhomogeneous string are thus
A2 1 2 c 1
E incident =
2

(46)

2
A2 R12
1 2 c1
E ref l =
2

(47)

Figure 3: Harmonic Elastic Wave Displacement, Velocity, and Energy

2
A2 T12
2 2 c2
.
E trans =
2
The total energy flux for waves generated at the splice is thus

(48)

E ref l + E trans
=A

(49)

(1 c1 2 c2 )2 1 2 c1
(21 c1 )2
2 2 c2

(1 c1 + 2 c2 )2
2
(1 c1 + 2 c2 )2
2


A2 2 421 c21 2 c2 + (1 c1 2 c2 )2 1 c1
=
2
(1 c1 + 2 c2 )2

A2 2 1 c 1
=
2

(1 c1 )2 + 21 2 c1 c2 + (2 c2 )2
(1 c1 + 2 c2 )2


=

A2 2 1 c 1
= E incident
2

so we have, as expected, energy flux conservation for the system.

Seismic waves. So far we have discussed some aspects of the static elastic
behavior of elastic media, but have not dealt with dynamic properties. We will
now return to applying the equation of motion
Z
Z
2u
f=
fs dS +
fb dV = ma = m 2
(50)
t
S
V
for elastic media subject to surface and body forces, fs and fb , respectively.
8

Figure 4: An Accelerated Element

Consider the total force acting on a small volume element of a connected

medium with density and volume dV = dx dy dz, which will be some combination of contact and body forces. The contact force from the x
and
x faces is
the sum of the tractions times their respective face areas (dS = dy dz in both
cases)
Z
fsx dSx = (x+ + x ) dy dz =
Sx






dx x
+ (
x) dy dz =
x
dV
+
x
x

(51)

where we have assumed that first derivatives are sufficient to propagate stress
across the volume (this is o.k. because we know that tractions are continuous
in a connected medium).
The body force term is
Z
fbx dV = fbx dx dy dz .
(52)
V

The terms are similar for the other face pairs, giving a total force expression of


ij
2 ui
2 ui
+ fbi dV = m 2 = 2 dV .
(53)
xj
t
t
Dividing through by dV gives the equation of motion for continuous media
ij
m 2 ui
2 ui
+ fbi =
= 2 ij,j + fbi
2
xj
dV t
t

(54)

where the comma notation, ij,j , indicates differentiation with respect to xj , and
repeated indices are summed in accordance with the Einstein summation convention. This equation must be satisfied for all points in a continuous medium.
9

Recall, for an isotropic medium, we have the constitutive relationship between stress and strain
ij = ij + 2ij .
(55)
Because

1
ij =
2

ui
uj
+
xj
xi


(56)

the stresses on the x

face are just
xx = + 2

ux
x

(57)


ux
uy
+
y
x


uz
ux
+
.
=
z
x

xy =
xz

(58)
(59)

The equation of motion (54) has terms which are the spatial derivatives of
the stress, which are now seen to be
xx

2 ux
=
+ 2
x
x
x2
 2

ux
2 uy
xy
=
+
y
y 2
xy
 2

ux
xz
2 uz
=
+
.
z
z 2
xz

(60)

(61)

(62)

If there are no body forces, and the medium is homogeneous and isotropic,
we thus have, for the x
component of the equation of motion,

2 ux
2 ux
=
+ 2
2
t
x
x2
 2



ux
2 uy
2 ux
2 uz
+
+
+
+
.
y 2
xy
z 2
xz

(63)

Because

2 ux
2 uy
2 uz
=
5 u =
+
+
2
x
x
x
yx zx

(64)

we can group terms to obtain

2 ux

2 = ( + )
+
t
x
= ( + )

2 ux
2 ux
2 ux
+
+
x2
y 2
z 2

+ 52 ux .
x

10


(65)

The development is identical for the y and z components, so the general

equation of motion in three dimensions for isotropic media is

or

2 ui
= ( + )
+ 52 ui
2
t
xi

2u
= ( + ) 5 (5 u) + 52 u
t2
Using a vector calculus identity for the vector Laplacian

52 u = (52 ux , 52 uy , 52 uz ) = 5(5 u) 5 (5 u)

(66)

(67)

(68)

gives
2u
= ( + 2) 5 (5 u) 5 (5 u) .
(69)
t2
To make sense of this complicated looking expression, we make use of a
clever decomposition (Helmholtz Theorem) whereby we write the displacement
field as a sum of the gradient of a scalar displacement potential and the curl of
a vector displacement potential

u(x, t) = 5(x, t) + 5 (x, t)

(70)

The physical reason for applying this decomposition is to separate the displacement field into two parts. One part will have zero divergence, as
5 (5 ) = 0

(71)

for any vector field, , and the other part will have zero curl, as
5 (5) = 0

(72)

for any scalar field, .

Substituting the Helmholtz potentials into the equation of motion gives

2 (5 + 5 )
= (+2)5(5(5+5))5(5(5+5))
t2
(73)
= ( + 2) 5 (5 5) 5 (5 5 ) .

We can simplify this somewhat by noting that

5 (5 5 ) = 5 (5 (5 )) + 52 (5 ) = 52 (5 ) (74)
and
5 (5) = 52

(75)

so that

2 (5 + 5 )
= ( + 2) 5 (52 ) + 52 (5 ) .
t2
11

(76)

We next group the terms and pull out the gradient and curl operators to
obtain




2
2
2
2
.
(77)
5 ( + 2) 5 2 = 5 5 2
t
t
The left-hand side is the gradient of a function of , while the right-hand side is
the curl of a function of . As these sides are always equal for all t and x, they
must be equal to some constant, which we can take as zero. Thus, the Helmholtz
formalization has enabled us (with much malice aforethought) to separate the
elastodynamic equation of motion for an isotropic medium into two differential
equations
2 (x, t)
52 (x, t) =
(78)
+ 2
t2
and
52 (x, t) =

2 (x, t)
.

t2

(79)

The first of these two differential equations in 3-space and time is a scalar wave
equation, the second is a vector wave equation. They describe the two types of
seismic body waves in isotropic, homogeneous elastic media.
Recall that the basic form of a wave equation in one dimension is
1 2 u(x, t)
2 u(x, t)
=
2x
c2
2t

(80)

where c is the phase velocity. Likewise, we can see that the two types of waves
which we have derived for solid media have phase velocities of
s
+ 2
=
(81)

and

r
=

(82)

respectively. Note that these velocities are proportional to the square root of
the moduli, and inversely proportional to the square root of the density. Phase
velocities in crustal rocks are typical on the order of 2-6 km/s for P waves. For a
2
10
typical Poisson solid rock with =
= 310 Pa, and density = 3000 kg/m ,
we have 4.47 km/s and = / 3 2.58 km/s. At 1 Hz, the corresponding
wavelengths are = 4.47 km and = 2.58 km.
Recall, in the 1-dimensional wave equation, a harmonic plane wave solution
is simply
u(x, t) = Ae(tkx)
(83)
where k = 2/ is the wavenumber, and = 2f is the radian frequency.

12

For plane waves in three spatial dimensions, we can write displacement harmonic solutions to the wave equation as
u(x, t) = Ae(tkx)

(84)

where the wavenumber object is now a wavevector specifying the direction of

propagation
k = (kx , ky , kz )
(85)
(propagation is in the +k = k/|k| direction if the negative sign is used and in
the k direction if the positive sign is used) and a length proportional to the
reciprocal of the wavelength
2
,
(86)
|k| =

and
x = (x, y, z) .
(87)
The phase velocity of wave propagation can be easily seen by noting that points
of constant phase in the wave advance in space at a rate
c=

|k|

(88)

A plane-wave solution to the scalar wave equation for elastic media is easily
seen to be
(x, t) = 0 (x, t) = Ae(tkx) .
= Ae(t(kx ,

ky , kz )(x, y, z))

(89)

To obtain the P-wave displacement field due to the displacement potential

, we apply the gradient
u = 5 = iA(kx
x + ky
y + kz
z ) Be(tkx) k .

(90)

where B = iA|k|. This is a harmonic displacement disturbance with all displacement in the propagation direction k (Figure 6a) and an amplitude proportional to A|k|. The change in sign of u means that the P-wave displacement
consists of once-per-wavelength compressions and rarefactions. The dilatation
of the P-wave as a function of space and time is
5 u = A|k|2 e(tkx) ,

(91)

which does not vary perpendicular to the k direction. All volumetric strain is
this caused by shortening in the k direction.
The displacement field from the displacement potential is
u = 5 = 5 (Ax , Ay , Az )e(tkx)

13

(92)

Figure 5: A Plane Wave

14


=

z
y

y
z


x
+

x
z

z
x


y +

y
x

x
y


z

= i ((Az ky Ay kz )
x + (Ax kz Az kz )
y + (Ay kx Ax ky )
z ) e(tkx)
The displacement in the S-wave is perpendicular to the propagation direction,
and the dilatation, as expected, is zero everywhere and at all times
k,
5 u = 5 (5 ) = 0

(93)

so the shear wave propagates no volumetric strain, only shear strain.

As with transverse elastic waves on a string, seismic waves carry energy in
two forms: 1) the strain potential energy in the elastically deformed material;
and 2) the kinetic energy of moving material. Consider a shear plane wave
propagating in the z direction with displacement
uy (z, t) = B cos(t kz) .
The kinetic energy per unit volume, V is

2
Z
Z
uy
1
1

B 2 2 sin2 (t kz) dV
dV =
EK =
2 V
t
2 V

(94)

(95)

Averaging this density over one wavelength gives the average kinetic energy per
unit area of wavefront
Z
B 2 2 2
B 2 2
EK =
.
(96)
sin (wt kz) dz =
2
4
0
The potential (strain) energy in a stressed elastic medium can be found by
noting that the work done by each increment of strain per unit volume is
dW = ij dij .

(97)

If we replace the stress tensor by its constitutive expression (in terms of strain),
we have
dW = cijkl kl dij .
(98)
Integrating over volume, we get the strain energy per unit volume
W =

1
1
cijkl kl ij = ij ij .
2
2

(99)

For a plain shear wave propagating in the z direction with displacement in

the y direction, the nonzero elements of the strain tensor are
ij = ji =

1 uy
Bk
=
sin(t kz)
2 z
2

(i, j) = (2, 3)

(100)

while the corresponding nonzero stress components for an isotropic medium are
ij = ji = 2ij = Bk sin(t kz)
15

(i, j) = (2, 3) .

(101)

Figure 6: Fundamental Seismic Waves and Their Displacement Fields

16

The average potential energy per unit area of wavefront is thus

1
EP =
2

(yz yz
0

B 2 k 2
+ zy zy ) dz =
2

sin2 (t kz) dz

(102)

B 2 k 2
B 2 2
=
= EK .
4
4
So, as with the elastic string system, we have an equipartition of energy between
kinetic and potential types (Figure 3). Also note that, as with the string system,
the energy density is proportionate to the density and to the square of amplitude
and frequency. The total energy per unit wavefront is thus
=

ET S = EK + EP =

B 2 2
.
2

(103)

Performing the equivalent calculation for P waves propagating in the z direction, we now have a plane wave
uz (z, t) = A sin(t kz) .

(104)

The kinetic energy is essentially the same expression as for the S wave, only the
direction of the displacement has changed
EK =

1
2

uz
t

2
dV =

1
2

A2 2 sin2 (t kz) dV =

A2 2
. (105)
4

To calculate the strain (potential energy) in an equivalent manner, we note

that the only non-zero stress tensor element is
+ 2)zz = (
+ 2) uz
zz = (
z

(106)

in this context is obviously the Lame parameter, not the wavelength,

(where
). The strain energy per unit volume is thus
1
EP =
2
but

zz zz
0

+ 2)k 2 Z
A2 (
dz =
cos2 (t kz) dz
2
0
2
+ 2 =
2 =
2
k

so

(107)

(108)

A2 2
(109)
4
which is the exact equation as for S-waves (102) and produces the same result
for the total energy
A2 2
ET P = EK + EP =
.
(110)
2
EP =

17

The rate at which energy is carried by seismic waves is given by the energy
flux expressions
A2 2
E P = ET P =
.
(111)
2
and
B 2 2
E S = ET S =
.
(112)
2
so the P-wave propagates energy faster by the ratio /.
There are, of course, other solutions to the wave equation in homogeneous
media. The most important of these is spherical waves. We rewrite the scalar
wave equation in spherical coordinates (r, , )



1 2
1
(113)
r2
= 2 2 .
52 (r, t) = 2
r r
r
c t
A solution to (113) can be found by trying a solution of the form
(r, t)
r

(r, t) =

(114)

which gives
!!

r r

1
2
r
r2 r
r2


1

1 2
= 2
r
= 2 2 ,
r r
r
rc t
or
1
r

r 2

2
r
r r


=

2
1 2
=
r2
c2 t2

(115)

(116)

which is just the 1-dimensional wave equation again, this time in terms of r
rather than a Cartesian coordinate such as x! So we have a solution for any
function of the form (r, t)/r. Note that this function has a singularity at r = 0.

18