Role of Building Facade

1. INTRODUCTION
Faades are the first aesthetical feature of a building that distinguishes one building from
another. Its distinctive appearance is often the subject of controversial debate. Nowadays,
Unitized Curtain Wall system is commonly used for new high-rise buildings; it becomes a
major investment in both construction and long-term success of the building. Compared to
reinforced concrete structure, unitized curtain wall is new technology in the construction
industry.
The building envelope remains one of the most important exterior elements for building
functionality. While the faade is an elegant component that helps to define the unique
architectural aesthetics of the building, it also has the critical role related to energy
performance and interior function of a building. As technology continues to improve,
different options for improvement become available for incorporation into building facades.
These elements are geared toward improvement of the building envelope performance. By
definition, the curtain wall is an independent frame assembly with self sufficient components
that does not brace the building structure.
While curtain wall systems are proprietary systems, there are many available to the industry
but not all systems have the same function. In commercial and similar buildings, the building
envelope components, especially, the curtain wall provides two key functions: Weather
barrier against the environmental factors for air and water infiltration and light transmittance
to the interior space.
At times, the professional community misapplies material choices and system application to
environment due to a lack of understanding or familiarity of said systems. The existing
buildings thus provide reference information demonstrating the merits and/or lessons learned
from those choices. The importance of dialogue and knowledge sharing with the construction
community should not be understated. Review of components and functions are important in
relating to how the building performs. Not only are component choices in the curtain wall
important, the installation scheme of the system and subsequent maintenance by the building
management are complementary of the performance of the curtain wall.

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2. HISTORY OF BUILDING FAADE
Modernist architects discarded the decorative styles of the 19th century and sought to merge
architecture with industry. The result was a simple, logical, functional building style, as much
industrial as artistic. The first curtain wall was designed by German Architect Walter Gropius
(1883-1969) who was invited to teach at art school in Germany called the Bauhau (Building
House). When the Bauhaus moved from Weimar to Dessau in 1926.Gropius constructed the
new campus according to his philosophy of clean, functional, modern design. Gropiuss most
important contribution was the so-called Curtain Wall, the exterior wall of glass that also
displays the buildings interior design. Gropius became an influential teacher in America and
a founder of what has come to be known as the International Style in architecture.
The Curtain walls nowadays, evens the simpler types, are far more sophisticate products than
their early counterparts, though many of the earliest walls are still performing admirably.
More than fifty years of experience and development have eliminated the major difficulties of
the pioneering designs, resulting in better products. Beginning with the relatively simple, but
innovative concept of the early 1950s, a series of window units and panels joined and
supported by simple framing members. Curtain wall system technology has developed, over
the years, into a proliferation of highly engineered designs. Throughout this development,
however, the basic principles of develop good curtain wall system have not changed.
Recognition of these principles has grown with experience, and the criteria of good design
have now become well defined. And, as with any vital and developing product, the faade
industry continues to find ways of improving performance.

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Role of Building Facade

3. TYPES OF CURTAIN WALL SYSTEM
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Stick Wall System

Semi-Unitized System
Unitized System
Structural Glazing System
Spider Glazing System

3.1 Stick Wall System

This is the earlier design of curtain wall technology. The wall is installed piece by piece.
Usually, the mullion members (which is vertical member) are installed first, followed in turn
by the transom members (which is horizontal rail member), and finally the glazing or
window units. However, in designs accenting the horizontal lines the process may be altered
to first install the larger transoms. In either case, the transom and mullion members are often
long sections designed to either be interrupted or extended through at their intersections. The
stick wall system was used extensively in the early years of metal curtain wall development,
and is still widely used in greatly improved versions. Some contractors consider it to be
superior to other systems.
The characteristics of this system are its relatively low shipping and handling costs, because
of minimal bulk, and the fact that it allows some degree of dimensional adjustment to site
conditions. Its disadvantages are the necessity of assembly in the construction site, rather than
under controlled factory conditions, and the fact that pre-glazing is obviously impossible.

Fig. 1 Stick Wall System

3.2 Semi-Unitized System

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After a period of time, semi-unitized design was occur in curtain wall technology. In this
system, the mullion members are separately installed first, then pre-assembled framing units
are placed between them. These units may be full storey height, or they may be divided into a
spandrel unit and a vision glass unit.
Hybrid system is advantage to use when for long span of two floors, which can be reinforced
by steel. This system need large amount of labour for field jointing work and the erection
time is comparatively greater.

Fig.2 Semi-Unitized System

3.3 Unitized System

For modern technology, unitized curtain wall system was invented. This system is composed
entirely of large frame units pre-assembled at the factory. The mullion member join to the top
and bottom transom member, and with a vision glazed glass panel. The production of whole
panel are under controlled at the factory, where the process can be carefully inspected, and
facilitates rapid enclosure of the building with a minimum of field labour and relatively few
joints. The Unitized curtain wall is the most airtight and weather resistant cladding and
exterior wall system available. A glass and aluminium curtain wall fabricated in factory and
installed as a panel system is referred to as a unitized curtain wall system. Unitized curtain
wall will comprise glass vision panel and spandrel panel mounted in a prefabricated
aluminium frame. Most of the system components are assembled in a plant under controlled
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working conditions. This promotes quality assembly and allows for fabrication lead-time and
rapid closure of the building.
The unitized system is assembled on the building as panels. The structural section around the
panel is fabricated as half sections instead of a whole section, which mate at assembly time to
form the curtain wall system. The panels are installed in single fashion, starting either from
the bottom or top of the building and going around each floor until the whole building is
dressed up.
While the unitized system offers many advantages with respect to quality assembly and speed
up the site construction time, there is one design concern with respect to installed
performance and durability. In a unitized system, there are three joint along every mullion
and transom. These include the two glasses to aluminium joints and a third joint at the
junction between the half mullions and half rails. Should an air or water leak develop at the
third joint, there is usually no practical method of accessing the in-between panel joint of
repair unless the manufacturer has provided a serviceable joint system design.
In a unitized system, the manufacturer must rely on qualified installers to ensure that the air
seals are properly installed between the split mullions. Nevertheless, the unitized system is
the most popular faade system according to one manufacturer and it has performed
satisfactorily when installed correctly.

Fig. 3 Unitized System

3.4 Structural Glazing System

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Role of Building Facade

Structural Glazing systems are a brilliant, cost effective solution for contemporary glass
design. Structural Glazing systems consist of a fully or partially framed internal finish, with
the glass structurally glazed/adhered to the outside face. All to produce a complete flush
silicone jointed external finish. Whilst the framed internal appearance is more traditional,
structural glazing provides a high flexibility in regards to the sections utilised and framework
finish.

From a weathering perspective, Structural Glazing systems are typically reliant on the
application of sealant. Therefore once a Structural Glazing system has been installed and
initially tested under severe weather conditions (assuming the seals not subsequently
damaged/punctured), weather integrity should be maintained for at least 10 years from
application (the warranty associated with this product). As structural glazing systems do not
rely on internal weep systems and subsequent drainage, they may be installed at as low as 3-5
degrees pitch (subject to application). In fact external walk on glass specifications are often
installed as low as 1 degree pitch. The system comprises of structural glazing tapes, a
polyurethane structural adhesive (air cured) and the internal face of the glass black primed
locally over all supporting framework. The glass is provided with a black spacer and silicone
seal as standard, providing a complete black reflective appearance, which conceals the
internal frame. Technically the glass does not need to be 4 edge supported (unless in
conjunction with a walk-on glass design), making it feasible for many applications to contain
unsupported glass to glass silicone joints. It is important whilst installing structural glazing
that the conditions and environment are correct for the product utilsed.

Some adhesive methods involve UV light curing through the glass, which in turn may
become less effective over spacer bar details. All vertical structural glazing at height should
also be mechanically retained. Most structural glazing structures will require perimeter
interfacing
external
produces

framework
aesthetics.
its

own

which

may be

partially apparent

Predominantly
unique

flush

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around

however,
silicone

jointed

the

structural
external

structures
glazing
finish.

Role of Building Facade

Fig 4. Four Sided Structural Glazing

3.5 Spider Glazing System

The spider glazing system, which is also referred as bolted glazing system, is the alternative
to structural glazing, which holds the glass by means of visible metal parts that covers a small
part of the glass surface. Spider Glazing systems are often used on entrances of the large
buildings, so that one can have unobstructed view into the building. This system is used for
very large glazed structures; the spider framework supports the large glass panes, avoiding
flexing or buckling which may happen if the panes were to rest on their bottom edge. It also
absorbs important movements of the building and it frees the lower frames from the weight of
the glass.
The unique feature of spider fitting glass system lies in its flexibility, forming a structure that
enables glass to bend under wind pressure. When glass has equal thickness, this installation
method helps to install larger area of glass curtain walls than rigid connection.

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Role of Building Facade

Fig 5. Spider Glazing System

4. NATURAL FORCES AND THEIR EFFECT ON CURTAIN WALL

SYSTEM
4.1 Sunlight
It provides warmth, color, visual definition and life itself. But it also creates certain problems
in curtain wall design. One of these problems is its deteriorating effect on organic materials
such as color pigments, plastics and sealants. The actinic rays, particularly those found in the
ultra-violet range of the spectrum, produce chemical changes which cause fading or more
serious degradation of materials It is essential, therefore, that materials and finishes
vulnerable to such action be thoroughly investigated before being used, and that sealants be
tested for resistance to ozone attack and ultra-violet radiation.
Another problem resulting when uncontrolled sunlight passes through the wall is the
discomfort of glare and brightness and degradation of interior furnishings. Conventionally,
such effects are combated by use of some type of shading device, either inside or outside of
the vision glass. A newer approach, gaining in favor, is the use of glare-reducing or reflective
types of glass which provide relief without restricting vision.

4.2 Temperature
Temperature creates two kinds of problems in curtain wall design, they are:
- the expansion and contraction of materials; and
- the necessity to control the passage of heat through the wall.
It is the effect of solar heat on the wall which creates one of the major concerns in aluminium
curtain wall design, which is thermal movement. Temperature fluctuations, both diurnally and
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seasonally, that critically affect wall details. All building materials expand and contract to
some extent with temperature changes, but the amount of movement is greater in aluminium
than that in most other building materials. The control of heat passage through the wall
affects both heat loss in cold weather and heat gain in hot weather, the relative importance of
the two varying with geographic location.
Thermal insulation of opaque wall areas become and important consideration when such
areas constitute a substantial part of the total wall area, but when vision glass areas
predominate, the use of insulating glass, and the minimizing of through metal or cold
bridges are more effective in lowering the overall U-value of wall.

4.3 Water
Water, in form of rain, snow, vapour or condensate, is probably the most persistent cause of
potential trouble. As wind-driven rain, it can enter very small openings and may move within
the wall and appear on the indoor face far from its point of entrance. In the form of vapour it
can penetrate microscopic pores, will condense upon cooling and, if trapped within wall, can
cause serious damage that may long remain undetected. Leakage may be a problem in a wall
built of any material.
Most masonry walls, being porous, absorb a good deal of water over their entire wetted
surface, and under certain conditions. Some of this water may penetrate the wall, appearing
as leaks on the indoor side. But the materials used in metal curtain wall are impervious to
water, and potential leakage is limited to joints and openings. Though this greatly limits the
area of vulnerability, it greatly increases the importance of properly designing the joints and
seals.

4.4 Wind
Wind acting upon the wall produces the forces which largely dictate its structural design. On
the taller structures in particular, the structural properties of framing members and panels, as
well as the thickness of glass, are determined by maximum wind loads. Winds also contribute
to the movement of the wall, affecting joint seals and wall anchorage.
The pressures and vacuums alternately created by high winds not only subject framing
members and glass to stress reversal, but cause rain to defy gravity, flowing in all directions

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over the wall face. Thus wind must be recognized also as a major factor contributing to
potential water leakage.

4.5 Gravity
Gravity, unlike the other natural forces, is static and constant, rather than dynamic and
variable. Because of the relatively light weight of materials used in curtain walls, it is a force
of secondary significance, rarely imposing any serous design problems. It causes deflections
in horizontal load-carrying members, especially under the weight of large sheets of heavy
glass, but because the weight of the wall is transferred at frequent intervals to the building
frame, gravity forces affecting structural design are generally small in comparison with those
imposed by wind action. But far greater gravity forces, in the form of floor and roof loads, are
acting on the building frame to which the wall is attached. As these loads may cause
deflections and displacements in the frame, the connections of the wall to this frame must be
designed to provide for sufficient relative movement to insure that displacements do not
impose vertical loads on the wall itself.

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5. FAADE TESTING
5.1 Air Infiltration Test
Utilizing a chamber on the interior or exterior of the specimen, the rate of air leakage through
the fenestration assemblies is determined at the project specified pressure differential induced
across the assemblies. The air leakage rates determined are compared against the acceptable
rates identified for the project.
In this test, lab personnel pump air from the chamber with a blower while measuring the
amount of air being removed while maintaining test pressure, often 6.24 psf (pounds per
square foot), the equivalent of a 50 mph wind. Using plastic film sequentially removed, the
lab determines how much air is passing through each element of the mockup. This test
procedure is ASTM E283 Standard Test Method for Determining Rate of Air Leakage
Through Exterior Windows, Curtain Walls, and Doors Under Specified Pressure Differences
Across the Specimen

5.2 Static Water Penetration Test

Using the chamber developed for the mock-up testing, a pressure differential is applied across
the wall assembly, while simultaneously applying water spray onto the exterior surfaces. The
testing is performed to show the water penetration resistance of the designed wall systems
and transitions between wall system components. A spray rack is used to apply hurricanevolumes of water to the test specimen while blowers are used to create a negative pressure on
the inside. If the specimen sucks in uncontrolled water, the test is a fail. This procedure is
ASTM E331 Standard Test Method for Water Penetration of Exterior Windows, Skylights,
Doors, and Curtain Walls by Uniform Static Air Pressure Difference.

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Role of Building Facade

Fig.6 Static Water Penetration Test

5.3 Dynamic Water Penetration Test

Water penetration testing consists ofutilizing a portable wind generator and installing a spray
rack system at the exterior of the specimen. The wind generating machine is equipped with a
68-inch diameter, three-blade propeller mounted to a gasoline-fueled 95-horsepower "V" twin
engine. The engine and prop assembly are mounted into a steel frame that incorporates a
sheet metal shroud and lifting fixture. A four-wheeled cart is used to transport the machine to
and from the test area. The cart is removed from the frame when used above ground level.
The machine weighs approximately 550 pounds without the cart. For on-site use, an extended
forklift is required to position the machine at elevations above the ground level. The forklift
is commonly available and has a reach height of up to 60 feet above grade. It has a maximum
air pressure differential of 6.24 PSF.

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Role of Building Facade

Fig. 7 Dynamic Water Penetration Test

6. FAADE FAILURE
Facade failures usually fall into two broad categories:
(1) unexpected behavior leading to undesirable outcomes or
(2) inability to resist design loads or unforeseen forces.
The first failure category, unexpected and undesirable facade behavior, is usually
visually evident. However, the second category, the inability of the facade to
resist loads, is often not easily detected until distress is advanced or severe. The
direction and magnitude of forces that act on building facades may not always
be clearly understood. Design-level wind or seismic loads may not occur during
the service life of the building, which means that the facade supports are not
tested in service for these loads. Also, the capacity of facades and their supports
to resist forces may gradually diminish over time due to deterioration or fatigue.
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To avoid conditions that can lead to failure, building facade attachments must
support the weight of the facade and resist all expected and unexpected forces.
The facade components also need to endure erosion from wind and water, the
effects of temperature extremes, and ultraviolet light (if exposed) without
significant loss of strength.
Design of facades and their supports also needs to be sufficiently constructible to
accommodate construction errors under harsh field conditions. The facade that
(with reasonable maintenance) does not perform satisfactorily for the economic
life of the building is considered to have failed. Clearly, progressive collapse or
high-consequence

failures are

the most disturbing

category of failures.

Recognition of facade failures beneath the surface is more likely with certain wall
systems. Thin facades tend to show bulges and displacements. Brittle facade
materials crack and spall. Facades that are not designed with adequate support
redundancy or facades that have tensile forces imposed on weak points (e.g.,
along mortar-bedded masonry joints or stone rifts) are more vulnerable to failure.
Other problem-prone facades include adhered ceramic or stone tile veneers
without supplemental mechanical attachments, highly anisotropic (differing
strength properties depending on the orientation) or variable-strength stone
panels, and composite facades that combine unproven and incompatible
materials. Hidden and premature failures are commonly associated with facade
systems that mimic but are inferior to traditional stone or brick which are popular
for economic reasons. The shorter economic life and the mode of failure of such
facade systems need to be understood to fully appreciate the cost/benefit
compromise. Synthetic stucco, cementitious panels, and cultured stone facade
systems, which are in common use today, offer a cost-effective option for
developers and owners. However, non-durable components, incomplete or
deficient design details, and inadequate flashings and internal weather resistant
barrier systems, frequently compromise the ability of these systems to resist
deterioration and air and water penetration.

6.1 Latent Facade Failure Risk Factors

a) High consequence - e.g., facades situated directly above congested urban
b)

sidewalks or similar exposures.

Insufficient support redundancy - e.g., inability to redistribute and continue
carrying loads if a portion of the facade or its support system fails, especially

c)

with eccentric or overhead (hung) facade elements.

Improper tensile force - e.g., tensile or flexural stress imposed along mortar
bond lines or along a weak rift of anisotropic stone panels.

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d)

Poor reliability - e.g., facade materials or anchorage systems with variable

strength properties, unproven systems or materials, or indeterminate

performance characteristics.
e) Inadequate durability- e.g., corrodible, mild steel anchors or embedments
exposed to moisture, degradable facade materials subject to strength loss or
deterioration.
f) Poor constructability - e.g., complex anchorage assemblies, reliance on
precision facade or support installation, difficult construction environment,
insufficient accommodation for construction tolerances.
g) Inadequate water management system - e.g., absent or poorly configured
internal flashings, obstructed water drainage paths, potential to retain water
behind the facade, reliance solely on surface seals.
h) Potential warning signs - e.g., location and orientation of cracks may indicate
restrained movement or material degradation; stains may indicate corrosion
of underlying mild steel supports; movement at ends and corners of long or
tall walls may indicate ineffective facade expansion joints and accumulated
differential movement that may have damaged underlying facade supports or
anchors. The presence of these symptoms indicates potential latent facade
failures.

7. SUMMARY
The curtain wall is a defining aesthetic element on the building and its inherent tasks include
providing protection and comfort from the elements. The effectiveness of its performance is
also related to the level of maintenance implemented at the facility. Since there are so many
components involved in a curtain wall system, the design, installation and workmanship all
contribute to its successful performance. As technology introduces new components into the
construction market, it is important to access the synergy of these components and
qualitatively access what improvement can be achieved. Curtain wall maintains a key role in
the performance of a building. Prior the design consideration familiar with the natural effects
on curtain wall system is necessary.
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8. REFERENCES

The Institution of Structural Engineers, 1995, Aspects of Cladding

AA (Aluminum Association), Aluminum Design Manual, 2000 Edition.

Rick Quirouette, 1999, Glass and Aluminium Curtain Wall Systems

D.A.T. Hunton, O. Martin, 1987, Curtain Wall Engineering

Hallam, Kenneth D. and Dudley G. McFarquhar, "Durability, Maintenance and

Recondition of the Curtain Wall", Fourth International Conference on Structural
Failure, Durability and Retrofitting, Singapore, 14-15 July, 1993.

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McFarquhar, D. G., "The Crown and the Curtain Wall'', Civil Engineering Magazine,
August 1992

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