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RASHTREEYA VIDYALAYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Preparation of 1 ton of salt from sea water

Ashwanth Subramanian1
1) Rashtreeya Vidyalaya College of Engineering, Bangalore India
ashwanth1809@yahoo.in

Abstract- Salt is salt produced from the

evaporation of seawater. It is used in
cooking and cosmetics. It is also called
bay salt or solar salt. Like mineral salt,
production of sea salt has been dated to
prehistoric times.
I. INTRODUCTION
India is the third largest Salt producing
Country in the World after China and
USA with Global
annual
production being about 230 million to
nes. The growth and achievement of S
alt Industry

building (also known as green

construction or sustainable building)
refers to a structure and using process
that is environmentally responsible and
resource-efficient
throughout
a
building's life-cycle: from siting to
design,
construction,
operation,
maintenance,
renovation,
and
demolition. This requires close
cooperation of the design team, the
architects, the engineers, and the client
at all project stages. The Green
Building practice expands and
complements the classical building
design concerns of economy, utility,
durability, and comfort.
II. INTRODUCTION

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

GREEN BUILDING DEFINED as "A

green building is one which uses less
water, optimises energy efficiency,
conserves natural resources, generates
less waste and provides healthier
spaces for occupants, as compared to a
conventional building."
Although new technologies are
constantly
being
developed
to
complement current practices in
creating greener structures, the
common objective is that green
buildings are designed to reduce the
overall impact of the built environment
on human health and the natural
environment by:
Efficiently using energy, water,
and other resources
Protecting occupant health and
improving
employee
productivity
Reducing waste, pollution and
environmental degradation
A similar concept is natural building,
which is usually on a smaller scale and
tends to focus on the use of natural
materials that are available locally.
Other related topics include sustainable
design
and
green
architecture.
Sustainability may be defined as
meeting the needs of present
generations without compromising the
ability of future generations to meet
their needs. Although some green
building programs don't address the
issue of the retrofitting existing homes,
others
do.
Green
construction
principles can easily be applied to
retrofit work as well as new
construction.

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RASHTREEYA VIDYALAYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

A 2009 report by the U.S. General

Services Administration found 12
sustainably designed buildings cost
less to operate and have excellent
energy performance. In addition,
occupants were more satisfied with the
overall building than those in typical
commercial buildings.

FIGURE 1: US EPA Kansas City

Science & Technology Centre This
facility features the following green
attributes:
*LEED 2.0 Gold certified
*Green Power
*Native Landscaping
III.

REDUCING ENVIRONMENTAL
IMPACT

Green building practices aim to reduce

the environmental impact of buildings,
so the very first rule is: the greenest
building is the building that doesn't get
built. New construction almost always
degrades a building site, so not
building is preferable to building. The
second rule is: every building should
be as small as possible. The third rule
is: do not contribute to sprawl (the
tendency for cities to spread out in a
disordered fashion). No matter how
much grass you put on your roof, no
matter how many energy-efficient
windows, etc., you use, if you
contribute to sprawl, you've just
defeated your purpose. Urban infill
sites are preferable to suburban
"greenfield" sites.
Buildings account for a large amount
of land. According to the National
Resources Inventory, approximately
107 million acres (430,000 km2) of

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

land in the United States are

developed. The International Energy
Agency released a publication that
estimated that existing buildings are
responsible for more than 40% of the
worlds
total
primary
energy
consumption and for 24% of global
carbon dioxide emissions.
IV.GOALS OF GREEN BUILDING
The
concept
of
sustainable
development can be traced to the
energy (especially fossil oil) crisis and
the environment pollution concern in
the 1970s. The green building
movement in the U.S. originated from
the need and desire for more energy
efficient and environmentally friendly
construction practices. There are a
number of motives for building green,
including environmental, economic,
and social benefits. However, modern
sustainability initiatives call for an
integrated and synergistic design to
both new construction and in the
retrofitting of existing structures. Also
known as sustainable design, this
approach integrates the building lifecycle with each green practice
employed with a design-purpose to
create a synergy among the practices
used.
Green building brings together a vast
array of practices, techniques, and
skills to reduce and ultimately
eliminate the impacts of buildings on
the environment and human health. It
often emphasizes taking advantage of
renewable resources, e.g., using
sunlight through passive solar, active
solar, and photovoltaic techniques and
using plants and trees through green
roofs, rain gardens, and reduction of
rainwater
run-off.
Many
other
techniques are used, such as using
wood as a building material, or using
packed gravel or permeable concrete
instead of conventional concrete or

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RASHTREEYA VIDYALAYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

asphalt to enhance replenishment of

ground water.
While the practices, or technologies,
employed in green building are
constantly evolving and may differ
from region to region, fundamental
principles persist from which the
method is derived: Siting and Structure
Design Efficiency, Energy Efficiency,
Water Efficiency, Materials Efficiency,
Indoor
Environmental
Quality
Enhancement,
Operations
and
Maintenance Optimization, and Waste
and Toxics Reduction. The essence of
green building is an optimization of
one or more of these principles. Also,
with the proper synergistic design,
individual green building technologies
may work together to produce a greater
cumulative effect.
On the aesthetic side of green
architecture or sustainable design is the
philosophy of designing a building that
is in harmony with the natural features
and resources surrounding the site.
There are several key steps in
designing
sustainable
buildings:
specify 'green' building materials from
local sources, reduce loads, optimize
systems,
and
generate
on-site
renewable energy.
V. LIFE CYCLE ASSESSMENT (LCA)
A life cycle assessment (LCA) can help
avoid
a
narrow
outlook
on
environmental, social and economic
concerns by assessing a full range of
impacts associated with all cradle-tograve stages of a process: from
extraction of raw materials through
materials processing, manufacture,
distribution,
use,
repair
and
maintenance, and disposal or recycling.
Impacts taken into account include
(among others) embodied energy,
global warming potential, resource use,
air pollution, water pollution, and
waste.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

In terms of green building, the last few

years have seen a shift away from a
prescriptive approach, which assumes
that certain prescribed practices are
better for the environment, toward the
scientific
evaluation
of
actual
performance through LCA.
Although LCA is widely recognized as
the best way to evaluate the
environmental impacts of buildings
(ISO 14040 provides a recognized
LCA methodology), it is not yet a
consistent requirement of green
building rating systems and codes,
despite the fact that embodied energy
and other life cycle impacts are critical
to the design of environmentally
responsible buildings.
In North America, LCA is rewarded to
some extent in the Green Globes
rating system, and is part of the new
American National Standard based on
Green Globes, ANSI/GBI 01-2010:
Green
Building
Protocol
for
Commercial Buildings. LCA is also
included as a pilot credit in the LEED
system, though a decision has not been
made as to whether it will be
incorporated fully into the next major
revision. The state of California also
included LCA as a voluntary measure
in its 2010 draft Green Building
Standards Code.
Although LCA is often perceived as
overly complex and time consuming
for regular use by design professionals,
research organizations such as BRE in
the UK and the Athena Sustainable
Materials Institute in North America
are working to make it more
accessible.
In the UK, the BRE Green Guide to
Specifications offers ratings for 1,500
building materials based on LCA.
In North America, the ATHENA
EcoCalculator for Assemblies provides
LCA results for several hundred
common building assembles based on
data generated by its more complex
parent software, the ATHENA

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RASHTREEYA VIDYALAYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

Impact Estimator for Buildings. (The

Eco Calculator is available free at
www.athenasmi.org.) Athena software
tools are especially useful early in the
design process when material choices
have far-reaching implications for
overall environmental impact. They
allow designers to experiment with
different material mixes to achieve the
most effective combination.

FIGURE 2: Taipei 101, the tallest and

largest green building of LEED
Platinum certification in the world
since 2011
VI.
ENERGY EFFICIENCY
Green
buildings
often
include
measures
to
reduce
energy
consumption both the embodied
energy required to extract, process,
transport and install building materials
and operating energy to provide
services such as heating and power for
equipment.
As high-performance buildings use less
operating energy, embodied energy has
assumed much greater importance
and may make up as much as 30% of
the overall life cycle energy
consumption. Studies such as the U.S.
LCI Database Project show buildings
built primarily with wood will have a

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

lower embodied energy than those

built primarily with brick, concrete or
steel.
To reduce operating energy use,
designers use details that reduce air
leakage through the building envelope
(the barrier between conditioned and
unconditioned space). They also
specify high-performance windows
and extra insulation in walls, ceilings,
and floors. Another strategy, passive
solar building design, is often
implemented in low-energy homes.
Designers orient windows and walls
and place awnings, porches, and trees
to shade windows and roofs during the
summer while maximizing solar gain
in the winter. In addition, effective
window placement (day lighting) can
provide more natural light and lessen
the need for electric lighting during the
day. Solar water heating further
reduces energy costs.
Onsite generation of renewable energy
through solar power, wind power,
hydro power, or biomass can
significantly reduce the environmental
impact of the building. Power
generation is generally the most
expensive feature to add to a building.

FIGURE 3: An eco-house at Findhorn

Eco village with a turf roof and solar
panels
VII. WATER EFFICIENCY
Reducing water consumption
protecting water quality are

and
key

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RASHTREEYA VIDYALAYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

objectives in sustainable building. One

critical issue of water consumption is
that in many areas, the demands on the
supplying aquifer exceed its ability to
replenish itself. To the maximum
extent feasible, facilities should
increase their dependence on water that
is collected, used, purified, and reused
on-site.
The
protection
and
conservation of water throughout the
life of a building may be accomplished
by designing for dual plumbing that
recycles water in toilet flushing.
Waste-water may be minimized by
utilizing water conserving fixtures such
as ultra-low flush toilets and low-flow
shower heads. Bidets help eliminate
the use of toilet paper, reducing sewer
traffic and increasing possibilities of
re-using water on-site. Point of use
water treatment and heating improves
both water quality and energy
efficiency while reducing the amount
of water in circulation. The use of nonsewage and grey water for on-site use
such as site-irrigation will minimize
demands on the local aquifer.
VIII. MATERIALS EFFICIENCY
Building materials typically considered
to be 'green' include lumber from
forests that have been certified to a
third-party forest standard, rapidly
renewable plant materials like bamboo
and straw, dimension stone, recycled
stone, recycled metal (see: copper
sustainability and recyclability), and
other products that are non-toxic,
reusable, renewable, and/or recyclable
(e.g., Trass, Linoleum, sheep wool,
panels made from paper flakes,
compressed earth block, adobe, baked
earth, rammed earth, clay, vermiculite,
flax linen, sisal, seagrass, cork,
expanded clay grains, coconut, wood
fibre plates, calcium sand stone,
concrete
(high
and
ultra-high
performance,
roman
self-healing
concrete),
etc.)
The
EPA

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

(Environmental Protection Agency)

also suggests using recycled industrial
goods, such as coal combustion
products, foundry sand, and demolition
debris
in construction
projects
Building materials should be extracted
and manufactured locally to the
building site to minimize the energy
embedded in their transportation.
Where possible, building elements
should be manufactured off-site and
delivered to site, to maximise benefits
of off-site manufacture including
minimising
waste,
maximising
recycling (because manufacture is in
one location), high quality elements,
better OHS management, less noise
and dust. Energy efficient building
materials and appliances are promoted
in the United States through energy
rebate
programs,
which
are
increasingly
communicated
to
consumers through energy rebate
database services such as Green Ohm.
IX.
WASTE REDUCTION
Green architecture also seeks to reduce
waste of energy, water and materials
used during construction. For example,
in California nearly 60% of the state's
waste comes from commercial
buildings during the construction
phase, one goal should be to reduce the
amount of material going to landfills.
Well-designed buildings also help
reduce the amount of waste generated
by the occupants as well, by providing
on-site solutions such as compost bins
to reduce matter going to landfills.
To reduce the amount of wood that
goes to landfill, Neutral Alliance (a
coalition of government, NGOs and the
forest industry) created the website
dontwastewood.com. The site includes
a variety of resources for regulators,
municipalities, developers, contractors,
owner/operators
and
individuals/homeowners looking for
information on wood recycling.

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RASHTREEYA VIDYALAYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

When buildings reach the end of their

useful life, they are typically
demolished and hauled to landfills.
Deconstruction is a method of
harvesting
what
is
commonly
considered "waste" and reclaiming it
into
useful
building
material.
Extending the useful life of a structure
also reduces waste building materials
such as wood that are light and easy to
work with make renovations easier.
To reduce the impact on wells or water
treatment plants, several options exist.
"Greywater", wastewater from sources
such as dishwashing or washing
machines, can be used for subsurface
irrigation, or if treated, for non-potable
purposes, e.g., to flush toilets and wash
cars. Rainwater collectors are used for
similar purposes.
Centralized wastewater treatment
systems can be costly and use a lot of
energy. An alternative to this process is
converting waste and wastewater into
fertilizer, which avoids these costs and
shows other benefits. By collecting
human waste at the source and running
it to a semi-centralized biogas plant
with other biological waste, liquid
fertilizer can be produced. This
concept was demonstrated by a
settlement in Lubeck Germany in the
late 1990s. Practices like these provide
soil with organic nutrients and create
carbon sinks that remove carbon
dioxide
from
the
atmosphere,
offsetting greenhouse gas emission.
Producing artificial fertilizer is also
more costly in energy than this
process.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

FIGURE 4: Green building triangle.

X. SOLAR CELL STRUCTURE

A solar cell is an electronic device
which directly converts sunlight into
electricity. Light shining on the solar
cell produces both a current and a
voltage to generate electric power. This
process requires firstly, a material in
which the absorption of light raises an
electron to a higher energy state, and
secondly, the movement of this higher
energy electron from the solar cell into
an external circuit. The electron then
dissipates its energy in the external
circuit and returns to the solar cell. A
variety of materials and processes can
potentially satisfy the requirements for
photovoltaic energy conversion, but in
practice nearly all photovoltaic energy
conversion
uses
semiconductor
materials in the form of a p-n junction.

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RASHTREEYA VIDYALAYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

recombines, then the light-generated

electron-hole pair is lost and no current
or power can be generated.

FIGURE 5: cross section of a solar

cell.
XI. THE BASIC STEPS IN THE
OPERATION OF A SOLAR CELL
ARE:
The generation of lightgenerated carriers;
The collection of the lightgenerated carries to generate a
current;
The generation of a large
voltage across the solar cell;
and
The dissipation of power in the
load
and
in
parasitic
resistances.

XII. LIGHT GENERATED CURRENT

The generation of current in a solar
cell, known as the "light-generated
current", involves two key processes.
The first process is the absorption of
incident photons to create electron-hole
pairs. Electron-hole pairs will be
generated in the solar cell provided that
the incident photon has energy greater
than that of the band gap.
However, electrons (in the p-type
material), and holes (in the n-type
material) are meta-stable and will only
exist, on average, for a length of time
equal to the minority carrier lifetime
before they recombine. If the carrier

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

A second process, the collection of

these carriers by the p-n junction,
prevents this recombination by using a
p-n junction to spatially separate the
electron and the hole. The carriers are
separated by the action of the electric
field existing at the p-n junction. If the
light-generated
minority
carrier
reaches the p-n junction, it is swept
across the junction by the electric field
at the junction, where it is now a
majority carrier. If the emitter and base
of the solar cell are connected together
(i.e., if the solar cell is short-circuited),
the the light-generated carriers flow
through the external circuit. The ideal
flow at short circuit is shown in the
animation below.

FIGURE 5: the ideal short circuit

flow of electrons and holes at a p-n
junction. Minority carriers cannot cross
a semiconductor-metal boundary and
to prevent recombination they must be
collected by the junction if they are to
contribute to current flow.

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RASHTREEYA VIDYALAYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

FIGURE 6: creation of electron hole

pair

FIGURE 7: minority
becoming majority carriers

carriers

FIGURE 9: how solar cells create

energy
1.
2.

FIGURE 8: electron and hole meet

to complete the circuit.

3.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

REFERENCES
http://www.rooftopsolargujar
at.com/gpcl_rsg/technical_de
tails.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Passive_solar_building_desig
n
http://www.pveducation.org/
pvcdrom/solar-celloperation/light-generatedcurrent
http://www.pveducation.org/
pvcdrom/properties-ofsunlight
http://www.pveducation.org/
pvcdrom/solar-celloperation/solar-cell-structure
http://howsolarworks.1bog.or
g/different-types-of-solarpanels/
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Solar architecture
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Passive solar building design
http://www.igbc.in/site/igbc/t
estigbc.jsp?
desc=115708&event=115679

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RASHTREEYA VIDYALAYA COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING

10. http://www.greenbuildingsin
dia.com/GreenBuildings.html
11. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Green_building

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

12. roof-mounted
solar
photovoltaic array-by Collen
OBrie