Developing appropriate leadership styles

A Tesco case study

Page 2: Management and leadership
cmyk_everyThere is a difference between management and leadership.
Management is about getting things done. Managers organise human and physical
resources to achieve business aims and objectives. Leadership is about influencing,
motivating and inspiring people. It is about coaching and developing people,
treating them with respect but challenging them. Leaders seek to create strong
teams, with people committed to the organisations overall goals.

The process of managing starts with the target or objective to be achieved. A

manager must decide on the appropriate approach for reaching that target. The
manager then needs to communicate this approach clearly to his or her team and to
allocate tasks to each team member. Task allocation and delegation of responsibility
is part of the management function. However, other factors will also have an
influence on whether the target is achieved, including the task in hand, the skills of
the team and the style of leadership.
tesco-1The style of leadership can vary depending on the task. Some managers
allow teams to take charge of their own decision-making for many tasks. Team
leaders will set the objectives but empower team members to decide how these
objectives are achieved. This has several advantages. It helps to motivate
individuals in the team and it draws on the expertise of the members of the team.
Berian is a bakery manager
Berian manages a team of 17 in a Tesco in-store bakery. One of the key challenges
of Berians job is to ensure his team produces the right products to meet demand at
key times. His usual management approach is to allow the team to take
responsibility for achieving the desired result. In this way, the team not only buys
into the activity, but also develops new skills. For example, when the bakery
expanded its product range and Berian needed to ensure that all the products would
be on the shelves by 8.00 am, rather than enforce a solution, he turned to the team
for ideas. The team solved the problem by agreeing to split break times so that
productivity could be maintained. Berians approach produced a positive outcome
and increased team motivation.

Tescos leadership framework sets out not just the skills and competencies but also
the personal characteristics and behaviours it expects of its leaders. Tesco looks for
managers who are positive, confident and genuine, with the capacity to inspire and
encourage their teams. A key part of Tescos programme for building leaders is
encouraging self review and reflection. This allows staff to assess their strengths
and find ways of demonstrating the characteristics that are vital to the long-term
development of the business.

e 3: Leadership styles

The business writers Tannenbaum and Schmidt

categorised different leadership styles. They suggested that leadership styles could be
explained on a scale ranging from autocratic through democratic to laissez-faire.
The autocratic or authoritarian style is characterised by an I tell philosophy. Autocratic
leaders tell their staff what to do. This can give a business clear direction but it may also
lead managers to undervalue or ignore input from their teams. However, an autocratic
approach is appropriate in some situations. It is valuable when the business faces a
crisis or when an urgent problem arises that requires an immediate response.

Stephen is a Tesco store manager

Stephen is the manager of a medium-sized Tesco store. He has been with the company
for over 10 years and his first job was filling shelves in the dairy section. He is currently
working towards the Tesco foundation degree. Stephen directly manages a team of
around 20 departmental managers, who between them are responsible for almost 300

people. Stephens leadership style is usually to allow his managers to make most
operational decisions. However, if, for example, an accident occurs in the store,
Stephen may take control to ensure a prompt and co-ordinated response.
There are some leadership approaches that sit between autocratic and democratic.
These styles allow team participation up to a point. However, the manager reserves the
right to make the final decision.

Managers adopting an I sell philosophy will try to persuade their teams to accept their
viewpoint.
Managers adopting an I consult approach will seek the opinions of subordinates before
taking a decision. This is moving closer to a democratic style of management.

The best managers adopt leadership styles appropriate to

the situation. Stephens preferred leadership style is to take a democratic approach. He
consults widely as he feels that staff respond better to this approach. For example,
when planning a major stock reduction programme, he encourages his managers to put
forward ideas and develop plans. This increases team motivationand encourages
creativity. Some mistakes may be made, but they are used as a learning experience.
However, as a store manager, Stephen deals with many different situations. Some may
be business critical and it is important that he responds to these in the most appropriate
way. In such situations, Stephen may need to adapt his leadership approach and exert
more authority.

Martin is Tesco's Programme Manager for Education and

Skills

The democratic approach is characterised by an I share philosophy. Decisions are

made within teams, with each member having equal input. Martin is Tescos Programme
Manager for Education and Skills in the UK. He has a range of responsibilities
associated with people, processes and standards. Martin may use a democratic
approach when setting training budgets. Managers can suggest ideas to make cost
savings and they can jointly discuss their proposals with Martin. By empowering his
managers, he gets them to take ownership of the final agreed budget.
Laissez-faire is at the other end of the spectrum from autocratic. A laissez-faire manager
takes a hands-off approach and trusts teams to take appropriate decisions or actions
with broad agreed boundaries. For example, Martin might leave an experienced
departmental manager to develop a budget. This could be because he trusts that the
manager has a good knowledge of the needs of the department and of the business.

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Leadership styles in action

Although each person will have their own preferred leadership style, the most
effective leaders adopt a style appropriate for the situation. They will consider
several factors in deciding which style to use:

The task - Is it business critical? Must a decision be made immediately? What will be
the potential impact on the business?
The team - Does it have the right skills and resources? Is it used to making
decisions?
Tradition - What has been the norm in the past?
For example, Martin uses a more authoritarian style if something needs achieving in
a particular way or in a very quick timeframe. Sometimes budgets need to be
reduced quickly in order to make cost savings. Martin will tell managers what needs
to be done and by when, so that they can then resubmit their budgets in line with
expectations.
Stephen regards inspiring, guiding and influencing his staff as an important part of
his role. Sometimes he may need to informcmyk_hanley20 his teams about a new
in-store innovation or corporate initiative. Even though this is a 'tell' situation,
Stephen aims to 'sell' the idea. He tries to ensure that staff understand why it is
necessary. If his people are able to give their opinions, it is more likely that they will
readily support the initiative.
Managers have to be aware of the possible consequences of using the wrong style
in a particular situation. For example, Berian would not adopt a laissez-faire
approach with a new member of the bakery team. If the employee is not given
proper instruction before operating the baking equipment, the bread might be
overcooked. Employees might also injure themselves if they don't use the
equipment properly. In this situation, it is essential to adopt a 'tell' approach.

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Factors influencing leadership style

People at each level of responsibility in Tesco, from administrators and customer

assistants to directors, face different types of decisions. Each comes with its own
responsibilities and timescales. These will influence the most appropriate leadership
style for a particular piece of work or for a given project or audience.

cmyk_ramseyTesco managers have responsibilities for front of house (customerfacing) staff as well as behind the scenes employees, such as office staff. Before
making a decision, the manager will consider the task in hand, the people involved
and those who will be affected (such as customers). Various internal and external
factors may also affect the choice of leadership style used.
Internal factors include the levels of skill that employees have. Large teams may
have members with varying levels of skill. This may require the manager to adopt a
more directive style, providing clear communication so that everyone knows what to
do to achieve goals and tasks. On the other hand, team leaders may take a more
consultative approach with other managers of equal standing in order to get their
co-operation for a project. External factors may arise when dealing with customers.
For example, Berian may need to use a persuasive style to convince a customer to
accept a replacement product for an item that is temporarily out of stock.
Critical success factors (CSFs)
In order to build a sustainable and robust business, Tesco has set out critical success
factors (CSFs). These are linked at all levels to its business goals. Some CSFs apply
to all employees. These are:

customer focus to ensure delivery of every little helps

personal integrity to build trust and respect
drive to achieve results, even when the going gets tough
team working to ensure positive relationships in and across teams
developing self/others to motivate and inspire others.
Others are specific to the level of responsibility the person or role has and covers:
analysing and decision making
managing performance

managing change
gaining commitment.
By meeting the requirements of these CSFs, Tesco managers can build their
leadership skills & contribute to the growth of the business.

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Analysis of Leadership Styles

written by: nataliajonesedited by: Michele McDonoughupdated: 5/25/2011
Leaders are charged with the task of forging a path for the organizations they control, but there is more
than one way to get the job done. This article undertakes a leadership style analysis that highlights
differences and suggests when one form may be more appropriate than another.

Leadership Styles Explored

There are many different ways to lead and these styles are sometimes taken up
and practiced as pure methodologies but more often than not the leadership we experience and even the
leaders we become are a mixture of these styles. It is important nevertheless to identify what these styles
are so what follows is an analysis of the various leadership styles in existence.
1.
2.

Autocratic Leadership
Democratic Leadership

3.
4.

Laissez-fair Leadership
Transformational Leadership

Autocratic Leadership
What is Autocratic Leadership?
Autocratic leaders expect obedience, not understanding and input from their staff or followers. Under the
autocratic style, the leader is the maximum ruler and they make all the decisions without seeking any
input from those below them. It is characterized by very little trust and management relies on threats and
negative enforcement to get things done. Hitler is one of history's autocratic leaders and it is commonly
said that Martha Steward uses the same iron fist to rule her company. This style of leadership, though,
has been criticized terribly in the past few decades as the workforce has started to crave more input.
When is Autocratic Leadership Appropriate?
Despite the overwhelming amount of negativity surrounding this style of leadership there are certain
instances when it can be the best suited option. When employees are largely untrained and insecure, the
firm decisions that come down from an autocratic leader can be welcomed. When there is limited time to
get results or if their is a power struggle arising from lower levels an autocratic style might be able to
maintain order.
When is Autocratic Leadership Inappropriate?
In most instances, autocratic leadership must be taken in smaller doses. This style probably won't work
for an extended period, especially in modern organizations because Generation X employees expect to
have a different level of participation in the work environment and autocratic leaders eventually create
fear and low employee morale, which are both counter-productive.

Democratic Leadership
What is Democratic Leadership?
Democratic leadership can be described as the polar opposite of autocratic leadership. It is sometimes
referred to as a participative style because it is characterized by a more of a bottom-up approach.
Management empowers lower-level staff to establish goals and even to evaluate their own performance.
There is a constant flow of information up the chain of command. This style of leadership often enlists
greater employee commitment because everyone has a say in the direction of decisions so they are more
likely to try to make sure they succeed.
When is Democratic Leadership Appropriate?
Democratic leadership styles come in handy when there are complex problems to be addressed and they
require several different perspectives to come to some agreement. When there is a great focus on team

work and improving production based on this model of working in groups a democratic style is also
appropriate.
When is Democratic Leadership Inappropriate?
This leadership style can seem particularly attractive so it might be hard to think of situations where it
would not be useful, but when there is no time for mass consultation and the cost of making the wrong
decision is simply too high, the consultative democratic style may have to take a backseat. If the
workforce does not have the level of experience necessary to make decisions, the democratic style can
have devastating results.

Laissez-faire Leadership
What is Laissez-faire Leadership?
Continuing with the leadership style analysis, laissez-fair leadership must also be examined. This style of
leadership calls for the person at the head to allow those who follow to make their own decisions and
choose the path they think is best. The leader takes direction and advice from those placed in key
positions and this is in stark contrast to the democratic leader who invites input but reserves the right to
make the final decision. Under a laissez-faire approach the experienced staff members analyse, interpret
and arrive at a decision. Laissez-faire leaders should not choose this as a path to laziness but rather they
must have extreme trust in their team.
When is Laissez-faire Leadership Appropriate?
Laissez-faire leadership is only ever appropriate when the employees are subject area experts, and they
are capable of responsibly executing their duties. It is usually adopted when dealing with consultants or
other field specialists.
When is Laissez-faire Leadership Inappropriate?
Laissez-fair leadership should not be used stronger management input is required and it is not an excuse
to mask management incompetence.

Transformational Leadership
What is Transformational Leadership?
Transformational leaders lead by example. They are willing to take charge by standing front and center
and inspiring those who look up to them to perform in ways that are always reaching for excellence.
Transformational leaders seek to bring about some sort of change so they are characteristically
passionate and energetic. They are also usually charismatic, although the subtle difference between a
charismatic leader and a transformational one lies in a shift in focus, while the charismatic leader has a

strong belief in himself and is able to project that onto others, the transformational leader is there to sell
belief in a process and highlight that all hands need to be on deck to achieve the change.
When is Transformational Leadership Appropriate?
Adopting this style of leadership is great when there is a need for a change leader. If the situation calls for
conversion of ideas and processes towards a different way of thinking and doing, nothing is more
appropriate than a transformational leader.
When is Transformational Leadership Inappropriate?
The danger of transformational leadership is the sacrifice of substance for style. Transformational leaders
need to depend on a heavy dose of charisma to glamor their followers into accepting their chants for
change, but there needs to be a solid vision and plan of action to back-up their claims otherwise they may
direct their followers to disillusionment.

Choosing a Leadership Style

After careful analysis of just a few of the major leadership styles it is clear to see there are several to
choose from. The final choice must be based on a match between the needs of the company, the level of
experience of the employees and the preference and limitations of those at the helm.
Image: jscreationzs / FreeDigitalPhotos.net

Management styles in the oil and gas industry

An OPITO case study
Page 1: Introduction
OPITO The Oil & Gas Academy is the focal point for skills, learning and workforce
development for the oil and gas industry. Its role is to help employers to develop a
safe and competent workforce. The production of oil and gas is a key industry in the
primary sector and in the UK supports nearly half a million jobs. Of these, 380,000
work in oil and gas extraction from the area of the North Sea known as the UK
Continental Shelf (UKCS). A further 100,000 jobs are involved in the export of oilfield
goods and services. The industry makes an annual direct tax contribution to the
United Kingdom in excess of 10 billion.

The skills and competencies of this workforce are vital to ensure safe and reliable oil
and gas extraction. Only by having a safe and skilled workforce can the UK oil and
gas energy supply be sustained and security of supply be maintained. Over the
years the industry has built up considerable expertise. This has been exported
across the global exploration and production networks through the movement of
people. However the need for continuing staff training and skills development is
essential as the UK industry will exist for several decades to come. The needs of the
industry, technology and work practices are ever-changing. Therefore it is vital that
all learning reflects the changes in the business.
The role of OPITO - The Oil & Gas Academy is to work collectively with industry
employers and trade unions to establish common industry standards of safety and
competence. It also works with schools, colleges and universities to promote STEM
subjects (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) to students and show
why the oil and gas industry is an exciting and rewarding career choice. The
Academy works with employers to identify training needs both for essential
knowledge, like health and safety and for developmental needs such as technical
and leadership skills. Once these are agreed, the Academy provides the link to a
quality-assured learning network, for example, colleges and training providers who
deliver the relevant courses. The Academy also works in partnership with many
different organisations, including government, trade and enterprise bodies to
support the industry's development.
The oil and gas industry provides a wide range of career opportunities. Some are
offshore, working directly out on the rigs drilling for oil and gas and on fixed
installation oil and gas production platforms as part of the extraction process. For
example, Drilling Engineer Angus McCay works with high-tech drilling machinery
exploring potential reservoirs of oil under the sea floor. Paul Mallinson is a Control
Room Operator responsible for the day to day running of a floating production
storage vessel. Other roles are in commercial activities working onshore, such as in
buying and selling oil and gas or as part of the legal teams setting up contracts.

This case study examines how different management styles may be necessary to
support the variety of job roles within the oil and gas industry.

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Management and leadership

Management is about getting things done. Managers work in different ways to achieve
many diverse and often specific objectives. Theorists have tried to identify the functions
and processes that all managers carry out. The oil and gas industry contains many
layers of management within many types of organisation. Hierarchies are organisations
that are structured in layers. The managers in the higher levels have more seniority than
those further down.
Everything from geological exploration, drilling, technical and scientific support, human
resources, finance, maintenance, welding, sales, logistics, safety and emergency
planning falls within management responsibilities.
Henri Fayol, an early theorist, said that management had the following elements:
Planning looking ahead, consulting with others, setting objectives for staff
Organising arranging people and things so that objectives can be achieved
Commanding giving instructions to workers
Coordinating bringing activities together into a common approach
Controlling measuring what is happening and adjusting activities to achieve
goals.

The skills and aptitudes of oil and gas employees must be appropriate for their job roles
at every level:
Technical and scientific skills are needed in drilling and exploration to manage
complex equipment and processes.
Human skills are needed in managing staff.
Practical skills are needed in production operations, mechanical installation,
electrical plant maintenance and instrumentation and control systems.

The Academy has created a learning supply chain to

stimulate the movement of people within the industry and ensure they have the right
learning, skills, competence, attitudes and behaviours to work safely and effectively. The
supply chain starts by working with schools, colleges and universities to encourage new
entrants into the industry. It then links with learning, training and development partners
to ensure the employees have the required skills for roles throughout the industry.
Leadership differs from management. Leadership encompasses the skills and qualities
needed to inspire others to achieve goals. Leaders can see the heart of a problem and
suggest (sometimes unusual) solutions; they have a positive self image; they tend to be
creative; they are often experts in a field and can sense change and respond
accordingly. Many managers are also leaders, but people in the oil and gas industry are
encouraged to show leadership at every level. The industry has an inclusive and
involving culture so that even the newest Trainee Instrument Technician may spot a
better way of doing something and will be able to influence positive change.

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Critique of the Leadership Style of Steve Jobs

Kimberly Celse
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Strengthening Leadership & Management Kimberly Marie Celse TUW Department of

I-O Psychology 1 February 2, 2014
A Critique of the Leadership Style of Steve Jobs
Kimberly Marie Celse
Department of I-O Psychology Touro University Worldwide One of the most
controversial yet wildly successful leaders of our time, Steve Jobs mesmerized the
world with his passion for excellence yet infuriated many with his myopic drive. He
was an incredible visionary who revolutionized the personal computer industry and
gained devoted followers from the world over. Many waited with baited breath for
the latest iPhone, iPod, or iPad, and the craze of sales and infinite lines at Apple
stores portrayed to the world that this was, indeed, an extremely important
company with a leader who must be doing every single thing right in running his
company. But was this actually true? Dubbed by
his colleagues as having a Reality Distortion Field, which could be akin to bullying,
this
allowed him to push people to achieve feats on an extraordinary level (Isaacson,
2012). His untimely death proving that he was still yet a man, immortalized him
forever in our minds and in many hearts as a dreamer who realized his dreams

as many of his followers lived vicariously through his overwhelming

accomplishments. Researching Steve
Jobss
background, one can see some of the elements that led to the legend he became.
Adopted at birth, his adoptive parents had promised his birth mother that they
would send him to college. His adoptive father taught him electronics at an early
age and he had an average middle-class lifestyle. He was terribly bright in school
and even skipped a grade, but was known to be a prankster. A former college
dropout after just a semester, he
continued to audit classes and didnt seem to be worried about his futur
e. Growing up in the San Francisco Bay Area, he was likely influenced by two major
social movements in that area

the counterculture hippy, anti-war revolution starting in San Francisco, and the
Silicon Valley boom of high-tech innovation. He even went to India for a while to
connect with his spirituality and dabbled in LSD and other psychedelic drugs
(Isaacson, 2012). As Isaacson noted in his biography of Steve Jobs written in 2004,
his first twenty years of life were
Abandoned. Chosen. Special.
Those concepts became part of who Jobs was and how he
regarded himself. (Evans, 2012).
Steve Jobs had the ability to inspire people to share his passion and the belief that
they could achieve the seemingly impossible (Isaacson, 2012). California was a
hotbed of a culture of individualism and more and more people began contributing
to society in innovative ways irrespective of their race, gender, background,
socioeconomic, and educational level. His countercultural rebellious attitude
sparked a revolution of free thinkers who felt they had the
power to change the world and is reflected in his Think Different ads upon his
return to Apple, Heres to the crazy ones. The misfits. The rebels. The
troublemakers. The round pegs
in the square ho
le
While some see them as the crazy ones, we see genius. Because the
people who are crazy enough to think they can change the world are the ones who
do.
(Isaacson, 2012). I once had the opportunity to meet Steve Jobs at a technology
networking event in Silicon Valley,
and perhaps because I wasnt
a fan of Apple products at the time
, I wasnt intimidated
by his presence as so many others around me were at the time.
I wasnt aware of Jobs
s cult

Strengthening Leadership & Management Kimberly Marie Celse TUW Department of

I-O Psychology 2 February 2, 2014
status but I recall the intensity and focus in his eyes when he spoke. I was merely a
quiet observer in a group of enthusiastic listeners and what I expected would be a
group conversation was immediately dominated by essentially a question and
answer session with this modern day guru. As I recall, it was all quite fascinating,
but I was already quite used to this kind of exchange in that industry. I got the
feeling people were constantly picking his brains and he seemed to enjoy telling
people his ideas and how well Apple was doing. As his innovations have been copied
the world over, so has also been his leadership style. His strive for complete
perfection in spite of profitmaking and peoples feelings pushed people
beyond their boundaries, and he expected his engineers to be on the level of
artists. He even went as far as having them line up PC chips perfectly and having
their signatures engraved in
the cases of the products, commenting Real artists sign their work (Isaacson,
2012). Yet he
was also known as being rude, rough, and impatient. Antagonizing and insulting
others with his superior genius. But how is it that such negative traits could also
emanate from a leader who inspired and transformed people? But what was his
particular leadership style that made him such a huge success? Did he honestly
even hone leadership skills or did he just run things based on his personality alone?
After pouring over effective leadership theories, how is it that
Jobs
s approach could even
remotely be classified as positively effective? He was consi
dered dictatorial, controlling every step along during the product design phase, and
often reprimanded and humiliated staff in front of others (de Silva, 2011). But
indeed, he really did see himself as a leader as opposed to just a manager, director,
or CEO (Arlen, 2011). Jobs
practised a form of tough love leadership. He was incredibly hard on his
employees yet showered them with praise
when they fulfilled what he wanted. A 2011 study out of Cornell University,
University of Notre Dame, and University of Western Ontario found that
disagreeable leaders were more highly regarded and received higher salaries than
agreeable ones (Badass-Boss, 2014). Other

leaders who have tried to copy his tough love approach have often failed by not
understanding that loyalty needs to be in place in order for such a tactic to work
(Isaacson, 2012). Looking at the various popular theories of trait, behavioural, and
situational theories, I
will attempt to analyse Steve Jobss leadership approach and the positive and
negative
aspects of such.
Trait Leadership
If we take a look at the trait theory of leadership which was developed in the 1940s,
Steve Jobs definitely had a tremendous amount of charisma going for him. His style
is a mixture of several traits, with some unconventional and unpopular ones thrown
in for added impression. We find, however, that the most driving trait factors for
effective leadership are extraversion (sociability), followed by conscientiousness
(determination & integrity), openness, and low-neuroticism (Northhouse 2013).
Although his social graces are in question, Jobs certainly seemed to have no fear of
people and was very proactive in meeting and working with them. He believed in
face-to-face meetings and spontaneous meetings and discussions (Isaacson, 2012).
The second trait of conscientiousness certainly applied to him. He was driven by his
vision and held true to his self and his beliefs despite criticism. His Zen training
taught him how to focus and he often overlooked ordinary day-to-day things that his
family and friends deemed important, even his health issues (Isaacson, 2012). He
rarely wavered from the integrity of his products and ideas
and wasnt driven by profit like so many others
. An amazing product line and giving customers what they wanted is what mattered
most and falls in line with his high integrity. As for openness, he possessed it for
new ideas that drove the creative force behind Apple; but how open he was to
implementing the ideas of others and

Strengthening Leadership & Management Kimberly Marie Celse TUW Department of

I-O Psychology 3 February 2, 2014
giving them credit for it remains debatable. In fact, he was often criticized for
plagiarizing new ideas presented by his competitors and followers (Evans, 2012).
The final major personality aspect of low-ne
uroticism doesnt fit
Jobs

s
approach. He was known to be neurotic due to his worry, contempt and envy of
competitors, and extreme obsession even with the smallest of details (Evans, 2012).
Northhouse points out that another way to assess the effectiveness of trait
leadership is by considering emotional intelligence. It is considered by many
researchers to be comprised of both personal and social competencies. Personal
competencies being self-awareness, self-confidence, self-regulation,
conscientiousness, and motivation. We have already pointed out that Jobs was
conscientious and motivated to certain degrees, yet his self-awareness and selfregulation were certainly lacking through evidence of his often abusive and
obsessive behaviour. Additionally, although he publicly displayed tremendous selfconfidence, he ironically
often broke down and cried when he felt that he had not been treated fairly
(Evans, 2012). Although trait theory boasts the largest body of research, it is often a
difficult style to apply because it is an intuitive approach and the traits are usually i
nherited and cant be
learned. As
commented by Evans, His perfectionism was legendary, but so were his disloyalty,
abrasiveness, abusiveness, and lack of generosity, both financial and otherwise
(2012).

Its
likely that much of his disagreeableness led to his first dismissal from Apple. It was
only when the company was in trouble was when he was invited to return. One
wonders if Jobs could have accomplished just as much if he had only treated people
with a little more decency. He admitted that he might have, but that he would have
betrayed his true nature by suppressing his unpleasant personality traits (Isaacson,
2012).
Behavioural Leadership
As laid out by Doyle and Smith, behavioural leadership dominated the 1950s and
1960s and the focus moved from traits to how leaders behaved. This type of
leadership generally comprised of four basic styles (2001): 1) Concern for task

priority in productivity and ways to meet objectives, 2) Concern for people


priority in the needs, interests, desires of follower, 3) Directive leadership

leaders make decisions and expect followers to follow, and 4) Participative

leadership

leaders share decision-making with others (Doyle & Smith, 2001). Further research
and development into the area of behavioural theories discovered more distinct
categories based on original research. The newly defined categories are:

Task-oriented behaviours

Relational-oriented behaviours

Change-oriented behaviours

Passive leadership (Derue et al., 2011)

Task-oriented behaviours:
This falls under what is known as transactional leadership and involves the pairing
of concern for task and directive leadership. In this style, leaders offer contingent
rewards depending on the successful completion of tasks, as well as punishment for
failure of achievement. They are directive in that they make decisions and expect
subordinates to follow, generally without question. There is evidence to show he
engaged in a strong transactional approach. He would show the end result of
projects to his followers and lay out every single step on how to get to it and dictate
how to conduct each step (de Silva,