PB Network 65

Prepared by
and for the

employees of
PB
Issue No. 65 Volume XXII Number 1

http://www.pbworld.com/news_events/publications/network
Linking Two
Continents:
The
Marmaray
Project
Middle East:
The
Place
To Be
CONTENTS
Part 1: Linking Two Continents

The Marmaray Project
Part 2: Middle East The Place To Be
Iki Kitanin Baglanmasi: Marmaray Projesi.........3

Introduction: Excitement Abounds:
Projects, Places and People (ONeill).................5
Part 1: Linking Two Continents

Overview and History
TABLE OF
An Exciting and Challenging Project

(Horgan, Jenkins) ............................................................6
A Rich History (Grantz, Kennedy).......................9
The Bosphorus Crossing: Is it PBs Longest
Tunnel in the World? (Tanal) ..............................11
Contracts and Organization
Contract Strategy (Harrison)...............................12

Organisation and Management Present
Challenges and Opportunities (Lykke,
Horgan, Sakaeda, and Belkaya) ............................15
Immersed Tunnel
Immersed Tunnel Construction (Grantz)......20

Geotechnical Issues for the Bosphorus
Tunnel (Castelli, Simsek)..........................................23
Seismic Assessment and Earthquake Resistant
Design Considerations (Wang, Erdik).............26
Hydraulic Modeling for Submersion of
Immersed Tunnel Elements (Ramsden)..........31
Immersed Tunnel Designs (Ingerslev)..............33
Stations, Bored Tunnels and E&M Systems
Progress of Station and Bored Tunnel

Construction (Horgan)............................................37
Ventilation System (Gilbey, Hunt, Kennedy,
Drake, Babur, McKinney) .........................................40
Auxiliary Power Supply Design for
Stations, Tunnels and Ventilation
Buildings (Beard, Egemen) ...............................44
Dual Signalling Systems (Williams)....................46
Fire Fighting System (Bresner, Biggs) ................47
Flood Protection (Horgan)....................................50
Architecture: Three New Underground
Stations in Istanbul (Peterson, Buket)..............53
Rolling Stock
Train of Thought: Selection of Rail Car

Design Requirements (Nickeson) .....................56
Guest Editors for this issue:

Amer Khan, Roy Pemberton,
Anas Kassem, Daniel Horgan,
Bill Kennedy
NOTE: Soon after distribution, this
issue will be available on the web at
http://www.pbworld.com/news_events/
publications/network/Issue_65/65_
index.asp
Part 2: Middle East

The Place To Be
Transportation Infrastructure
Road Improvement Schemes for Kuwait

(Mohammed) .............................................................59
Developing a Road Network for a

New City in Kuwait (Ahmad).............................62
Upgrading and Maintaining of Kuwaits
Motorway Bridges (Horsfield, Kassem) .........64
Bridge Design Experience: A Major
Construction Tool for Design-Build
Bridge Projects (Ismaily) .........................................67
Traffic Management
Abu Dhabis TIMS: Traffic Counting and
Operational Analysis (COPAS) (Ghaly) ........69
Abu Dhabis TIMS: Accident Referencing
and Analysis System (Mahany)............................72
Transit Oriented Development
Transit Oriented Development for
Dubai Metro (Khan) .................................................74
Sustainable Development
Workshop on Sustainable Development and
Its Barriers to Change in the Middle East
(Pemberton/Khan) .....................................................77
Power
400 kV Interconnection of Abu Dhabi
Island (Bullock) .............................................................79
Risk Management
Avoiding Construction Risk Through Proactive
Project Management (Judge, Pemberton) .......81
NETWORKING
Being a Female Engineer in Kuwait
(Barghash) .......................................................................85
Project Management: Tracking Costs of
Poor Quality (Loduca).............................................86
Demand Management for Sydney CBD
and Inner West Area (Duo, Jaksic) ...................90
R&I: Design and Construction
Considerations for Offshore Wind
Turbine Foundations (Malhotra) ......................92
Computer Tutor: Turning on a Pivot
(Wible) .....................................................................................96
Powerpoint Tools for Aligning Objects
(Hinshaw)........................................................................97
Planetwise: Envisioning Consequences
(Ornektekin, Baga,Tanal)........................................99
Writers Block: The Two-Mile Dash
(Nixon)........................................................................100
Space Track: Benefits and Lessons of Product
Life-cycle Management (Loweff)................Web*
Globetrotters: An Expatriate in the United
Arab Emirates (Baga) ............................................101
In Future Issues ...................................................103
The Net View: Igloo Stew (Clark)...........104
* This article is available at the PB Network Web site, http://www.pbworld.com/news.events/publications/network

PB Network #65
PB Network #65
TABLE OF CONTENTS
11
12
15
20
23
26
31
TURKISH TRANSLATION
6
(CONTINUED)
TURKISH TRANSLATION
TABLE OF CONTENTS
33
37
40
44
46
47
50
53
56
PB Network #65
http://www.pbworld.com/news_events/publications/network/
PBs projects often change the way people travel, live and conduct business, and those covered in this issue of PB Network are among the best in those regards. Featured in Part I,
Turkeys Marmaray Project will dramatically reduce the time it takes people to cross the
Bosphorus Straits between the two sides of Istanbul, one in Europe and one in Asia. It is also
an engineering marvel in many ways, featuring the worlds deepest immersed tunnel. Many of
our world-renowned technical experts and many of our rising stars have worked on this
project, as you will see when you read through the rich array of articles that follows. We are
also privileged to feature articles written by or with members of our clients staff, who hold
this publication in high esteem.
Part 2 of this issue gives a flavor of some of the exciting work PB has underway in
the Middle East, where we now have a staff of nearly 400. The tremendous amount of new
development in this region is breaking all precedents for progress. In Kuwait, we are planning
a roadway network for an entirely new city. In Abu Dhabi, we are more than doubling the
power supply to Abu Dhabi Island. In Dubai, we are helping to bring alive what is perhaps the
most vivid illustration of the Middle East visionPalm Island, considered by many to be the
eighth wonder of the world. It is often necessary to pause to catch ones breath in this highly-paced scene created by so many mega projects.
PBs global reach is also well illustrated in this issue. In commenting on the Marmaray project,
Keith Hawksworth, Chief Operating Officer, International, said, This exciting project is a
showcase for PBs worldwide capability. Project staff members were drawn from offices in
New York, New York and Portland, Oregon, in the US and Godalming and Newcastle in the
UK. Mobilization and deployment of staff worldwide is nothing new to PB; nonetheless, optimizing the talents of people from different cultures speaking different languages requires
careful planning and coordinated management. Our work on Middle East projects has also
drawn staff members from PBs offices around the world. People from the US, UK, Turkey,
Australia, Taiwan and Hong Kong with the experience, ambition and desire to contribute to
the success of these new tiger economies are taking part in the short- and long-term opportunities created there. Anyone who has been with PB for more than a few years knows we
have come a long way.
It is an honor to introduce this issue of PB Network and to have the opportunity to say to
the authors and our staff that we are very proud of the excellent work you are doing in
Turkey and the Middle East.
Tom ONeill
President and Chief Executive Officer
PB Network #65
INTRODUCTION
Excitement Abounds: Projects,

Places and People
Linking Two Continents: The Marmaray Project Overview and History
An Exciting and Challenging Project

By Daniel Horgan, Istanbul, Turkey 90 216 349 5997 horganD@pbworld.com; and Mike Jenkins, London, UK 44(0) 207 798 2400,
jenkinsM@pbworld.com
The authors present an

overview of the exciting
and challenging Marmaray Project that is
under construction in
Turkey and will link
Europe and Asia with a
new rail crossing. They
discuss some of the
major challenges and
benefits, the contract
structure and PBs role.
Figure 1: Alignment and

major stations of Turkeys
76-km (47-mile) -long
Marmaray Project.
ci
ali
Halk
hor
Bo
sp
pi
a
Yenik
us
Sirke
ISTANBUL
rnu
Z. Bu
koy
Bakir
The Marmaray Project is one of the largest transportation infrastructure projects underway in
the world. It encompasses Turkeys 76-km (47-mile)-long upgraded or new railway extending
from Halkal to Gebze and includes the first rail crossing of the Bosphorus Straits (Figures 1
and 2). It marks a major step forward in transportation in Turkey, which is expected to be
the future frontier of the European Union. The project is scheduled for completion in 2011
for an estimated cost of $3.0 billion U.S.
Referred to also as the Bosphorus Crossing, Bosphorus Rail Tunnel Project and Istanbul
Commuter Railway Upgrade, the Marmaray Project was named by combining Marmara,
the name of the sea off Istanbuls south coast, with ray, the Turkish word for rail.
The project is ambitious in scale, scope and schedule. Its main structures and systems include:
The 1.4-km (0.9-mile)-long immersed tunnel under the Bosphorus
Bored tunnels 9.8 km (6.1 miles) long
Cut and cover tunnels 2.4 km (1.5 miles) long
Three huge new underground stations
250 linear km (155 linear miles) of new track
Thirty-seven new surface stations
An operations control centre
Rail yards, workshops, and maintenance facilities
Electrical and mechanical (E&M) systems,
including tunnel ventilation, train control,
sa
arpa
Hayd
system integration and signaling; and a
N
esme
tiu C
25 kV overhead electrification system.
Sogu

e
USKUDAR
p
e
Rolling stock (rail vehicles).
Malt
13.3 km
Tunnel
19.6 km
to Halkali
al
Kart
ik
Pend
43.4 km
to Gebze
e
Gebz
Marmara Sea
Figure 2: Approximate alignment of the immersed

tunnel under the Bosphorus Straits.
The requirement that all the tunnels and

stations be designed to remain operational
after an earthquake of 7.5 moment magnitude
adds to its complexity, as do the facts that
the tunnels are larger than normal rail tunnels
and the trains are larger that average trains.
The railway will support massive 10-car transit trains, Intercity

(high-speed) trains that will be capable of traveling from Berlin to
Baghdad and, possibly, freight service.
PBs Involvement
PBs involvement dates back to 1985 when we undertook a feasibility
study for the Bosphorus Crossing. We concluded that such a connection
would be feasible and cost-effective. Todays alignment was selected
back then as the best of a range of potential alignments. Interestingly,
Walter Grantz, PBs project manager at that time, is now back on the
job at the age of 77 as the immersed tunnel construction supervisor.
Our most recent involvement came about in February 2002, when
Avrasyaconsult, a joint venture with which PB is an associate partner,
PB Network #65
Marmaray Project Key Facts

Some of the names, facts and figures that are
key to the articles about the Marmaray Project
include the following.
Employer (owner): DLH
Demiryollar Limaniar ve Hava Meydanlari Insaati
Genel Mdrlg (the General Directorate of
Railways, Harbours and Airports Construction)
Employers Representative:
Avrasyaconsult, a joint venture led by Pacific
Consultants International.
Other JV members are:
Yuksel Proje, Turkey
Japan Railway Technical Service (JARTS), Japan
Oriental Consultants, Japan
PBs Role: JV associate partner
Cost: $3 billion US
Construction Period: 2004 to 2011
Tunnel Lengths:
Immersed: 1.4 km (0.9 mile)
Bored: 9.8 km (6.1 miles)
Cut-and-Cover: 2.4 km (1.5 miles)
Total Project Length:
76 km (47 miles)
Underground Stations: 3
Surface Stations: 37
Train Capacity: 3500 passengers
Table 1: PB staff who have worked on

the project since 2001.
Name
Mathew
Beard
Julian
Bresner
Ray
Castelli
Simon
Drake
Niem
Gany
Mark
Gilbey
Email
BeardM@pbworld.com
BresnerJ@tiscali.co.uk
Castelli@pbworld.com
DrakeS@pbworld.com
GanyN@pbworld.com
Gilbey@pbworld.com
Walter
Grantz
won a long-term contract to provide design, tender preparation and construction

supervision as Employers Representative. The owner (employer) is the General
Directorate of Railways, Harbours and Airports Construction (DLH), part of the
Ministry of Transport and Communications. The lead joint venture partner and
PBs client is Pacific Consultants International, a leading Japanese consultant. The
other three partners are Yuksel Proje from Turkey, and Japan Railway Technical
Service (JARTS) and Oriental Consultants from Japan (see box at left).
PB is leading the immersed tunnel design and construction teams, and the electrical
and mechanical team for the entire project. Other significant PB contributions
include station architecture, hydraulics, marine environmental issues, and analysis,
design review and construction supervision for seismic, and geotechnical and
railtopics that are described in the articles that follow.
From late 2002 to late 2004, Ali Zubaidi was the project manager and Tony Mustard
the principal in charge. Both have since left the project, with Ali now serving as
project manager for the Baghdad to Basra Railway feasibility study and Tony as
programme director for the Mersey Tram Project. Since November 2004, we
have taken on those roles. [Ed. note: Daniel Horgan is project manager and
Mike Jenkins is principal in charge.]
From November 2004 until July 2006, George Mackellar was the project corporate
sponsor. Jonathan Le Maistre, Chris Purcell and David Adby have led the excellent
project financial administration and support system. PB staff members who have
worked on the project since 2002 are listed in Table 1 at left.
PB
Home Project
Designation Base Position
Principal
UK Electrical
Engineer
Engineer
Associate
UK Mechanical
Consultant
Engineer
Senior
USA Geotechnical
Engineering
Expert
Manager
Principal
UK SES Programme
Engineer
Engineer
Principal
UK Communication
Engineer
Engineer
Principal
UK Ventilation
Engineer
System Engineer
USA Construction
Supervisor
(Immersed Tunnel)
Daniel
Horgand@pbworld.com
Senior
Inter- Design and
Horgan
Engineering national Construction
Manager
Supervisor
(Electrical and
Mechanical)
Kate
HuntK@pbworld.com
Principal
UK SES Programme
Hunt
Engineer
Engineer
Christian Ingerslev@pbworld.com
Senior
USA Design
Ingerslev
Engineering
Supervisor
Manager
(Immersed Tunnel)
Bill
Kennedy@pbworld.com
Senior
USA Tunnel
Kennedy
Engineering
Ventilation
Manager
Expert
John
McGlenJ@pbworld.com
Lead
UK Electrical
McGlen
Engineer
Engineer
Crinu
MegiesanA@pbworld.com
Lead
Inter- Signalling
national Engineer
Megiesan
Engineer
Mike
MoonM@pbworld.com
Senior
UK Safety Expert
Moon
Technical
Specialist
Chris
Pawson@pbworld.com
Lead
UK SCADA and Fare
Pawson
Engineer
Collection Engineer
Kevin
Petersondesign@centurytel.net Associate
USA Station Layout
Peterson
Consultant
Planner
Jerry
Ramsden@pbworld.com
Supervising USA Hydrography
Ramsden
Engineer
Expert
Vahan
Tanal@pbworld.com
Head of
USA Dredging
Tanal
Harbours
Specialist
and Ports
Joe
WangJ@pbworld.com
Senior
USA Seismic
Wang
Engineering
Protection
Manager
Specialist
Dave
WilliamsDa@pbworld.com
Principal
UK Signalling System
Williams
Engineer
Engineer
Ali
Zubaidi
WGrantz@avrasyaconsult.com Associate
Consultant
ZubaidiA@pbworld.com
PB Network #65
Senior
Inter- Design Supervisor
Supervising national (Electrical and
Engineer
Mechanical)
Challenges
Our challenges have been of a diverse nature. For example, with Istanbuls
unique history as capital of three great empiresEastern Roman, Byzantine
and Ottomanextensive archaeological excavations were required before
construction of the stations could begin. While several significant discoveries
have been made, including the site of the original port of Constantinople
and a Byzantine naval long boat, uncovering and protecting such treasures
requires the rapid rescheduling of work activities.
Other challenges have included:
Immersing a tunnel in one of the worlds busiest waterways with strong
and unpredictable currents
Communicating among people with different work cultures and expectations
Designing and constructing all tunnels and stations in accordance with
the highest international earthquake standards
Overlaying two signalling systems to cater for intercity and commuter
trainsa feat that requires extensive integration and commissioning
management
Designing the fire-life-safety systems required for a 100-MW freight train
design basis fire.
Contract Structure
The project was divided into the three main contracts described below,1 all
of them being prepared for a design-and-build procurement in accordance
with the FIDIC silver book: 2
The BC1 (Bosphorus Crossing) contract covers the 14 kms (8.5 miles)
of two-track, immersed, bored, and cut-and-cover tunnels under Istanbul
and the Bosphorus Straits. It includes the tracks, three new underground
stations, and all related E&M systems. This contract was awarded to the 4
This difficult
and extremely
challenging
project pushes
the limits of
technology;
however,
the great
improvements
that it will
bring to the
Turkish people are among
its unifying
and driving
forces.
Daniel Horgan,
PBs project
Related Web Sites:
Japanese and Turkish joint venture of Taisei, Kumagai, Gama and Nurol with a commencement
date of August 2004.
The CR1 (commuter rail) contract encompasses all the infrastructure and tracks on
the 62-km (38.5-mile)-long, 3-track surface alignment, including all railway and electrification
systems, the 37 surface stations, operations control centre, and rail yards, workshops and
maintenance facilities. This contract was awarded to the French, Japanese and Turkish joint
venture of Alstom, Marubeni and Dogus with a commencement date of June 2007.
The CR2 contract covers all rolling stock (440 cars). It is scheduled for award in 2008.
The considerable progress made as of February 2007 is as follows:
Detailed design under BC1 was 70 percent complete.
Archaeological works were 80 percent complete.
The first three tunnel boring machines had commenced tunneling.
Dredging and compaction grouting of the Bosphorus Straits was complete.
Station excavation and construction were underway.
Preparatory works had commenced for the installation of the new power substations
and diesel generator compounds.
On 24th March, 2007 the first element of the immersed tunnel was towed in the Bosphorus
Straits and submersed into its final location in the trench at the bottom of the sea bed. This
was indeed a landmark day for transportation in Istanbul!
Marmaray Project
www.marmaray.com
Japan Bank for
International Cooperation
www.jbic.go.jp
European Investment
Bank www.eib.europa.eu
FIDIC www.fidic.org
Benefits
New, modern, world-class stations and fully air-conditioned rolling stock with full access for
wheelchair bound passengers will be provided. Several of the new stations will provide
seamless interchanges with the planned new tram and existing commuter and Intercity
(high speed rail) systems.
A following article entitled

Contract Strategy by Richard
Harrison tells how this particular three-contract strategy was
decided upon. The author also
discusses the advantages and
disadvantages of single contract
and multi-contract strategies.
Founded in Belgium in 1913
and now with members from 67
countries, FIDIC (the Fedration
Internationale des IngnieursConseils, or International
Federation of Consulting
Engineers) has gained international prestige for its standard
forms of contracts. Its silver
book, published in 1999, deals
with fixed priced build-operatetransfer and EPC ( engineer,
procure and construct) contracts.
Confined disposal facilities
isolate contaminated dredged
material. Sediments settle out
and the accompanying water
evaporates or percolates
through the walls or into the
ground. These facilities are
relatively efficient at preventing
recontamination of the
surrounding environment.
Upon completion of the project, the number of passenger journeys by train in Istanbul are
expected to increase from 3 percent to 27 percent. Crossing the Bosphorus Straits by train
will take only 4 minutes, in comparison to the 10-minute ferry ride or the 30-minute to
60-minute car ride across the heavily congested bridge. The current 185-minute rail to ferry
to rail trip from Halkali to Gebze is expected to take only 104 minutes.
Vehicle pollution will be lowered dramatically, along with road congestion in metropolitan
Istanbul. Sustainable development features include using prefabricated elements and establishing
a confirmed disposal facility for contaminated dredged materials.3 In addition, the Bosphoruss
rich aquatic habitat will not be affected, nor will its water currents or salinity, and the spectacular
views over the Bosphorus and Istanbuls historic skyline will be preserved.
Special Thanks
This issue features some articles written, co-written, or reviewed by our Avrasyaconsult
partners, Pacific Consultants International, Yuksel Proje and Sial. Special thanks to Steen Lykke,
Hideki Sakaeda, Huseyin Balkaya, David Nickeson, Richard Harrison, Zeynep Buket, Reha Egemen,
Melih Babur, Orhan Simsek and Mustafa Erdik of Bogazici University; and Daniel M. McKinney
of Earth Tech. Special thanks are extended also to DLH for the opportunity to work on this
exciting and historic project.
Mike Jenkins is the director of rail for Europe and Africa. He is a distinguished civil engineer with a proven record in
project management and contract administration on large railway, highway and building construction projects. Mike is
principal-in-charge for the Edinburgh Tram, East London Line, Dublin Metro North and the Marmaray Projects.
Daniel Horgan is a chartered engineer, fellow of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, senior engineering manager, certified
senior project manager and professional associate. He has worked on design and construction of mass transit systems, railways
and buildings in Singapore, Turkey and the UK. Daniel is currently PBs project manager on the Marmaray Project.
PB Network #65
A Rich History
By Walter Grantz, Istanbul, Turkey 90 538 612 7506 wgrantz@avrasyaconsult.com; and Bill Kennedy, New York, New York 1-212-465-5588
kennedy@pbworld.com
The authors present a

brief but interesting
history of the Marmaray
Project area, the project
itself, and PBs early
involvement.
Present day Istanbul was founded in circa 658 B.C. by a Greek colony from Megara on the
site then occupied by the Thracian village of Lygos. Called Byzantion, the city was named
after Byzas,the chief of the Megarian expedition, and later changed to Byzantium. After
conquest by the Romans circa 330 A.D., the city was renamed Constantinople after the
Christian Roman Emperor Constantine I. Shortly thereafter, it was chosen as the new capital
of the Roman Empire and later become the capital of the Eastern Roman Empire. Then in
1453, Ottoman Sultan Mehmed II conquered the city and made it the capital of the
Ottoman Empire.
Figure 1: Santa Sofia, which was built as a

magnificent church during the reign of the
Byzantine Emperor Justinian (527-565 AD),
was converted into a mosque in the 15th
century. It is now designated a United
Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage site.
From then on the metropolis was dubbed Istanbul from the Greek
phrase eis ten polin, which meant in the city, although the name was
not changed officially until 1930. Interestingly, when Kemal Mustafa
Ataturk, the first leader of the Turkish Republic, selected a capital he chose
Ankara instead, then a small town in central Turkey that has since grown
into a very modern, well organized city.
Today, Istanbul is bustling yet charming. Having been the capital of great
empires, it is full of historic buildings, ruins, artifacts and has much mystique
(Figures 1 to 4). With its population of more than 12 million, Istanbul is
the largest city in the Republic of Turkey. It sits on both sides of the
BosphorusEuropean and Asian.
Modern Turkey
Figure 2: Church
of St. Irene. The
original church,
which was host to
the 2nd Christian
Council in 381 AD
was burned down,
and then rebuilt
in 532 AD.
Figure 3: The 15th century Rumeli Fortress
was built on the western side of the Bosphorus
by Sultan Mehmed II of the Ottoman empire.
The Republic of Turkey, secular and modern in outlook, is a member of

the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) and the Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD). It has commenced
negotiations to join the European Union (EU).
Each year since 2002,Turkeys economy has grown by about 7.5 percent, with
gross domestic product (GDP) per capita having been $5,015 in 2005 (No. 19
of 183 according to the World Bank). Turkeys economic drivers vary greatly
from west to east, however. The bulk of modern industry is based around
Istanbul, Ankara and the Aegean coast, and the estimated GDP per capita
in Istanbul is $8,000. Much of eastern Turkey has an agricultural economy.
The Bosphorus Straits

Only 1.6 km (1-mile) wide, the Bosphorus connects the Mediterranean
Sea and Black Sea via the Sea of Marmara. It is the channel through which
the Black Sea and the Danube, Dnieper and Don Rivers drain. These flows
provide a fast-moving fresh-water surface layer 15-m (50-feet) thick that
is underlain by slower salt water from the Sea of Marmara moving in the
opposite direction.
Figure 4: Topkapi
Palace, also built
during the 15th
century by Sultan
Mehmed II, was
his principal
residence and
that of his harem.
PB Network #65
Winds and barometric pressure differences have the greatest influence on

current variation, however, causing water to pile up at the Black Sea mouth
of the Bosphorus and currents to vary at their whim. Variations in velocity
of 9.3 kph (5 knots) can occur in a single day. Unlike lunar tides, these
variations are extremely difficult to predict when trying to schedule
construction within an adequate window of time.
4
Project Background and History

An underwater crossing of the Bosphorus is not an ordinary tunnel project. Its special
challenges of depth, seismic exposure, unstable ground, unpredictably high currents and heavy
marine traffic, and the restrictions imposed by rail gradients have made this tunnel a tough
nut to crack. It took a long time before all the technological and funding resources came
together to enable actually building it.
The idea of a railway tunnel under the Bosphorus was first proposed in 1860 as an underwater
bridge by the Ottoman Sultan Abdul Mecit. A method of subaqueous tunnel construction was
not to emerge as a viable technology for road or rail transpor t for another half century,
however. In 1902, a similar design for a Bosphorus tunnel was considered, this time with the
tunnel lying on the seabed, but it was never built.
The hydraulic work conducted

more recently for the underground immersed tunnel is
discussed in a following
article, Hydraulic Modeling
for Submersion of Immersed
Tunnel Elements by
Jerald Ramsden.
Walter Grantz, an associate

consultant now with Avrasyaconsult, is a recognized
authority on immersed tube
tunnel design and construction.
In his 40+ year career with PB
he has undertaken feasibility
studies, preliminary design,
final design and construction
management of heavy marine
construction projects, including
port facilities, bridges and
several immersed tunnels
around the world.
William (Bill) Kennedy has
been a tunnel ventilation
engineer with PB for 35 years.
He is a vice president and
principal professional associate
at PB, and is a registered
professional engineer. Bill has
worked on the development
of the Subway Environment
Simulation (SES) computer
program since its inception,
specializing in the aerodynamics
and fire models, and he has
worked on transit, road and
mainline rail tunnel projects
around the world. He is a
member of the American Society
of Heating, Refrigerating and Air
Conditioning Engineers and was
chair of its Technical Committee
5.9, Enclosed Vehicular
Facilities 1993-1996. He is
a member of the National Fire
Protection Association and
chair of its committee for
Standard 130, Fixed Guideway
Transit and Passenger Rail
Systems; and Chair of the
American Public Transportation
Associations Ventilation Forum.
In the 1980s, various alignment and traffic studies were made that eventually led to preliminary
engineering by PB for both the Istanbul Metro and the commuter rail connection. The latter
two-track, twin-tunnel connection was about 14 km (9 miles) long. It started at Yedikule,
continued through a new station at Yenikapi, passed under the old city through to a deep station
at Sirkeci, then went on an embankment under the Bosphorus before rising through a deep
station at skdar and continuing through the Asian hillside to connect with the existing rail
system at Sogutlucesme near the historic main rail terminus on the Asian side at Haydarpsa.
An interesting aspect of this alignment was the potential environmental impact of having an
underwater embankment crossing the deeper portion of the Bosphorus. Because of this, plus
the difficulties anticipated in placing the immersed tunnel elements in the strong current flows
in both directions, an important part of the work involved the development of a computer
model for the current flow in the Bosphorus.
A year-long program of hydrographic measurements, including current profiles and cross sections,
temperature, salinity and conductivity, was undertaken in the Bosphorus from out in the Black
Sea all the way to the Sea of Marmara at the other end. At one point the survey boat crew
was challenged by a Turkish gunboat bristling with machine guns and asked to explain how their
presence in the Black Sea related to a tunnel 50 km (31 miles) away in Istanbul!
The results of the measurements were the basis for a modeling study contracted for by the
Danish Hydraulic Institute and were used for the preliminary designs. As it turned out, the
Turkish military eventually quashed the idea of a tunnel on an embankment, leading to todays
tunnel below the natural bottom of the Bosphorus.1
Geotechnical studies also proved to be interesting. The Bosphorus averages about six or
more cargo transport ships per hour (some 52,000 per year). During the geotechnical studies
at the bottom of the Bosphorus with a drill barge anchored out in the navigation channel, this
heavy traffic was a real hazard at night. Boats actually grazed the barge on a few occasions,
causing the watchman to quit.
A portion of the Metro system (proposed for the European side only) went on to final design
and construction for the section from the center of town at Taksim Square to the northern
commercial area of 4 Levent, but the commuter rail system across the Bosphorus was not
started at that time.
The 1985-1986 studies were refined between 1996 and 1998, and many of the same
conclusions were reached. These later studies confirmed that the project would greatly
improve the Istanbul transportation network by helping to ease traffic congestion in the city,
where the population was growing at an unprecedented rateit had quadrupled since the
time of the 1985 studies. The physical difficulties that come with the citys great historic age,
however, and a capricious sea channel dictated a need for modern technological solutions
to its pervasive traffic congestion, bringing us to the project we have underway today.
PB Network #65
10
The Bosphorus Crossing: Is It PBs Longest

Tunnel in the World?
By Vahan Tanal, New York, New York, 1-212-465-5208, tanal@pbworld.com
The interesting answer

to the title question
provides more insight
into PBs long history
with the Marmaray
Project.
In the late 1980s, Henry Michel, PBs chief executive officer (CEO) at the time, and I were
having lunch in Taipei with the CEO of Electrowatt, the prominent Swiss tunneling firm. PB
was pursuing two major highway tunnel projects in Taiwan and we were discussing teaming
up with Electrowatt.
When their CEO boasted to Henry that Electrowatt was the designer of the longest tunnel
in the world, the Saint Godard tunnel under the Alps, Henry objected. To the amazement
of our guest he said that the claim to engineering the longest tunnel in the world indeed
belonged to PB. Our guest asked incredulously, How could that be possible?
Henry calmly answered that PB had started working on the Hawaii H-3 Tunnel in 1969 and
twenty years later we were still working on it, and that had made H-3 the longest tunnel in
the world.
Today, in Henrys terms the Bosphorus Tunnel has already broken that record. Here is why.
The Start of the Tunnel

In August of 1980 PB received information that a request for proposal (RFP) would be issued
by the Turkish government for a preliminary study for the Bosphorus Tunnel crossing, backed
up by $250,000 Trade and Development Agency (TDA) funds. Lou Silano and I spent quite
a few hours holed up in a conference room formulating a technical proposal that responded
to the very detailed scope of the RFP, which PB had helped draft. No matter how we sliced
it, there was insufficient hard currency funding to do the work, so we let that one go to
the competition.
Four years later, in mid-1984, the Turkish government obtained United States Agency for
International Development (USAID) funding for a transportation study and preliminary
design for the Istanbul Metro and the Bosphorus Rail Tunnel Crossing. At the time, PB had
just won from the same client, the Turkish Ministry of Public Works and Settlement, the
16-inch Product Pipeline Bosphorus Crossing Engineering Services contract along with our
Turkish partners, Technical Services Bureau (TSB), forming the alliance PB-TSB.
The founding principal of TSB, Ugurhan Tuncata, is also a funding partner of Fenni-Gama
(FG) a Turkish International contractor. As a side story, Mr. Tuncata assisted PB in becoming
more competitive in New Jersey by jointly creating a subsidiary company, PBFG with
a lower overhead structure than that of PBQ&D. A number of hand picked graduate
engineers were imported from Turkey to beef up PBFGs resources in our Princeton office.
The new subsidiary company was successful in gaining back and even expanding PBs
transportation market share in New Jersey.
Vahan Tanal is PBs head
of the Ports and Marine
department. He is a senior
vice president, senior project
manager and a principal
professional associate. Vahan
has more than 35 years of
engineering experience.
Meanwhile, PB-TSB formed a joint venture with Kaiser Engineers to pursue the Istanbul Metro
and Bosphorus Rail Crossing project. PB was the lead firm in the new Istanbul Rail Tunnel
Consultants (IRTC) joint venture that won the project assignment. The JVs first project
manager was Walter Grantz, PBs veteran immersed tunnel engineering and construction
expert. The project was completed successfully in 1987, with PB establishing a very strong
reputation in Turkey for our engineering expertise in immersed tunnels.
(page 14)4
11
PB Network #65
Linking Two Continents: The Marmaray Project Contracts and Organization
Contract Strategy
By Richard Harrison, Istanbul, Turkey 90 216 349 5997, rharrison@avrasyaconsult.com
The author outlines the

Marmaray
contract
strategy and discusses
the advantages and
disadvantages of single-contract and multicontract strategies. In
the process, he explains
how the three contracts
for the Marmaray Project were decided upon.
The overall contractual strategy for the Marmaray Project was not decided by the Employer1
or by the consultant. It was a consequence of the funding arrangements. The Employer
recognized that the best chance of getting a trouble-free system for a firm price was a single
contract; however, the first of the lenders to come on board, the Japan Bank for International
Cooperation, (JBIC), presented arguments for multiple smaller contracts.
The end result as a compromise. There would be two contracts.
The Bosphorus Crossing. Essentially that part of the railway system that is underground,
including the three underground stations. This contract, of the order of U.S. $1 billion,
would be financed by JBIC.
The Commuter Rail. Essentially that part of the system that is above ground plus the
systems necessary to make the railway and the trains operate. At the time the money for
this contract, in the order of U.S. $1.75 billion, remained to be found.
Debating the Multi-Contract Approach

Acronyms/
Abbreviations
EIB: European
Investment Bank
JBIC: Japan Bank for
International
Cooperation
JV: Joint venture
The European Investment Bank (EIB) and Council of Europe Development Bank proved to
be the sources of funds for the commuter rail. EIB argued for splitting the commuter rail
into multiple contracts selected primarily by discipline but also by location. For example,
they recommended separate civil and plant contracts for each side of the Bosphorus. The
arguments presented by EIB were essentially identical to those presented earlier by JBIC.
This led to a debate on the merits of the multiple-contract approach versus those of the
single-contract approach.
The proponents of multiple contractsand at one time more than five individual contracts
were proposed for the commuter railargued on grounds of practicality. They pointed out
that many projects both large and small are broken into parts, and that this was the case
whether the projects were single-disciplinary (such as roads) or multidisciplinary (such as
railways and airports). The details of the debate went something like this:
Support for Local Companies
Pro: Large projects are frequently beyond the financial capacity of local companies
and are seen to deny those companies the opportunity to participate in the economic
development of their area by reason of their limited size.
Con: True, but if this argument is accepted, it must be on the basis that either smaller
projects bring economic, if not financial, benefits; or that it is acceptable for the taxpayer
to pay a higher price, providing the higher price is subsidizing local companies.
Lower Costs
Pro: Splitting the work into a large number of smaller contracts results in substantially
lower costs.
1
The General Directorate of

Railways, Harbours and Airports,
Construction, part of the Ministry
of Transport and Communications,
is referred to in the contract
documents as the Employer,
and is the entity that employs
the consultants and the designbuild contractor.
Con: How do we know this to be true? Civil engineering projects are rarely, if ever, identical and employers (owners) generally do not run control sample projects for the purpose
of comparison. We do know that employers frequently give contractors the opportunity
to provide discounts if they are awarded packages of contracts rather than single contracts.
These discounts, which usually run at about 2 percent, have a rational basis encapsulated in
the economies of scale. We also know that multiple small contracts duplicate effort and
PB Network #65
12
costs in matters as simple as unit costs of office space, administration and personnel
management. They also lose out on the cost savings arising from bulk purchasing.
We can reasonably postulate that it is unlikely that cost savings could arise from multiple small
contracts being run more efficiently than a single large contract. Indeed, the reverse is the more
likely. A large project is more likely to be given a high priority in the allocation of resources.
Further, the key decision makers in each of the multiple small contracts are unlikely to
have the same degree of experience as those in the equivalent positions in the single
large contract. Cost savings might be available in the area of reduced regulatory and
social costs, but the size of firm at which these cost savings become significant is likely
to be well below the size of the firm involved in construction.
Increased Competition
Pro: It is incontrovertible that splitting leads to greater competition and, thus, to lower prices.
Con: It certainly seems that ten contractors vying for each of twenty contracts are more
competitive than four or five contractors vying for a single contract. But there are not
that many small jobs where a firms organization or method of doing the work can lead to
substantial cost savings, so the cost reductions that come about through increased competition
result from a reduction of the margin allowed for profit and risk. Increasing the number of
bidders from five to twenty increases the opportunity for the incompetent or desperate to
win a job. This increased risk is of little interest if the subject is a series of municipal lavatories.
It is of interest if what is to be built is a complex system. So the cost saving that comes at the
expense of increased competition is not a true reduction in cost. It is, rather, a transfer of risk.
Perhaps it is the theoretical financial consequences of this risk transfer that form the basis
for the less expensive school of thought. However, the effort (and costs) needed to
ensure that the sum of the parts actually works properly and the cost of risk associated with
the fact that it might not, do not disappear. They are simply transferred to the employer.
So the argument that a large number of smaller contracts can result in substantially lower
costs and that, conversely, a single large contract is often more expensive than several smaller
contracts is comparing apples with turnips, even if there was evidence to support it.
Shared Responsibility
Pro: If the entire job is given to a single company or JV, then the success of the project is
dependent on that one entity. This gives the company too much power and places the
project at risk of that one company or JV failingfor example, going bankrupt.
Con: The too much power argument is not really an argument. It is a feeling and, as such,
is not amenable to logical analysis. The project at risk argument is also suspect. One of
the purposes of prequalification is to establish whether a bidder has the financial capability
to do the job, i.e., whether it is sound. The questions are, then, whether:
It is more or less likely for a financial risk to be missed in evaluation if the employer is
researching and analyzing five firms or fifty firms
Large firms, or medium or small firms are more susceptible to bankruptcy
The failure of a medium-sized firm responsible for a key part of a project has any less
of a consequence than the failure of a large firm doing all of the project
These questions have any meaning in the case of joint ventures and joint-and-several liability.
The Decision
Following the debate, the decision was to break down the Commuter Rail contract further
CR1 Commuter Rail and CR2 Rolling Stock. This arrangement complied with the governments
planning process, which would not allow the rolling stock component of cost to be committed
before 2005.
4
13
PB Network #65
Analysis and Lesson Learned

There are compelling reasons for splitting a project into multiple packages. Among them:
The real motivation behind the JBIC approach was that a lender sensibly prefers to see
the money it provides be dedicated to one or more contracts for a clearly defined part
of the project, rather than have that money placed in a common fund.
Financing cannot be arranged to cover the entire project.
The project was so large that no consortium would risk taking it on given the conventional
joint and several liability provisions.
These simple reasons tend to be obscured by attempts to justify multiple contracts on other,
less convincing, grounds. While these simple reasons can be overwhelmingly forceful, the
splitting of a project into multiple design-and-build contracts dilutes two of the primary
justifications for adopting a design-and-build approach, namely sole-source responsibility
and a warranty of fitness for purpose.
The lesson to be learned for the consultant is that, with respect to contract strategy, it is likely
that key decisions will be made at a very early stage in the project lifecycle and without a full
appreciation of the possible contractual consequences of those decisions. The choices are,
therefore, to either get involved at the initial financing stage, or accept that by the time the
consultant becomes involved, the contract strategy will have been established by default and
the further development of that strategy by the consultant is a damage limitation exercise.
Richard Harrison of Avrasyaconsult is a civil engineer and a fellow of the Institution of Civil Engineers. He has spent the large majority of his professional life in
Africa and the Far East, principally on transportation projects. His particular areas of interest are the administration of contracts and construction contract claims.
The Bosphorus Crossing: Is It PBs Longest Tunnel in the World?

(continued from page 11)
Between 1987 and 1999 PB provided frequent advice and technical support to the Turkish Ministry of Transport and
Communications, which had been charged by the government to keep the project alive. In 1999 the government obtained
significant funding support from Japan to construct the project. As a subcontractor, PB joined the Avrasya joint venture
led by the Japanese firm of Pacific Consultants Inc. (PCI) to pursue and win the project as Employers Representative for
a design-build procurement. Notice to proceed was issued in March 2002.
Several interesting points are worth noting:
The winning design-build consortium members Taisei-Nurol-Gama (TNG), include
Mr. Tuncatas construction firm GAMA (formerly Fenni Gama)
Walter Grantz is on the job once again on a full-time basis as a special consultant
A number of us in PB who worked on the project some 20 years ago are involved on the project once again,
providing technical support to Avrasya and the Turkish government.
Small world ... to say the least.
Nearing Completion
PBs saga of the Bosphorus Tunnel Crossing commencing in 1980 and continuing some 27 years later surely qualifies it for
Henrys longest tunnel in the world predication and easily breaks H-3s record in that category. The tunnel is scheduled
to open to rail traffic in about 2011 ... as the saying goes in Turkey, Inshallah (God willing).
PB Network #65
14
Organisation and Management Present

Challenges and Opportunities
By Steen Lykke, Pacific Consultants International, Japan, slykke@avrasyaconsult.com; Daniel Horgan, Istanbul, Turkey 90 216 349 5997
horganD@pbworld.com; Hideki Sakaeda, Pacific Consultants International, Japan, hsakaeda@avrasyaconsult.com; and Huseyin Belkaya,
Yuksel Proje, hbelkaya@avrasyaconsult.com
In this interesting
article the authors
highlight some of the
policies and strategies
established to manage
this huge project with
its complex organizational structure. They
then tell which of these
have worked well, and
explain why others
need to be improved.
Acronyms/
Abbreviations
DLH:
Demiryollar
Limaniar ve
Hava Meydanlari
Insaati Genel
Mdrlg
(the General
Directorate of
Railways,
Harbours and
Airports
Construction)
IBB:
Istanbul
Buyuksehir
Belediyesi
(the Greater
Municipality
of Istanbul)
TCDD: Trkiye
Cumhuriyeti
Deviet Demiryollari sletmesi
(the national
railway company
of Turkey)
15
PB Network #65
Management of complex mega projects such as the Marmaray Projectone of the five largest
transportation projects underway around the worldcan hardly be compared to management
of other projects or main office organizations. The Oxford English dictionary defines the
action of managing as ... the application of skill or care in the manipulation, use, treatment,
or control of things or persons, or in the conduct of an enterprise, operation, etc. So, no
management if no skill or no care is applied!!
Management of the Marmaray Project has quite a number of different characteristics compared
to main office management of multi-discipline, international consultancy companies, such as
Pacific Consultants International or PB. In such companies, management has had the opportunity
and privilege over decades to develop procedures and policies that match the company profile,
staff and culture, and the needs of their customers. In contrast, on these one-time-prototype
projects, we do not have the same privilege.
A project organisation such as Avrasyaconsult, the joint venture acting as the employers
representative, is based on senior managers and engineers brought together over a very short
time period from all corners of the world. With their different backgrounds, experience,
cultures and nationalities, these engineers and managers cannot, by their natures, form a
homogeneous team in the early days of a project. Fur thermore, policies, strategies and
procedures are generally not established beforehand. They have to be adapted to the specific
project in question and developed in the early phases in parallel with the development of the
project itself. These are the challenges!
Projects Stakeholders
The purpose of managing a project must be to achieve the objectives defined. Many different
organizations are involved in this project, each with its own objectives defined. Typically, these
objectives do not have many topics in common, so one of the hardest management tasks we
have is to assist our client in finding the greatest common dominator for all the stakeholders.
Whether such stakeholders can work closely together or not, and what the rules of the game
are, is governed predominantly by:
The political and administrative systemthe laws and regulations forming the basis for the
project implementation
The commitments on high levels
The individuals on top levels who are managing these stakeholders.
Let us identify the most important stakeholders of the Marmaray Project.
Employer. The organisation of the employerthe General Directorate of Railways,
Harbours and Airports Construction (DLH), a department under the Ministry of Transport
and Communicationsis formed by a number of groups:
The DLH General Directorate, positioned in Ankara, is the group that holds the authority in
general to make final decisions related to time, money and quality. This group reports via its
general manager to the Ministry.
The Project Implementation Unit (PIU), comprising a number of DLH employees positioned
in the Marmaray Project office in Istanbul, follows the construction activities on a day-to-day
basis. The PIU team reports to the DLH General Directorate in Ankara.
4
European Investment Bank, which has donated necessary funds to have five to seven
experienced people positioned in Istanbul to provide technical assistance to PIU and, in so
doing, assists DLH in fulfilling its obligations as the employer in areas where Avrasyaconsult
has not been granted full authority in dealing with the contractors. Such areas are typically
related to making decisions on claims and variations.
Management
by Fear:
The key to
being a good
manager is
keeping the
people who
hate me away
from those
who are still
undecided.
Casey Stengel
Management
by Motivation:
Management is
nothing more
than motivating
other people.
Lee Iacocca
Employers Representative. Avrasyaconsult has, in general, been given the authority and
obligation to prepare all the contracts and to deal with all management and supervision
issues that do not change costs, time or quality compared to the original contracts as they were
signed by DLH and the contractors. As seen in relation to the contractors, Avrasyaconsults
position is to act as the employers representative. As seen internally, it is to assist and advise
DLH in all matters of importance whatsoever.
Funding Institutions. The Treasury of Turkey, an organisation totally independent of DLH,
arranges the funding, but payments are administered by DLH. Three international banks and
possibly more in the future provide the funding:
Japanese Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC) is funding the Bosphorus Crossing
contract and Avrasyaconsult
European Investment Bank and the Council of European Development Banks will fund
the commuter rail contract and the rolling stock contract.
As might be surmised, the set-up of the employers organisation seen in relation to the
interested stakeholders is very complex, and the split of roles and responsibilities has to
be realized by all parties in our every days work.
Other Stakeholders. Several second parties and third parties also influence the management
of the project.
Trkiye Cumhuriyeti Deviet Demiryollari sletmesi (TCDD), the national railway company
of Turkey, normally is responsible for running and maintaining all rail mainlines and the
rolling stock. The Marmaray Project includes a third track and some facilities for station
interchange, which were constructed solely for the use of TCDD, and TCDD owns the
right of way. While it has not yet been decided whether TCDD or a separate organisation
will operate the Marmaray Project commuter rail systems, TCDD plays a very important
role directly and indirectly in some of the decisions that must be made.
The Istanbul Buyuksehir Belediyesi (IBB, or Greater Municipality of Istanbul) and the local
municipalities along the alignment must grant a number of permissions, without which the
Marmaray Project could not be planned, designed and constructed. IBB controls the areas
around all stations and is involved in ensuring coordination of the other traffic modes in
these areas. IBB and each of the local municipalities also have interests in developing their
local areas, and very often such interests influence heavily the possibilities of solutions for
the Marmaray Project.
A number of groups interested in historic preservation and environment protection have
been formed to ensure that Istanbuls relics, buildings and soil formations, which reflect the
citys long and rich history, are not destroyed as a result of construction activities. These
independent committees, which are not under control of the normal political system of
Turkey, decide what has to be done in taking out these findings at each construction site.
Such decisions cannot be made beforehand, however, and depend on the findings we make
as we go along. Progress on several sites has slowed drastically due to the needs associated
with taking such findings out of the ground.
It should now be apparent why many stakeholders do not have many common objectives.
Let us, therefore, just accept this and concentrate on the objectives of the Marmaray Project
and for Avrasyaconsult.
PB Network #65
16
Management
by Agreement
and Honesty
I do not
necessarily
agree with
everything
I say.
Marshall McLuhan
Project Objectives. The objectives for the project are to:

Open for operation in 2011.
Stay on or below the cost estimates.
Stay on or above the income estimates established as basis for the feasibility evaluations.
Establish the project in the required quality, which is a quality that can be compared to
other modern projects of a similar nature established lately in Japan, Europe or the USA.
Meet all fitness for purpose, performance and minimum criteria as described in the contract
documents for all contracts.
Avrasyaconsult Objectives. The objectives of Avrasyaconsult are, of course, to meet the
objectives of the Marmaray Project and furthermore to:
Create a positive and international atmosphere on the project and in the organisation that
is attractive to highly skilled and committed staff and conducive to them performing their
duties.
Ensure and make visible the success of the project and of the individuals working in the
organisation in order to strengthen the opportunities for the carriers ahead.
Meet the profitability requirements of Avrasyaconsults engagement on the project.
Ensure technical and managerial success for the employer and the partners behind
Avrasyaconsult.
Management Approach and Strategies

The policies we have put in place to meet these objectives are to:
Manage by objectives, delegation, clarity, controlled processes and pro-activeness.
Limit the need for reactive processes by taking due care in time.
Obey and observe the 7 Cs: clarity, commitment, communication, coordination,
cooperation, continuity and consistency.
Respect the integrity of each staff member of the Avrasyaconsult team and ask the same
from each staff member.
Management
by Thinking
and Agreement
If two men
agree on
everything,
you may be
sure that one
of them is
doing the
thinking.
Lyndon B. Johnson
A number of strategies were decided upon internally in the early days of the project to
ensure that we could live by these policies. Among these were that:
The Employer (DLH, European Investment Banks technical assistance team, and members
of Avrasyaconsult) must be and must be seen as one experienced, international, open,
honest, unified, trustworthy and professional entity.
DLH and Avrasyaconsult must have the necessary but sufficient staffing at all times.
Bureaucracy must be limited to an absolute minimum.
Partnership relations with respect of the different roles and responsibilities must be
developed between the Employer and the contractors if both parties deserve such
a partnership relation to be established (it takes two to tango).
Measures of Success
And now to the crucial questions.
Did we succeed up till now in implementing the management approach described above?
The answer has to be split in two sections. One is whether we succeeded internally in
Avrasyaconsult, where we can control things, and the other is whether we together with
DLH succeeded in persuading our associates to follow similar principles working together
4
with second and third parties.
17
PB Network #65
Has the Avrasyaconsult organisation been able to observe the 7 Cs to the extent required?
Management
by Vision
I started
concentrating
so hard on
my vision that
I lost sight.
Robin Green
Yes and No. In general, it is our opinion that we have been able to do so on 5 of the 7 Cs
clarity, commitment, coordination, cooperation and consistency.
Clarity has been the red line in what has been written into the contract documents and
here, some 2.5 years after start of the Bosphorus Crossing contract, we have found only very
few examples where ambiguities have made their way into the text. Clarity is also the red
line in internal and external oral communication, and people are not afraid to ask questions
if they do not understand the message.
Commitment by all staff members is evident. People are working very hard and a lot of
effort is invested every day to ensure progress of the works, even though working conditions
are tough from time to time.
Coordination is constantly being improved and adjustments in the organisation are made
when necessary. All tasks are generally performed on time, double work (two different people
doing the same thing) is generally avoided and normally no topic falls between two stools.
Cooperation is taking place on all levels. People are generally prepared to help others if
they are under pressure, and most of our engineers are willing to do work that is outside
their normal disciplines if needed to get the job done.
Consistency means that reactions from and decisions made by the Avrasyaconsult organisation
are based on uniform and overall principles. This means that reactions and decisions are
generally not dependent on individuals and individual opinions. The consistency we have
provided on this project has contributed to robust management as well.
Communication. Room still exists for improvements in communication and continuity.
Every time an internal dispute or problem has been analyzed to find its root, lack of
communication has been found to have played a role. This is not surprising. The working
language is English, and the team consists of people with many different nationalities and
cultural backgrounds. Some team members cannot express as well in written English what
they could express easily in their native languages. (Even some people whose native language
is English have the same problem, but can be brilliant engineers.) Further, some words do
not have the same meaning for people coming from Asia, Europe, USA or Turkey. We believe
that the efficiency factor due to this problem could be as low as 0.75 on jobs of this nature.
Management
by Listening
No man ever
listened himself
out of a job.
Calvin Coolidge
Continuity. The analysis of the roots of potential problems has often shown a link also to
lack of continuity. For various reasons, many people cannot work consistently and permanently
on the Marmaray Project and, as a result, discontinuities in processes occur. It was expected
that short input, specialist staff would be less productive than assumed at the original planning
stage and that management time would be consumed to coordinate their contributions.
However, the problems associated with continuity were not fully appreciated. The team now
realizes the full extent of this problem. Our solution has been and will continue to be to
decrease the number of people working on the project short time or part time, and to
convert the related resources into full time staffing fully dedicated to the project.
Have the client, DLH, and Avrasyaconsult together been able to find many common denominator
in the objectives of the third parties involved?
Yes and No. During the process a good understanding of the need for this project has been
developed between DLH, TCDD and IBB. The decision about which organizations will form
the backbone of the future organisation responsible for operations has not yet been taken.
Naturally, this has had a consequence. TCDD must be in a position to reserve its rights to
take proper care of its own opportunities and operations integrated with the project in the
PB Network #65
18
Management
by Listening
There are
people who,
instead of
listening to
what is being
said to them,
are already
listening to
what they are
going to say
themselves.
Albert Guinon
future. However, a balanced approach has been found and many processes are now being
introduced internally to take TCDD comments into account to the highest degree possible
and externally to prepare for the transition process that will take place in 2010-2011 transforming the organisation from the construction organisation to the operation organisation.
An area of particular difficulty has been in determining how to handle the archaeological
excavations in the station areas. The committees and the museum responsible for supervising
and managing the historical artifacts and buildings have been responsive to our requests but,
nevertheless, we are still in a situation where it is impossible to do proper planning because
fixed and firm agreements related to the scope of these excavations have not been made.
A solution to these problems is not yet within reach.1
Conclusion
We believe that the combined team of DLH, the Technical Assistance team, and Avrasyaconsult,
given all the complicated circumstances and constraints, has achieved remarkable results on
most of the success criteria described above. These results have been achieved because we
constantly maintain focus on what is importantthe project must be constructed to the
highest quality standards and within the budget.
Whether we will be able to open for commercial operation within the originally planned time
frame is now questionable because of unavoidable delays due to archaeological excavations.
However, the team will continue to live by the management principles of observing the 7 Cs:
clarity, commitment, communication, coordination, cooperation, continuity and consistency.
Management by Humor
Laughing at our mistakes can lengthen our own life.
Laughing at someone elses can shorten it.
Cullen Hightower
For more information on the archaeological excavations and their impacts on station design and construction, please see Progress on Station and Bored Tunnel
Construction, a following article by Daniel Horgan.
Steen Lykke, M.Sc. currently serves as general project manager of the Marmaray Project for Pacific Consultants International of Japan, the lead partner of the
Avrasyaconsult joint venture. Mr. Lykke was serving as the Employer on the Oeresund Tunnel and Dredging & Reclamation projects connecting Denmark and Sweden
from 1992 to 2001 as contract director. He came to the Oeresund Project from a position as technical director responsible for civil and structural works within
Steensen & Varming Ltd, Copenhagen, Denmark, where he was involved in major international projects since the early 1980s.
Daniel Horgan is a chartered engineer, fellow of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, senior engineering manager, certified senior project manager
and professional associate. He has worked on design and construction of mass transit systems, railways and buildings in Singapore, Turkey and the UK.
Daniel is PBs project manager on the Marmaray Project.
Hideki Sakaeda, BSc. currently serves as Pacific Consultants Internationals project manager of the Bosphorus Crossing contract. He has held key project
management, design management and commercial and contract management positions for many mega-projects, including build-operate-transfer projects.
His work includes mass transit metro systems; railways; roads; and shield, NATM and rock tunnels and immersed tubes in Hong Kong, Singapore, Thailand and
other countries in South East Asia.
Huseyin Balkaya is an experienced civil engineer with 28 years experience. He has worked on large water treatment, housing and railway construction projects.
Presently Huseyin is the Yuksel Proje project manager on the Marmaray project.
19
PB Network #65
Linking Two Continents: The Marmaray Project Immersed Tunnel
Immersed Tunnel Construction

By Walter Grantz Istanbul, Turkey 90 538 612 7506, wgrantz@avrasyaconsult.com
Construction of the
worlds deepest immersed
tunnel
under
the
Bosphorus Straits presented some unique
difficulties. The author
discusses marine activities, including dredging,
soil improvement and
the immersion of the
tunnel elements, and
he
explains
the
construction sequence
of the tunnel build.
Figure 1: Dredging
the trench for the
immersed tunnel.
The Bosphorus rail tunnel has long been known as the most difficult immersed tunnel project
in the world. Many naysayers have questioned its feasibility and constructability over the
years, and for good reason:
The tunnel crosses at a great depth that reaches 61m (200 feet). The immersed portion
that starts and ends in such deep water must be reached with four boring machines, two
from the Asian shore and two from the European shore.
The Bosphorus is characterized by constantly changing and difficult to predict currents
of up to six knots that are driven by the variation in the hydraulic gradient between the
Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara.
The project area is seismically active and portions of the tunnel lie in ground that must
be stabilized against liquefaction.
The Bosphorus Straits is relatively narrow but must accommodate some 52,000 ships
per year (about six per hour on average).
Tunnel
This tunnel is interesting from its geographic position, being perhaps the only intercontinental
subaqueous tunnel in the world. Although it lies totally within the country of Turkey, it crosses
the arbitrary line that has been adopted between Europe and Asia. The legendary Orient
Express terminated its span of Europe at Istanbuls Sirkeci Station. Now it or a new train will
be able to cross Turkey into Iran and beyond by using this underwater connection.
The immersed tunnel is being built in eleven sections, or elements, each roughly 135 m long,
15.3 m wide and 8.6 m high (443 feet long, 50 feet wide and 28 feet high) and weighing
about 18 000 metric tones (20,000 short tons). The cross section of the tunnel is structurally
a rectangular concrete box section provided with a separate tube for each track direction.
An external steel waterproof membrane 7-mm (9/32-inch)
thick is provided on the bottom and sides. Lapping onto this,
a special plastic membrane (Trade name: SAN A) will provide
waterproofing of the top of the tunnel. A special steel end shell
structure at each end of each element will enclose the end
bulkheads and support the immersion joint GINA gasket1 and
its contact plate. These end shell structures and steel membranes
are being fabricated in Izmir, some 700 km (450 miles) away
from Istanbul by road, and trucked to the dry docks in Tuzla
where they are constructed into tunnel elements.
Figure 2: Tunnel boring machine sleeve.
Tunnel Bed
The immersed tunnel will be constructed in a trench dredged so that the
structure will have a minimum cover of 2 m (6.6 feet) after backfilling (Figure 1).
The connecting tunnels at both the European and the Asian sides will be
bored through rock by TBMs until they emerge into a transition zone of low
strength sand-cement cover placed by tremie methods out to circular steel
sleeves provided at the ends of the immersed tunnel. The TBMs will then bore
their way into the sleeves where they will be sealed to the immersed tunnel
and eventually dismantled and removed (Figure 2).
Counting from the European end, at Element 4 there is a 3-m (10-foot)-thick
area of ground that must be overdredged and replaced because it is seismically
GINA gaskets are used in conjunction with seals between the sectional elements of immersed tunnels.
PB Network #65
20
unstable. Starting midway at Element 8 and continuing through to Element 11, the ground contains
layers that could liquefy during an earthquake.The subgrade of this section of tunnel has now been
treated by compaction grouting to a depth of up to 8 m (26 feet). The latter operation took
112 years. It involved injecting 2778 grout columns into the ground on a 1.7-m (5.6-foot) grid.
Figure 3: Compaction
grouting works.
The compaction grouting work (Figure 3) was not an easy operation considering that it
involved drilling holes in an accurate pattern in the bottom of the Bosphorus starting at a
depth of more than 30 m (100 feet) with currents ranging up to 9.3 kph (5 knots), and then
injecting cement grout in bulbs every 0.3 m (1 foot) up to the subgrade elevation of the tunnel
foundation. The drilling barge was equipped in such a way that each drill string was protected
from the strong surface currents by a pipe sleeve that extended to a depth of 20 m (66 feet).
The effectiveness of the compaction grouting treatment was verified by cone penetrometer
tests (CPTs), which gave data on the post-treatment liquefaction settlement values.
One the most difficult challenges posed by the Bosphorus is to determine when to initiate
each tunnel element placing operation. The contractor developed a forecasting system that
will identify windows of opportunity when the currents will be less than the 5.5 kph (3 knot)
maximum allowed by his equipment for a sufficiently long period. During this time, the elements
need to be towed by barge into the Bosphorus, a complex anchor system must be set, and
the element lowered into the trench.
This forecasting system must take government weather forecasts and convert them into
predictions of the difference in water levels at both ends of the Bosphorus and then, using
the predicted water level differences, predict the current at the location of the element being
placed. The development work on this forecast system has been proceeding since the
contract was awarded in 2004. It has involved continuous measurements with coordinated,
automated current monitoring stations as well as wind and water level monitoring at both
the Black Sea and the Sea of Marmara.2
Figure 4: Dry Dock

Number 1 shortly after
construction began on
Elements 8 and 9.
The rough dredging is now completed. As the elements are readied for placing the dredge will
return to do fine dredging of the last meter or so. Initially some 140 000 m3 (180,000 cubic
yards) of contaminated spoil were removed from the upper 3 m (10 feet) near the outlet of
the Golden Horn estuary on the European side. This material was barged and trucked to a
confined disposal site some 30 km (19 miles) east of the tunnel site. All other dredge spoil is
barged 20 km (12.5 miles) out to a designated site in the deep waters of the Sea of Marmara.
All the constantly shifting locations of the dredging and compaction grouting
activities have involved careful coordination with the authorities controlling
navigation in the Bosphorus. The heavy shipping traffic is often subjected to
only one-way traffic through the wider section of the channel left clear of the
contractors equipment and anchor lines. During immersion activities there will
be periods of several hours during which the shipping lanes will be closed entirely.
Tuzla Dry Docks

Figure 5: Dry Dock Number 2 with construction
of Elements 10 and 11 underway.
Tuzla is a port facility maintained and operated by the Ministry of Transport

and Communications General Directorate of Railways, Harbours and Airports
Construction (DLH), for its use in the berthing and maintenance of its
dredges, barges and other equipment. This facility is located some 40 km
(25 miles) east of the tunnel site. Areas of this site were made available to
the contractor for use in the fabrication and outfitting of the tunnel elements.
Part of the arrangement required the contractor to build a 161-m (528-foot)
-long concrete jetty for DLH where they could berth their equipment while
other areas were taken over for the immersed tunnel work.
The contractor decided to build two dry docks, each with the capacity for
two 135-m (443-foot)-long elements (Figures 4 and 5). Dry dock No. 2 was
2
21
PB Network #65
The contractors forecasting system is discussed in more detail in a following article by Jerald Ramsden
entitled Hydraulic Modeling for Submersion of Immersed Tunnel Elements.
completed first and work began immediately on Elements 10 and 11(July 2005).
Dry Dock No.1 was finished in May 2006 and work started on Elements 8
and 9. Meanwhile, the Tuzla harbor was dredged to a depth of 10 m (33 feet)
to permit safe maneuvering of the tunnel elements when floated out and
later, at full draft after completion of the concrete work.
Figure 6: Float out of tunnel section for final

concrete pour.
The two dry docks were designed to permit only the first two stages of
concrete casting to occur (base slab and partial walls), after which each
element must be floated out to a jetty where the last stage of concrete
can be poured (Figure 6). After this, the element will be at full draft and
must be towed to an anchorage where it can be fitted for the placing
operation (Figure 7). This method reduced considerably the amount of
excavation required for the dry docks compared to what would have
been required for doing all the concrete work before float-out. This was
important because dry dock No.2 was excavated mostly in rock, and dry
dock No.1 also required quite a bit of rock excavation.
Element 11
Figure 7: Placing barge

used to place tunnel
elements.
Element 11 is special for two reasons: (1) it is provided with the sleeves
to receive the TBMs on the Asian side, and (2) it must carry an access
shaft that will extend more than 34 m (112 feet) above it. This single access
shaft will be the only means to get personnel and equipment into the
tunnel until the TBMs reach the tunnel a couple of years later. This tall shaft must resist both
the strong currents and the great hydrostatic pressures at the bottom, so it is very heavy. Its
lower part is connected to Element 11 by a heavy steel tower. All this has required that
11.5 m (37.7 feet) of the Asian end of the tunnel be of steel/concrete sandwich construction.3
Construction Sequence
Related Web Sites:
GINA gasket: http://www.
trelleborg.com/bakker/
files/pdf_eng/Gina_eng.pdf
http://www.marmaray.
com/index.asp
Element 11 will be the first to be installed. It will sit on jacking frames at each end.
Subsequent elements will be positioned in guides on the previously placed element and
a jacking frame at the outboard end. The jacking frame will permit very accurate ver tical
and horizontal adjustment of each element once survey has determined where the
outboard end comes to rest following the activation of the immersion joint.
A specially porous gravel foundation blanket will be placed in the bottom of the trench by tremie
pipe before the elements are placed. The jacking frames will be supported on this blanket that
is designed to prevent liquefaction directly under the tunnel. Once in an acceptable position,
a special grout mixture will be pumped under the element through ports spaced every 8 m
(26 feet) along the bottom. This material will not penetrate into the gravel foundation but will
harden to support the element so that the jacks can be removed and the element backfilled.
For more information on

sandwich construction please
see Designing an Immersed
Tunnel by Christian Ingerslev
in PB Network, Issue No. 62,
February, 2006, pp. 7-10.
Walter Grantz, an associate

consultant now with Avrasyaconsult, is a recognized authority
on immersed tube tunnel design
and construction. In his 40+ year
career with PB he has undertaken
feasibility studies, preliminary
design, final design and
construction management of
heavy marine construction
projects, including port facilities,
bridges and several immersed
tunnels around the world.
Each immersion joint will be activated by extending a jack arm from the tunnel in place to
the element being installed, retracting it to compress a soft nose on the GINA gasket, then
pumping the water out of the joint to mobilize the unbalanced force of water pressure to
fully compress the GINA. In this way, each joint can be entered and cleaned, the bulkheads
removed, and the joint space completed as the tunnel marches across the Bosphorus.
As the ballast tanks are removed from each element, their weight will be replaced with
concrete permanent ballast in the invert.
Present Status
As of April 2007, Element 11 was in place in the trench and about to receive the 26-m
(85-foot)-tall access shaft extension which weighs 200 tons. Elements 8 and 9 were
floating. Elements 6 and 7 were nearly ready to float out of Dry Dock 2, and construction
of Elements 4 and 5 was just star ting in Dry Dock 1.
PB Network #65
22
Geotechnical Issues for the Bosphorus Tunnel

By Ray Castelli, New York, New York, 1-212-465-5212, castelli@pbworld.com; and Orhan Simsek, Sial Yerbilmleri, Turkey
The geologic conditions

along the tunnel alignment were challenging
and highly variable.
The authors tell about
their investigations and
the impacts the findings
had on the contractors
design and construction
techniques.
Istanbuls geologic setting at the interface between two continents presents unique challenges
for design and construction of the immersed tunnel and the connecting approach tunnels.
Notable among these are:
A highly seismic area due to its proximity to the active North Anatolian Fault
The presence of highly fractured and variably weathered rock, and numerous shear zones
along the approach tunnels
Highly variable subsurface conditions beneath the Bosphorus, including steeply sloping rock
surface, deep deposits of very soft soils and soils susceptible to liquefaction in the design
earthquake.
In this article we address the geotechnical investigations performed to define these geological
conditions, and highlights the key geotechnical elements of the project. Seismic design issues
are the subject of another article.1
Preliminary Investigation (1985 1987)

Acronyms/
Abbreviations
CPT: Cone penetration
test
kN: kiloNewton
MPA: Mega Pascals
psi: Pounds per
square inch
PB managed a preliminary geotechnical investigation conducted between 1985 and 1987 for
both the Bosphorus crossing project and sections of the Istanbul Metro subway system then
in development. The data obtained were used for establishing a preliminary profile for the
tunnel and the locations and arrangement of the proposed station structures.
Among the findings was the presence of very soft marine sediments on the European side of
the Bosphorus. Up to 40 m (130 feet) thick, these deposits were difficult to sample by the
conventional techniques used at the time. The situation was further complicated by the 40-m
water depth of the Bosphorus. Accordingly, the engineering properties of these soils were
estimated primarily by index testing of disturbed samples.
Sampling of loose sandy soils on the Asian side of the Bosphorus was equally difficult.
Standard Penetration Test (SPT) results in this area were generally inconclusive due to the
loose nature of these soils and the weight of the drill rods needed to reach these deposits,
which were more than 30 m (100 feet) below the surface of the Bosphorus. These preliminary
data suggested that the soils were likely susceptible to liquefaction.
Tendering Phase Investigation (2002-2003)

A supplementary subsurface investigation program was conducted in 2002-2003 by the
Program Management Team in advance of tendering the design-build contract for the
Bosphorus Crossing contract. PBs geotechnical specialists were responsible for:
Planning this program
Determining the impact that ground conditions had on the tunnel design and construction
Developing performance specifications for the contract documents.
The primary objective was to obtain information needed to better define geological conditions
along the selected tunnel alignment for prospective bidders. Addressing shortcomings of the
1985-1987 investigation, advanced investigation techniques were used to obtain more reliable
data for the weak marine sediments present beneath the Bosphorus.
1
See Seismic Assessment and

Earthquake Resistant Design
Considerations the following
article by Jaw-Nan (Joe) Wang
and Mustafa Erdik.
23
PB Network #65
This investigation included 19 land borings and 7 water borings. The water borings extended
to up to 85 m (280 feet) below the mudline and included:
Cone Penetration Test (CPT) soundings
Undisturbed tube sampling in soil
Continuous coring in rock.
4
The program also included P-S logging in two boreholes to obtain shear wave data for seismic
analyses, and a geophysical (seismic refraction) survey extending 500 m (1,640 feet) on both
sides of the proposed immersed tunnel alignment to help define subsurface conditions
between the boreholes.
Figure 1: Illustration of
Cone Penetration Test
Equipment.
The CPT soundings were performed using Wison-type equipment, an advanced in-situ testing
device that was instrumental in gathering quality shear strength data for the weak soils deep
beneath the Bosphorus. This equipment, illustrated in Figure 1, consists of a down-hole jacking
unit with a 3-m (10-foot) stroke and a thrust capacity of 90 kN (20,000 pounds) that was
used in conjunction with rotary drilling. After a borehole reaches the required depth, the
Wison unit is lowered to the bit, where it seats and latches under its own weight. The cone
penetrometer is then hydraulically pushed into the soil while measurements of cone tip
resistance, sleeve friction and pore pressure are graphically displayed and electronically
recorded in the control cabin.
Investigation Findings
Soil Conditions. The investigation confirmed our earlier findings about the soft soils on
both sides of the Bosphorus and provided much more detailed information. For example,
a local surficial zone of fill and potentially contaminated material were present on the
European side of the crossing.
Unit General Soil Description

A
Fill, with zones of contaminated soil
Very loose to loose sand
Very soft to soft sandy clay and

very loose to loose clayey sand
Very soft silty clay with sand

lenses (Golden Horn Clay)
Firm to stiff sandy clay
Light gray to sandy shell
Silty sandy gravel
Sandy gravel with cobbles and boulders
Figure 2: Generalized
subsurface profile across
the Bosphorus.
Other findings, illustrated in

Figure 2, showed that the
subsurface conditions along
the tunnel alignment were
highly variable. The top of
the bedrock varied from EL
-25 m to EL -115 m (-82 feet
to -380 feet), creating a deep
basin filled with soft clayey and
sandy deposits. At its deepest
location, the depth of soil
below the tunnel invert
(bottom of the tunnel) was
more than 85 m (280 feet),
while rock was encountered at the tunnel invert elevations at the two ends where the
immersed tunnel connected with the bored land tunnels. In general, a very soft to soft silty
clay stratum was encountered for a distance of about 500 m (1,640 feet) from the European
end of the immersed tunnel.
Rock Formations. The principal rock formation along both the European and Asian land
tunnel alignments is the Trakya Formation. This formation is composed of sandstone, siltstone
and mudstone sequences, and is generally moderately weathered to fresh, with closely spaced
to moderately spaced discontinuities. Typically, the intact rock has moderate strength, with
average unconfined compression strength of 70 MPa (10,000 psi). However, at fault and
shear zones, up to several meters thick, the rock may be highly fractured and weathered
and have strengths in the range of 2 MPa to 20 MPa (290 psi to 2,900 psi). Intrusive dykes
of diabase are also present and may have strengths higher than 180 MPa (26,000 psi).
Geotechnical Design Issues

The findings of the investigation confirmed that stability of the excavated trench slopes in the
soft soil deposits would be a particular issue in the design of the project. This issue was
addressed by presenting the field investigation data and laboratory test results to the
PB Network #65
24
prospective bidders and providing specific requirements and design factors of safety in the
performance specifications. This approach was also used to address other geotechnical design
issues, such as potential settlement of the trench invert during placement of the immersed
tube and trench backfill, and potential liquefaction of loose granular soil deposits.
For the rock tunnels on either side of the Bosphorus, the investigation data suggested that
both tunnel boring machines and roadheaders would be viable excavation equipment.
Accordingly, the performance specification allowed the use of these methods. The use of
blasting was precluded for running tunnels due to concerns of overbreak and crown stability,
but was permitted for station excavations and shafts. The performance specifications allowed
the use of both one-pass segmental concrete liners and two-pass systems using cast-in-place
concrete as the final lining.
The performance specifications also addressed general geotechnical requirements applicable
to all sections of the project. These included criteria for:
Performing additional subsurface investigations to supplement available data. These criteria
establish the minimum number and depth of borings to be performed by the contractor to
obtain information necessary for final design and construction.
Maintenance and protection of existing structures and utilities near the work that may
be impacted by construction. These provisions are particularly important considering the
project location within a congested urban environment and the presence of numerous
historical structures.
Geotechnical instrumentation to monitor the work and its impact on the
surrounding ground, groundwater and existing structures.
In general, the performance specifications established the minimum requirements for design and
construction. The specific approach to design and construction to accommodate site conditions,
contract requirements and performance criteria are the responsibility of the design-build contractor.
Conclusions
The challenging geologic conditions along the project alignment were successfully addressed
using a phased geotechnical investigation program and the application of advanced investigation
techniques, particularly in the poor soil deposits beneath the Bosphorus. Providing quality
geotechnical data was essential to provide bidders the necessary information to develop their
technical concepts and corresponding cost proposals.
Another essential element of the program was the development of performance specifications
that covered each of the relevant geotechnical issues and provided bidders with appropriate
criteria for design and construction of the project to address these issues.
Related Web Sites:

P-S loggings: www.geovision.com/PDF/M_PS_Logging
Ray Castelli has 31 years experience, including 30 at PB. He is a senior engineering manager, principal professional associate, a national practice leader for
geotechnical engineering and a member of PB Geotechnical and Tunneling Technical Resource Center.
Orham Simsek is engineering geologist for Sial Yerbilmieri, the geotechnical consultant for the project.
25
PB Network #65
Seismic Assessment and Earthquake Resistant

Design Considerations1
By Jaw-Nan (Joe) Wang, New York, New York, 1-212-465-5126, wangJ@pbworld.com; and Mustafa Erdik, Bogazici University, Turkey
The probability of a
major seismic event
occurring during the
lifetime of the Marmaray
Projects immersed
tunnel is high, so an
alternative to the
conventional two-level
earthquake
design
approach was needed.
The authors describe
the methods used to
develop a design basis
earthquake, which is a set
of assumptions regarding the time-dependent
stress distribution within
the fault segments that
the tunnel will need to
withstand.
Acronyms/
Abbreviations
DBE: Design basis
earthquake
FEE: Functional
evaluation
earthquake
Mw: Moment
magnitude
Ms: Surface wave
magnitude
NAFZ: North Anatolian
Fault Zone
NEHRP: National
Earthquake
Hazards
Reduction
Program
PGA: Peak ground
acceleration
PGD: Peak ground
displacement
PGV: Peak ground
velocity
SEE: Safety evaluation
earthquake
The seismic design of the Bosphorus tunnel is one of the most critical elements of the
Marmaray project because of the tunnels proximity to the fault system in the Sea of
Marmara (Figure 1) and the tunnel sites rock/soil conditions.
In general, seismic design for mass transit rail facilities adopts a performance-based
two-level design earthquake approach that includes:
The low-level, high probability functional evaluation earthquake (FEE)
The high-level, low probability safety evaluation earthquake (SEE).
The magnitude of the high-probability event (FEE) at the immersed tunnel site approaches
that of the low-probability event (SEE), however, making the use of the two-level design
earthquake approach inappropriate.
Design Basis Earthquake (DBE)

For this project, the minimum seismic design requirements are based on a single-level design
earthquake defined as the design basis earthquake (DBE). Both probabilistic and deterministic
approaches were used for assessing the seismic hazards.
The project DBE corresponds to a MW=7.5 (moment magnitude) earthquake. The
minimum performance requirements of the tunnel structures were such that when
subjected to the DBE:
Damage could be repaired easily and would not result in a loss of functionality or lives.
The tunnel would remain watertight.
The facility would remain operational following the earthquake and require not
more than a few days for inspection and adjustment of the rail alignment.
Repair work could be performed with minimum disruption to the operation of the facility.
Regional Tectonics and Seismicity

The primary tectonic
feature affecting the project
site is the Marmara Fault
System south of the project
site in the Marmara Sea.
This system is an extension
of the North Anatolian
Fault Zone (NAFZ), splaying
westward toward the
Marmara Sea region into
a complex system.
Figure 1: Project alignment relative to main Marmara fault.
The main Marmara Fault,

which is the northern
strand of this system,
1
This article is a reprint of an article that appeared in PB Network, Issue No. 62, Underground Engineering, February 2006,
pp. 62-65. Reprinting articles is typically against PB Networks policies but, because seismic issues were so important to
the Marmaray Project, the editors decided to make an exception.
PB Network #65
26

Figure 2: Fault segmentation
model for the Marmara Region.
Figure 3: Historical Seismicity of Marmara Region.
exhibits features typically associated with a strike-slip

fault (Segments S1 through S11 in Figure 2). Long-term
seismicity and global positioning system (GPS) measurements
indicate that this strand is more active than the southern
strand, where faults are generally of the extensional
type; therefore, it governs the seismic design of the
tunnel structures.
A number of M>7.0 earthquakes have occurred in the
Marmara region since 1500 (Figure 3). After detailed
assessment of the distribution of reported earthquake
damages, these major historical earthquakes have been
correlated to the fault segmentation model presented
in Figure 2. Fault ruptures associated with the fault
segmentation are summarized in Table 1.
Probabilistic Hazard Analysis

Two probabilistic models were used:
Poisson model. The homogeneous Poisson model
was used to assess the hazard on the regional basis.
The no-memory feature of this model was not fully
applicable to the tunnel because of the unique timedependent behavior of the fault system in the Marmara Sea area.
Table 1: Correlation between

Historical Major Earthquakes and
Fault Segmentation Model.
1
Earthquake
Fault Segment
September 10, 1509 (Ms= 7.2)
S7, S8
May 10, 1556 (Ms=7.2)
S9
May 25, 1719 (Ms=7.4)
S2, S3, S4, S5
February 9, 1754 (Ms=6.8)
S6
May 22, 1766 (Ms=7.1)
S7, S8
May 8, 1766 (Ms=7.4)
S11
July 10, 1894 (Ms=7.3)
S3, S4, S5
August 9, 1912 (Ms= 7.3)
S11
August 17, 1999 (Ms=7.8)
S1, S2, S3, S4
Table 2: Median Recurrence Times of

Fault Segments.
Fault
Last
Median
Segment
Earthquake
Recurrence Time
S1
S2
S3
S4
S5
S6
S7
S8
S9
S10
S11
27
November 12, 1999

(Ms=7.3)
August 17, 1999
(Ms=7.8)
August 17, 1999
(Ms=7.8)
August 17, 1999
(Ms=7.8)
July 10, 1894
(Ms=7.3)
September 2, 1754
(Ms=6.8)
May 22, 1766
(Ms= 7.1)
May 22, 1766
(Ms= 7.1)
May 10, 1556
(Ms= 7.2)
--August 9. 1912
(Ms=7.3)
140 35 years
140 35 years
140 35 years
175 years
210 40 years
250 years
250 years
200 50 years
200 50 years
150 years
PB Network #65
Time-dependent conditional probability model. This model was used

to characterize the segmentation behavior of the main Marmara Fault.
Consideration was given to the time elapsed since the segment last ruptured
when estimating the probability of future events.
The fault segmentation model (Figure 2) was derived based on the assumption
that the segment boundaries exist where faults change direction or where the
fault displacement varied substantially in past earthquakes.
The associated median recurrence time for each segment considered in the analysis
is presented in Table 2. These times were determined from the ratio of the displacement (D) of the previous segment rupturing earthquakes to the best estimated
median value of the regional slip rate (V). For the Marmara Sea, the median slip
rate was assumed to be in the range of 2 cm to 3 cm (roughly 1 inch)/year.
The results of the time-dependent conditional probability model indicated about
a 50 percent probability of an Mw>7.0 earthquake in the Marmara Sea area
during the next 50 years. That probability is greater if the interaction effect of
stress transfer is considered (the occurrence of an earthquake on one fault
segment having an impact on the probability of occurrence on another segment).
Our finding was consistent with others reported in recent years.2
Deterministic Hazard Analysis

The deterministic hazard analysis involved two primary elements:
Determination of the scenario earthquake
Identification of the proper attenuation relationships.
2
T. Parsons, S. Toda, R.S. Stein, A Barka, and J. J. Dieterich suggested about a 65 percent probability of an
Mw7.0 earthquake affecting Istanbul in the near future in Heightened Odds of Large Earthquake Near
Istanbul: An Interaction-based Probability Calculation Published in Science 288, Pg. 661-665, 2000.
An Mw=7.5 earthquake was selected as the maximum

credible earthquake scenario for this project and assumed
to take place on Segments S5 through S8 along the main
Marmara Fault, as shown in Figure 4. This fault section is
the closest to the immersed tunnel alignment, lying only
about 16 km (10 miles) to the south.
Figure 4: The maximum

credible earthquake
scenario.
Distance
to Fault 13 km 16 km 20 km
Ss (g)
0.90
0.74
S1 (g)
0.50
0.40
0.37
PGA (g)
0.42
0.38
0.32
30
29
24
25
22
21
PGV
(cm/sec2)
PGD (cm)
0.65
Table 3: DBE Ground

Motion Parameters on
Rock Outcrop
Note: g is the gravity of acceleration,
1g = 980 cm (32.17 feet)/
second 2).
Figure 5: Design bedrock

response spectra at a fault
distance of 16 km.
0.9
Spectral Acc. (g)
0.75
0.6
0.45
0.3
The attenuation relationships used in deriving ground

motion parameters were based on the median-plus-one
standard deviation values (the 84th percentile values)
because of the importance of the project and the relatively
high uncertainties associated with large magnitude ear thquakes in the near field conditions. The ground motion
parameters (on free-field rock outcrop) derived by the deterministic approach included:
Short-period spectral acceleration Ss (the spectral acceleration at T=0.2 sec)
Long-period spectral acceleration S1 (the spectral acceleration at T=1.0 sec)
Peak ground acceleration (PGA)
Peak ground velocity (PGV)
Peak ground displacement (PGD).
For assessment of Ss , S1 and PGA, the attenuation relationships proposed by Boore et al3.
were used. For the PGV and PGD, the relationships developed by Campbell4 and Gregor 5
were adopted.
The results of the hazard analysis and the DBE ground motion parameters are summarized in
Table 3 for three different distances 13 km, 16 km, and 20 km (8 miles, 10 miles and 18
miles) to represent the shortest distance to the fault from the various tunnel components.
The design rock spectra were derived by using the Ss and S1 values following the 1997
National Earthquake Hazards Reduction Program (NEHRP) procedure. The rock quality at
the project site is characterized as soft rock and meets the B/C Boundary site classification in
accordance with the NEHRP procedure (with an average
shear wave propagation velocity of 750 m (2,460 feet)/
Components
second in the upper 30 m (100 feet) of the rock). Figure 5
Horizontal
Vertical
shows the resulting DBE rock response spectra (5 percent
damping) from the scenario earthquake of Mw=7.5 at the
fault distance of 16 km (10 miles). The vertical component
spectral values were assumed to be two-thirds of the
horizontal component values for design purposes.
0.15
0
0.3
0.6
0.9
1.2
1.5
1.8
Period (s)
2.1
2.4
2.7
The spectrum-compatible DBE ground motion time histories

were also developed. Two sets of three components
(longitudinal, transverse and vertical) were developed
for each distance to fault. 6
Boore, D. M., Joyner, W. B., and Fumal, T. E., (1997), Equations for Estimating Horizontal Response Spectra and Peak Acceleration from Western North American
Earthquakes: A Summary of Recent Work, Seismological Research Letters, Vol. 68, No. 1, pp. 128-153.
Campbell, K. W., (1997), Empirical Near-Source Attenuation Relation- ships for Horizontal and Vertical Components of Peak Ground Acceleration, Peak Ground Velocity,
and Pseudo-Absolute Acceleration Response Spectra, Seismological Research Letters, Vol. 68, No. 1, pp. 154-179.
Gregor, N.J., (1995), The Attenuation of Strong Ground Motion Displacements, Report No: UBC/ EERC-95/02, University of California Berkeley, CA.
The design criteria specify that both sets of the time histories be used in the response analysis and the maximum response values of all time history analyses be used
for design purposes. Detailed descriptions, assumptions, and results of the site-specific hazard analysis are contained in a 2002 report by M. Erdik, C. Ozbey, and
K. Sesetyan entitled Earthquake Hazard Assessment, Earthquake Resistant Design Considerations and Design Basis Ground Motion for the Marmaray Project, Interim
Report Submitted to the Avrasya Joint Venture, Department of Earthquake Engineering, Bogazici University, Istanbul, Turkey.
PB Network #65
28
Free-Field Site Response Analysis Requirements

Based on in-situ seismic shear wave velocity measurements, the soft clayey stratum that
was encountered for a distance of about 500 m (1,640 feet) from the European end of the
immersed tunnel has a shear wave velocity of about 100 m (330 feet)/second at the mud line.
This increased gradually to about 250 m (820 feet)/second at 40 m (130 feet) below the mud
line. Further eastward, the soil stratum consists primarily of loose to dense sand with interlayering of firm to stiff sandy clay layers. Within about 100 m (330 feet) of the Asian end of the
immersed tunnel, variable deposits of sand, gravel, cobbles and boulders were encountered.
Figure 6: Free-field site
response analysis and
tunnel response analysis
using seismic deformation
method.
Site response analysis was performed to:

Account for the site amplification effect due to the presence of the deep soil deposits
Derive free-field displacement time histories as input for the tunnel longitudinal response analysis
Derive free-field ground deformation profiles for the tunnel transverse
racking response analysis
Derive earthquake-induced shear stresses for liquefaction
potential evaluations.
Due to the highly non-linear soil properties during an earthquake,
the free-field response analysis was performed using non-linear
dynamic time history analysis. The modified Ramberg- Osgood
model was used to account for the non-linear characteristics of
the soils. In addition, the two-dimensional finite element method
(FEM) was used for the longitudinal and vertical excitations and
the three-dimensional FEM was used in the transverse direction
(due to the presence of non-horizontally layered soil/rock strata
and to account for the deep basin effect under the Bosphorus).
B. Curvature Deformation Along Tunnel
Figure 6 presents a schematic diagram showing the three-dimensional

free-field site response analysis using the FEM. It should be noted that
only one unit width of the domain in the direction normal to plane is
needed in the analysis.
Longitudinal Tunnel Response Analysis

Using the free-field displacement time histories (at the tunnel position), the longitudinal
tunnel response analysis was carried out using the seismic deformation method. The
important factors considered in the analysis include the following:
The tunnel was modeled as beam elements taking into account the non-linear
characteristics of the tunnel member rigidity.
The interaction between the surrounding ground and the structure was modeled as
non-linear spring elements with limiting resistance.
Figure 7: Tunnel racking

response analysis.
Horizontal Shear Deformation, (ft)
Depth Below Surface (ft.)
0.1
50
0.2
0.3
free-field
The structural characteristic of the immersed joints

and discontinuity (the flexible and seismic joints) had
to be considered. The project criteria required that
joint properties used in the model be derived based
on validated experimental data.
Transverse Tunnel Racking Analysis
100
B
150
Soil Deformation Profile
29
Ground Surface
0.4
PB Network #65
Racking Deformation
of a Box Structure
The seismic racking response of the immersed tunnel

structure was analyzed using the pseudo-static seismic
deformation method, whose general concept is illustrated
4
in Figure 7.
The analysis consists of the following steps:

A. Determine the free-field deformation profile from site response analysis.
B. Develop a two-dimensional free-field finite element plane-strain model.
C. Apply boundary displacements or loads on the model boundaries (or a pseudo-static
seismic coefficient) to achieve the free-field soil deformation profile discussed in Step A.
D. Add tunnel structural elements in the model and remove the soil elements to be excavated.
E. Apply to the model the same boundary displacements or loads (or the pseudo-static
seismic coefficient) as used in Step C.
The resulting sectional forces and displacements in the structural elements are the seismic
demands under the transverse racking deformation effect.
Liquefaction and Liquefaction-Induced Ground Deformations

The effects of liquefaction to be considered for the tunnel design included:
Uplift, buoyancy, and flotation
Post-liquefaction settlements and lateral deformations (total as well as differential)
Lateral sliding stability.
The empirical procedure based on CPT (cone penetrometer testing) data was used for
preliminary liquefaction potential evaluations (NCEER, 1997).
Based on the preliminary investigation of the subsurface data, deposits of liquefiable soils
(loose to medium dense sands) are present at the elevations above the proposed tunnel
invert along almost the entire alignment. During the construction these problem soils
surrounding the tunnel elements will be excavated and replaced by properly designed
backfill materials that are not vulnerable to liquefaction. Below the invert, the soils on
the western portion of the crossing are composed primarily of silty clay so liquefaction
is not a main concern along this section of the tunnel.
Figure 8: Effect of
residual ground
movements on tunnel.
On the eastern portion of the crossing, however, loose to medium sandy soils are present
to a depth of about 10 m (33 feet), or more, below the tunnel invert. Preliminary analysis
indicated that the sandy deposits on this portion of the crossing are liquefiable, and postliquefaction settlements of as much as 350 mm (14 inches) can be expected. In addition to
the post-liquefaction settlements, the design would also need to consider the liquefactioninduced lateral spread due to the sloping channel bottom in the transverse direction of
the tunnel.
Figure 8 presents the schematic diagram showing
the methodology used in evaluating the effects
of post-liquefaction settlements and liquefactioninduced lateral ground deformations on tunnels.
For the final design, further evaluations of the
liquefaction potential of the soils are required.
If necessary, design mitigation measures are to
be provided to minimize the post-liquefaction
deformations.
Joe Wang is a principal professional associate who specializes in geotechnical and seismic engineering. He joined PB in 1987.
Mustafa Erdik, is a professor and chairman of the Department of Earthquake Engineering at Bogazici University, Turkey.
PB Network #65
30
Hydraulic Modeling for Submersion of

Immersed Tunnel Elements
By Jerald Ramsden, Portland, Oregon, 1-503-274-1337, ramsden@pbworld.com
The strong currents

and heavy ship traffic
in the area of the
immersed tunnel alignment led the employer
to require sophisticated
hydraulic analysis and
forecast modeling of
the area to determine
when it was safe to place
the tunnel elements.
Acronyms
ADCP: Acoustic
Doppler
Current Profiler
The immersed tunnel under the Bosphorus Straits in Istanbul will be the deepest tunnel of its
kind in the world, with a maximum depth of 58 m (190 feet) to the underside of its deepest
element. The Bosphorus Straits in the vicinity of the tunnel alignment provides several
challenges to the project, including:
Exposure to currents that normally change direction with depth and can be strong at times
Waves from the Sea of Marmara
Heavy waterborne traffic including deep draft shipping and frequent ferry service.
Ecological resources include significant fish migration between the two seas. The fish will be
protected by altering construction during migration periods and replacing the sea bed to its
pre-construction condition to prevent alteration of the salinity exchange and flow patterns.
Hydraulic conditions of the Bosphorus Straits were investigated during several studies, including
PBs feasibility study for this project in 1985 and, more recently a study conducted by the
contractor. These studies included numerous field investigations of, for example, currents,
water levels, and density gradients.
The Need For Hydraulic Modeling

The immersed tunnel alignment is characterized by the shallowest location along the Bosphorus
Straits, which acts as a sill for the vertically stratified flow exchange between the Sea of
Marmara and the Black Sea. The currents on the tunnel alignment are controlled primarily by
the water level and salinity differences between the two seas. Currents are typically 5.6 kph
to 11.2 kph (3 knots to 6 knots) in a southerly direction in the surface layers and a maximum
of about 1.85 kph to 3.7 kph (1 knot to 2 knots) in a northerly direction near the sea bed.
A turbulent layer exists between these two counter flowing currents. For particularly large
southerly flows, the currents are unidirectional with depth.
Due to large currents and considerable ship traffic, the employers contractual requirements
obligated the contractor to:
Develop, calibrate and verify a forecast model for use during construction.
Document conditions on the immersed tunnel alignment over the course of a reference
year as a means of documenting adverse conditions during construction, should they occur.
This information could then be used as documentation supporting a contract variation in
the event of adverse conditions during construction.
Physical model studies were conducted to determine flow induced loads on the tube elements
during the immersion processinformation that was used in designing the barge and anchoring
system. Because the largest currents are near the surface, the proposed immersion concept is
to orient the long axis of the tunnel elements parallel to the current. Once they are lowered
to a depth beyond the largest currents, they will be turned nearly broadside to the current so
as to be parallel to the immersed tunnel alignment for the remainder of the immersion process.
Three Hydraulic Models

Three models were developed to meet the employers requirementsa three-dimensional
hydrodynamic model, a micro model, and a forecasting (macro model).
Three-Dimensional Hydrodynamic Model. A three-dimensional hydraulic model of the
entire Bosphorus Straits was developed to simulate flow conditions at the immersed tunnel
alignment given environmental forcing conditions. The limits of the hydrodynamic model are4
31
PB Network #65
shown as the hatched area in Figure 1 along with Stations D and E

where water levels, wind, salinity, water temperature and air
pressure were monitored. Boundary conditions for the model were
developed from large-scale field measurements of temperature
and salinity variations along the Bosphorus Straits on a seasonal
basis. The model was driven by sea level differences as well as
salinity and temperature variations.
Sensitivity analyses were conducted to investigate the effects of varying
boundary conditions, model grid spacing, friction, wind, unsteadiness,
tributary inflow along the Bosphorus, tilted water surfaces along
the boundaries due to seiche,1 etc. on the resulting flow at the
immersed tunnel alignment. The primary variables affecting flow
features important for the immersion process were found to be
water level difference and density variations due to temperature
and salinity. Wind slightly alters the immediate surface current but
does not significantly alter flows on the scale of the tube elements.
Figure 1: Limits of the three-dimensional

hydrodynamic model.
Figure 2: Four stations where measurements were
taken to calculate the reference current velocity for
the location of each tunnel element.
To develop an efficient current forecasting model, the three-dimensional

model was used to identify flow conditions along the Bosphorus Straits
under a matrix of conditions, including water level differences, time rate
of change in water level differences, salinity and temperature variations
gradients. The results of these modeling exercises were used to identify
flow conditions for use in the macro model described below.
Micro model. A local (micro) model was developed and used
to predict the horizontal and vertical variation of the velocity on
the immersed tunnel alignment for a given flow condition in the
Bosphorus Straits. Current measurements were obtained using
acoustic Doppler current profilers (ADCPs) that can report
measurements from multiple points over the entire water column.
Figure 3: Percentage of time the currents and

other conditions would stay below the designed
upper limits, thus allowing a go decision for tunnel
element immersion.
100
Workability (%)
75
50
25
Mean
90% Confidence Interval
The micro model along with one year of measurements from Stations
A, B and C were used to calculate the reference current velocity for
the location of each tunnel element along the alignment. The reference
current velocity is the average current over the width of the element
and the top 15 m (50 feet) of depth (per employers requirements)
where the element will typically be exposed to the largest currents.
The threshold value for the reference current velocity was set to
5.6 kph (3 knots). If during the course of construction the frequency
and duration are not materially the same as occurred during the
reference year, then the contractor may be entitled to additional cost
and/or an extension of time per the employers requirements. (page 36)4
1
0
1
Using the measurements from Stations A, B and C (Figure 2) as well

as output from the three-dimensional hydrodynamic model, the
contractor developed a correlation using the least squares error
methodology. The correlation can be used to predict the current
anywhere in the immersed tunnel alignment. This correlation model
was verified using simultaneous measurements from Stations A, B and
C along with flow measurements on the alignment from a towed ADCP.
Element No.
10 11
Seiche is an oscillation of a fluid body in response to the disturbing force having the same
frequency as the natural frequency of the fluid system. (McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Scientific
and Technical Terms, Fifth Edition).
Jerald Ramsden is professional associate and project manager who specializes in coastal
engineering. He joined PB in 2001.
PB Network #65
32
Immersed Tunnel Designs

By Christian Ingerslev, New York, New York, 1-212-465-5344, ingerslev@pbworld.com
No suite of articles
about the Marmaray
Project would be complete without one about
immersed tunnels by
Christian Ingerslev.
Because we featured
his article about this
project in Issue No. 62,1
we present a companion
article here in which he
takes some of the mystery
out of immersed tunnel
design and then tells
of some interesting
challenges PB has
encountered on the
Marmaray and other
projects.2
Acronyms/
Abbreviations
Immersed tunnelsthe ones you build there, then float over to here and lower into
placeare definitely a mystery to anyone who has never been involved in one before. The
very concepts of getting involved in an underwater project and floating large heavy tunnel
sections seem so alien that by definition immersed tunnels must be difficult. But are they?
Applied Loading
In the final condition, immersed tunnel elements are lowered into a pre-dredged trench and
joined using rubber gaskets as a seal, and the trench is backfilled to cover the tunnel. Seismic
loads are imposed deformations similar to any tunnel on land. Potential conditions to
investigate resulting from the shaking include:
Curvature and racking/ovaling
Liquefaction of the soils and the effects upon the tunnel thereof
Liquefaction-induced ground deformations
Potential slope instability
Loss of bearing capacity
Down-drag.
Mean water level is a dead load, and variations therefrom are live loads (including tsunamis).
When the durability of an applied loading is considered together with its probability, load
factors differ slightly from land-based structures. Factors in general use for ultimate design
are given in Table 1. Japanese practice subdivides these factors further into partial factors
(Coastal Development Institute of Technology, Japan, 2002)a fact wor th noting on the
Marmaray Project because PBs client and the lead JV partner for the employers representative
contract is Pacific Consultants International, a leading Japanese consultant.
BART: Bay Area Rapid

Transit
(San Francisco)
JV: Joint venture
Exceptional loads include loss of support (subsidence) below the tunnel or to one side, and
storms and extreme water levels with a probability of being exceeded not more than once
during the design life (considering appropriate static and dynamic effects for each). A loss of
support of not less than 10 percent of the length of an immersed
Table 1: Ultimate Load Factors and Combinations for
tunnel element3 and uneven support from the foundation over the
Immersed Tunnels (Ingerslev 1986)
full width of the tunnel element are also considered. Depending
Loading/Design
Life
Loading Conditions Normal Exceptional Extreme Construction Safety
upon probability, a tsunami could be an exceptional load or an
Dead Load and
extreme load, and should not be combined with earthquake loads.
1.4/0.9
1.2/0.9
1.05
1.1
1.0
Permanent Ballast
Highway or Train Load:
Normal
Centrifugal
Braking Load
Wind and Waves
Current
Water Pressure
(level variation)
Additional Water
Pressure (surge, etc.)
Backfill Pressure:
Horizontal
Vertical
Creep and Shrinkage
Temperature Effects
& Prestressing
Sunken Ship
Earthquake
1.6/0
1.6/0
1.6/0
1.4
1.2/0
1.3/0
1.3/0
1.2
1.2
1.05
1.05
1.2
1.2
1.4/0.9
1.2/0.9
1.05
1.2
1.2/0.9
1.05
1.2
0.9/1.4
1.4/0.9
1.3
1.05
1.05
1.05
1.3/0
1.3/0
1.1/0.9
1.3
1.05
1.2/0
1.05
0.9/1.6
1.6/0.9
1.3
1.3
(including hydrodynamic)
Other Extreme Loads

Imposed Loads During
Construction
1.2
PB Network #65
1.0
1.0
1.0
Christian Ingerslevs article about the design of the Marmaray Project immersed tunnel
appears in PB Network, Issue No. 62, February 2006, pp 83 85.
An article by Christian Ingerslev in which he discusses other elements of immersed tunnel design,
including tunnel types, construction and fabrication considerations, and the typical tunnel
element design sequence appears in PB Network, Issue No. 62, February 2006, pp. 7 10.
This determination comes from an analysis Christian Ingerslev did in 1977 for a tunnel in
Hong Kong when the client asked how far the tunnel could be cantilevered safely. It has
been picked up by others and used ever since.
1.0
1.05
1.3
Note: Where two values are given, such as 1.4/0.9, the more critical
value should be used.
33
Extreme loads include, where appropriate: sunken or stranding

ships, anchor impact, ship collision, flooded tunnel, vehicular collision,
explosion (e.g. vehicular), fire, the design basis earthquake (DBE)
predicted for the location, and the resulting movement of soils.
Some of these loads may be affected by categories of dangerous
goods permitted through the tunnel. The functional evaluation 4
earthquake (FEE), also known as the DBE, should have a probability of being exceeded not
more than once during the design life.
Construction loads should be combined with other loads likely to occur during a period five
times as long as the expected duration of project construction.
Life safety is a check at ultimate limit state for the safety evaluation earthquake (SEE), often
the maximum credible earthquake (MCE), having an annual probability of being exceeded of
0.001 or less and load factors of unity. Life safety is directly linked to the survivability of the
structure under the most severe seismic event considered at the location.
Design
After construction in the fabrication facility, immersed tunnel elements are provided with a
watertight bulkhead set inside each end. Special rubber gaskets with a soft nose for an easy
initial seal are attached to one end of the tunnel element, while the other end is fitted with a
flat surface onto which the next tunnel elements gasket will rest. The bulkheads are placed so
that after joining there will be enough space between them for a person to work and finish
off the joint. For some tunnels, the joints are made rigid after placing so that the entire tunnel
has roughly the same section properties, but most are left with flexible joints, usually provided
with a second seal replaceable from inside.
The tunnel is placed in a pre-dredged trench and usually given at least 2 m (6 feet) of cover
to protect it from falling anchors and sunken ships. The foundation is usually either a screeded
gravel bed prepared before placing the tunnel element, or the element is set on temporary
supports and either sand pumped in or special grout injected beneath the tunnel element to fill
any gap, after which the temporary supports can be released and the tunnel backfilled, usually
to give a factor of safety against flotation of about 1.2. Additional non-removable weight is
placed either internally or externally to ensure that without backfill and with all removable
items out of the tunnel, the factor of safety against flotation never falls below about 1.06.
The tunnel section is usually sized so that a tunnel element with temporary bollards for towing
and lifting hooks for the lowering process can just float with 100 mm to 200 mm (4 inches to
8 inches) freeboard. The lifting hooks usually support 90 to 180 tonnes (100 tons to 200 tons)
each during the placing operation; the extra weight can be provided by external blocks or
water in temporary internal tanks.
After lowering, the last 1 m (3 feet) or so of horizontal movement to seat the rubber gasket
against the previously placed tunnel element is often assisted by guidance devices or beams to
ensure small tolerances. A couple of small hydraulic jacks are used typically to pull the tunnel
elements together sufficiently to give the rubber gasket an initial seal. Opening a valve low
in the temporary bulkhead will allow water to drain out from the space between the two
bulkheads, and the ensuing unequal hydrostatic pressure on the ends of the just-placed tunnel
element causes the joint to compress.
Figure 1: Consultants
concept design for the
Bosphorus tunnel.
Recent Design Challenges

Marmaray: Dealing with Shear. This immersed tunnel is the deepest
ever, with about 58 m (190 feet) of water pressure at the underside.
Applying this to a rectangular concrete tunnelthe most commonly used
shape and that selected by the contractor to suit his construction method,
as illustrated in Figure 1the moments and shears result in high percentages
of tension and shear reinforcement. To carry the shear, the contractor
uses friction-welded head bars with a 180 bend at the other end that
also simplifies installation.
PB Network #65
34
It is usual in designing an immersed tunnel to try to avoid or minimize shear reinforcement,

partly through the use of haunches in the corners and perhaps as many as three sets of bent
up bars. This was clearly out of the question for this tunnel because the shear far exceeded
the capacity using only bent-up bars. A concept design was developed, therefore, as part of
the bidding documents to overcome this. It started out initially as a larger copy of the BART
tunnel shape without the central gallery4, but the exterior still had substantial shear. The
shape of the conceptual tunnel was made much more circular so that under normal conditions,
most of the exterior would be in compression and shear reinforcement was minimal.
Singapore Study for Widest Immersed Tunnel. A current study for the Singapore government calls for an immersed tunnel with five contiguous lanes of traffic and full shoulders
for each direction. Water depth was fairly shallow at 8 m (26 feet) to sea bed. Elsewhere
in the world, the widest tunnel is three lanes wide in each direction with shoulders.
In meeting this challenge to come up with the largest immersed tunnel ever, the overriding
demand was to make the section as light as possible, minimizing extra internal space yet still
allowing it to float. Analysis indicated that top and bottom slabs 1.8 m (5.9 feet) thick would
suffice. With the required traffic, overhead sign and jet fan clearances, a viable solution was found
without significant additional internal space and still with the ability to float the tunnel into place.
As a consequence of the solution found, the extensive length of adjacent cut-and-cover
tunnel was reexamined and roof slab thicknesses reduced substantially. This change enabled
the alignment to be lifted and further cost savings to be realized. As it turned out, cheaper
construction alternatives exist (stage cofferdam or cut-and-cover) so that the immersed
tunnel option is unlikely to be constructed on this fast-track project.
Floating Immersed Tunnel for Zurich. PB was invited to Switzerland a few years ago
as sub-consultant to the city of Zurich to look at the feasibility of an immersed tunnel across
Lake Zurich as part of an eastern city ring road. The long, narrow and deep lake reaches into
the heart of the city so that all traffic between the southeastern and southwestern parts of
the city must pass through the city center.
The 40-m (130-foot)-deep

circular BART immersed
tunnel was also designed by
PB. Now with the Bosphorus
immersed tunnel being the
worlds deepest, the BART
tunnel is second deepest.
Figure 2: Caissons for one

of the Bahrain Causeway
bridges.
It was only upon my arrival that it transpired that the tunnel would be located within the
water column at about mid-depth, an arrangement termed a floating tunnel. Shipping
within the lake requires only about 2 m (6.6 feet) water depth, even for the party boats and
cruisers, but there was concern that natural circulation of the surface water and water at
depth might be compromised if the tunnel were located elsewhere than at mid-depth,
and that this might affect the very clean water that was used for drinking.
The initial challenge was to find a way to construct this tunnel. A number of feasible areas
around the lake were identified that could be used temporarily for a fabrication facility for
either a concrete or a steel tunnel. Expertise for concrete construction was available, so that
a concrete tunnel seemed most appropriate and was favored by the client. It just so happened
that the Western Harbour Tunnel in Hong Kong was just
the right size, so that this was used as a model to develop
a procedure. Because the lake has no connection to the
sea, it would be very difficult or impossible to bring
marine craft to the lake, and anything more than a crane
on a barge would not be available within the lake.
For the foundation to support the elements like an
underwater bridge, a caisson scheme similar to that used
for one of the five Bahrain Causeway bridges (Figure 2)
was developed; dredging flat areas upon which to seat
them would not be difficult. The caissons would be 4
35
PB Network #65
Related Web Sites:

PBworldNet > Teams >
Immersed Tunnel
International Tunneling
Association: http://www.
itaaites.org/cms/166.html
made light enough to float and concrete shafts cast afloat to the required level while ballasting
the structure down, similar to what was done for offshore oil platforms in the North Sea.
Temporary steel shafts would then be installed on top of the concrete shafts so that ballasting
could continue until the caissons were seated in their correct locations; these same shafts
could then later be used to lower the tunnel elements onto the prepared shafts and joining
the new tunnel element to the previously placed element.
http://www.marmaray.com
Unfortunately, at one end of the tunnel a mountainside was unstable so that an alternate
location for a shorter and conventional immersed tunnel was suggested, also saving considerable
cost; the suggestion was considered viable and accepted. Finally, however, a tunnel in rock
under the city center turned out to be a much shorter and cheaper route than the ring road
and became the preferred option. In all probability, the immersed tunnel could become
part of a local cross-lake connection and help to solve some of the citys grave traffic
problems without constructing the ring road.
Christian Ingerslev has been
working with immersed tunnels
since 1977. He has evaluated
immersed tunnel construction
at more than 100 locations
and has been involved in the
final design or construction
of tunnels in Hong Kong,
Taiwan and Turkey.
Conclusion
In principle, designing an immersed tunnel is not difficult. Ensuring that all steps have been
carried out correctly is the most important issue. Obviously much detail has been omitted
in this short article, but the principles are given to show that there are no hidden secrets
of success.
Hydraulic Modeling for Submersion of Immersed Tunnel Elements

Forecasting (macro) model. A current forecasting model was developed as a means of forecasting the current on the
immersed tunnel alignment at any given time far enough into the future to cover the critical duration for completion of
the immersion process. The methodology developed was based on the three-dimensional modeling results wherein the
hydrodynamic model was used to formulate response curves for salinity and temperature variations of interest. The critical
period for a go/no-go decision is about 12-24 hours, which is the time it will take to tow the element into place and lower
it below the surface where the largest currents are located. The employer required that the last go/no go decision be
based upon the forecasting system demonstrating that the current and other physical conditions will stay below the designed
upper limits with a statistical probability of more than 90 percent. Thus, it was imperative to develop an accurate forecasting
model because reduced accuracy in the model would further constrain the operability windows during which a go decision
for immersion can be made.
Workability Estimates
The results of the micro model are shown in Figure 3, where the percentage of time meeting the go decision criteria is met
for each element location in the cross section. Two curves are shown, including the mean prediction and the reduction
associated with the required statistical probability of 90 percent. The elements near the center have the most constrained
operability, which is consistent with the reduced water velocity near each side of the Bosphorus.
Lessons Learned
The tender must provide flexibility for the contractors. They are the designers and will have their preferred means and
methods for meeting the employers requirements. As such, the employers consultant should be prepared for alternative
approaches and potential variations to the tender due to the variety of hydraulic modeling methods and challenges in field
data collection. Examples of these challenges in the Bosphorus included deployment of the ADCP meters in an active
waterway with at least two occurrences of meters that were moved from their original positionwith one of these
being brought to the surface in fishing gear.
PB Network #65
36
Linking Two Continents: The Marmaray Project Stations, Bored Tunnels and E&M Systems
Progress of Station and Bored Tunnel Construction

By Daniel Horgan, Istanbul, Turkey 90 216 349 5997 horganD@pbworld.com
Archeological Excavations
The author outlines the
progress on construction of the three new
underground stations
in two regards. First
he discusses the
archeological excavations, including their
impacts on design and
construction schedules.
Then he describes the
station and tunnel
excavations, pointing
out the associated
challenges, and the
progress with the
tunnel boring machines.
Acronyms/
Abbreviations
NATM: New Austrian
Tunneling
Method
TBM: Tunnel boring
machine
TCDD: Trkiye
Cumhuriyeti
Deviet
Demiryollari
sletmesi
(the national
railway company
of Turkey)
Figure 1: Byzantine boat
discovered at Yenikapi.
Istanbuls archeological excavations have always revealed an unsurpassed wealth of evidence

of the past. The excavations for the Marmaray Project are no exception, and have been
particularly rich in Byzantine and Ottoman artifacts.
Remarkable Findings. The archeological work on the project started when Yenikapi was
selected to be the major rail hub on the European side of the city for three interconnecting
mass transit/railway stationsone called Yenikapi TCDD for the Intercity (high speed) railway,
one for commuter trains and another for the planned extension to the Istanbul Metro.
Work commenced in 2004 with the clearing of the site.
Beneath the surface archeologists uncovered a treasure of a kind never before seen in
Istanbul. Just a few short metres down the ancient port of Constantinople was discovered.
Also called Eleutherios harbour in historical records of the time, this was one of the busiest
ports in all of Byzantium (around the 4th century).
For two years, hundreds of archeologists and labourers scraped away silt and rubble to reveal
at last a vast site the size of several football fields. Eight sunken ships have already been
found buried in the mud only a few hundred metres inland from the Sea of Marmara. It is
believed by Mr. Pulak, a Turkish-American archeologist, that one of the ships may be the oldest
Byzantine naval vessel ever found (Figure 1).
As well as the stone remains of the harbour itself, Chief Archeologist, Mr. Metin Gokay and
his team have uncovered perfectly preserved ancient anchors, lengths of rope and some
more unusual finds, such as leather sandals with string through the toes, candleholders and
hair brushes. Archeologists and workers have filled thousands of crates with the more
common artifacts (coins, old mosaics and ceramics) for later assessment.
Impacts on Schedules. Whilst the Yenikapi site is proving to be a boon for archeologists, it
is proving to be a problem for the constructors who want to commence building the new
stations. In October 2006 the Minister for Transport and Communications, Mr. Binali Yildirim,
acknowledged that the archaeological excavations had delayed the project by eight months.
In addition, a long section of Constantines wall built in the 4th century was discovered. The
Heritage Committees decision that it needed to be preserved in situ meant that the Yenikapi
4
Figure 2: Sirkeci
shaft excavation.
37
PB Network #65
TCCD station could not be constructed. This change necessitated an urgent concept design change, and after several design
reviews by the Avrasyaconsult team, including PBs railway systems,
civil and tunnel ventilation engineers, a new ventilation building
and a turn-back tunnel were added to the scheme to replace
those that would have been in the vicinity of the Yenikapi TCDD.
Lesson Learned. Important findings have been made at other
station sites also, with excavations at skdar, Ayrilikcesme
and Sirkeci, having revealed ancient Byzantine churches,
numerous skeletons (Figures 2 and 3), Ottoman buildings and
pipes, and Roman cisterns. In Turkey, the Heritage Committee
is very powerful and committed to passing down the great
heritage that Turkey possesses to future generations.
Figure 3: Christian
skeletons uncovered
in Byzantine Chapel
at skdar.
A balance
between
progress and
preservation
needs to be
achieved,
and is indeed
possible.
Figure 4: Diaphragm
walling excavation machine
at skdar.
A balance between progress and preservation needs to be achieved, however, and is indeed
possible. Athens and Rome have faced similar challenges during the construction of their
underground mass transit systems and both cities now have extensive transit systems in
operation. We have learned that awarding an advance contract for the archaeological
excavations and utility diversions before commencement of the main contract could expedite
future underground station construction.
Station and Tunnel Excavations

The three underground stations are being constructed using different techniques:
skdar is being constructed mostly by the cut-and-cover technique, with the new Austrian
tunneling method (NATM) used for construction of the crossover. The perimeter wall for
skdar will be a diaphragm wall (Figure 4).
Yenikapi station will also be constructed by the cut-and-cover technique, and the perimeter
wall will be constructed with secant piles and horizontal beams fixed at various heights
along the piles.
Sirkeci station, which is 45 m (150 feet) below ground level, will be constructed using NATM
with an access tunnel located between the running tunnels. The station entrances will be
constructed using a combination of cut and cover and NATM. Two shafts will be sunk to
house the electrical and mechanical plant and to provide fresh air and access for the utilities.
Some plant rooms will be constructed at ground level.
Some of the key challenges the contractor is facing with construction of these stations include:
Protecting the many adjacent buildings that are old and constructed on minimal foundations
Preserving national and world heritage monuments and buildings
Performing construction activities adjacent to the existing operational commuter railway
Performing construction activities within
the limited land
available
Integrating a
shopping mall into
skdar station.
Figure 5: NATM construction

at skdar crossover.
PB Network #65
38
Challenges with NATM. The NATM works have proved to be challenging due to a
combination of difficult ground conditions and the inherent risks associated with NATM.
During the construction of the skdar crossover (Figure 5), two minor collapses occurred
and surface ground settlement occurred, causing minor cracks to buildings and necessitating
the evacuation of two apartment blocks.
NATM works can be very efficient, but careful planning and cautious execution is required
by very experienced staff to reduce the risks to an acceptable level. To minimise ground
settlements, it was decided to use longer rock bolts, cast a temporary invert with shotcrete
and install foot piles.
Tunnel Boring Machines. The project has 9.8 km (6.1 miles) of twin tunnels being bored
by five tunnel boring machines (TBMs).
One earth pressure balance (EPB) type TBM will be used in the soft European ground.
It has a diameter of 7.97 m (26.1 feet) and was manufactured by Lovat of Canada.
Four slurry type TBMs will be used to bore through the hard rock. These have a diameter
of 7.89 m (25.9 feet) and were manufactured by Hitachi Zosen of Japan.
All the TBMs are in Istanbul, assembly is ongoing and the first two machines have
commenced tunnelling.
A factory has been built for producing the concrete lining segments
and production is ongoing. The tunnel lining segments are made
of reinforced grade C50 concrete and are 300-mm (12-inch) or
320-mm (almost 13-inch)-thick.
The internal diameter of the finished tunnels will be 7.04 m
(23.1 feet). The tunnel size accommodates Intercity (high speed),
commuter, and freight trains.
The tunnel will also be cleared for UIC506 structure gauge and will
accommodate a 1.4-m (4.6-foot)-wide escape walkway at 900 mm
(36 inches) above rail level and, on the opposite side of the tunnel,
a 500-mm (20-inch)-wide squeeze way at 760 mm (30 inches)
above rail level (Figure 6).
Figure 6: Bored tunnel
cross section
The main tunnelling challenges the contractor will face are:

Many buildings on the alignment are old and constructed on minimal foundations.
Ground conditions are extremely variable, including sands, stiff clay, mudstones, gravel
and rock.
There is only limited tunnel cover for a portion of the tunnel drives.
The ground water level is high.
Conclusions
Construction in a densely populated urban environment is always difficult. It is especially
so with the Marmaray Project because of Istanbuls unique history and historic buildings.
The most important lesson learned to date is that all archaeological excavations and utility
diversions should be completed by a specialist contractor prior to the appointment of the
construction contractors. This step will reduce delays, reduce the risk of the unknown,
and simplify the works to be executed by the construction contractors.
Daniel Horgan is a chartered engineer, fellow of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, senior engineering manager, certified senior project manager and
professional associate. He has worked on design and construction of mass transit systems, railways and buildings in Singapore, Turkey and the UK. Daniel is
PBs project manager on the Marmaray Project.
39
PB Network #65
Ventilation System
By Mark J. Gilbey, Godalming, UK, 44(0)14 8352 8506, gilbey@pbworld.com; Kate C. Hunt, Godalming, UK, 44(0)14 8352 8966,
huntK@pbworld.com; William D. Kennedy, New York, NY, 1-212-465-5588, kennedy@pbworld.com; Simon N. Drake, Croydon, UK,
44(0)20 8760 7529, drakeS@pbworld.com; M. Melih Babur, Avrasyaconsult; and Daniel M. McKinney, Earth Tech
The authors tell about the

SES and CFD analyses
performed and how they
were used together to
obtain the information
needed for the Marmaray
Project tunnel ventilation
system.
A typical mass transit ventilation system ensures a safe and comfortable environment in the
underground portions of the system. It provides for exhaust and supply air for heat removal,
comfort and respiration during normal and congested operations, and smoke control during
a fire emergency.
The ventilation system for the Marmaray Project covers the 13.6-km (8.5-mile)-long
underground portion of the railway, including three stations (Yenikapi, Sirkeci and skdar),
the interconnecting running tunnels, and the ventilation structures near the east and west
portals. This system is suitable for passenger trains and for the freight trains that will use the
tunnels at night when passenger trains are not present.
Criteria
Acronyms/
Abbreviations
CFD: Computational
fluid dynamics
FHRR: Fire heat release
rate
NFPA: National Fire
Protection
Association
OTE: Over track
exhaust
SES: Subway
Environment
Simulation
UPE: Under platform
exhaust
The project criteria for passenger train emergencies included National Fire Protection Association
130 Standard for Fixed Guideway Transit and Passenger Rail Systems, 2003 Edition, (NFPA 130),
an American standard that is accepted worldwide. NFPA 130 focuses on providing a tenable
environment for the evacuation of patrons and employees and providing access for firefighters.
The ventilation system must be capable of controlling the direction of smoke and heat
movement. The goal is to create an air stream past the fire with a velocity greater than the
minimum velocity required to prevent the smoke and hot gases from back-layering (moving
against the direction of forced ventilation).
This minimum velocity, commonly known as the critical velocity, is based on the vehicles fire
heat release rate, tunnel geometry and gradient, ambient temperature, etc. The rate of
growth of the fire is also very important because it determines the intensity of the heat and
the amount of smoke generated by the fire. The Marmaray Project assumed an NFPA 92B
medium fire growth curve with a peak fire heat release rate of 20 MW, based on the vehicles
materials, which had to comply with material specifications in NFPA 130.
The freight train portion of the analysis assumed a steady-state fire heat release rate of 100 MW.
It assumed that only a minimal number of crew members would be present during freight
transport, and that these employees would have been trained on how to self-evacuate
through the station entrances or the tunnel cross passageways.
Design criteria for the stations included maintaining a tenable environment along all
evacuation paths:
Temperatures should not exceed 50C (122F).
Visibility should be maintained such that a person can see a sign lighted at 80 lx from 30 m
(100 feet) away.
A smoke layer, if present, must be at least 2.5m above the walking surface.
Ventilation Analysis Tools

We first used the Subway Environment Simulation (SES) tool to establish one-dimensional
flows (as in tunnel segments) and the networks boundary conditions, and then applied
computational fluid dynamics (CFD) to those segments with three-dimensional, complex flow
(as in tunnel fires and large, open transit stations). SES is a comprehensive, designer-oriented
tool used to estimate airflows, temperatures and humidity, as well as air conditioning requirements
for the tunnel networks of multiple-track subway systems. While it permits users to simulate
a variety of train, tunnel and fire characteristics, it is most suitable for modeling airflows
within relatively linear cross sections, such as tunnels, walkways and small stations.
PB Network #65
40
CFD is a state-of-the-art technique for virtual modeling of fluid flow, heat and mass transfer,
and chemical reactions. As of yet, it cannot be applied effectively to an entire transit system
comprised of a network of tunnels and large open stations because doing so would require an
enormous number of interlinked computational elements called cells to sufficiently represent the
network. That, in turn, would spawn a massive number of equations to solve simultaneously.
However, using the two methods appropriately has provided the data we required.
SES Analysis
Figure 1: SES network

model.
Turnback
Tunnel
West Portal
Yenikapi
The SES analyses determined the fan capacities and operating modes needed to control heat and
smoke during tunnel fires and to maintain an acceptable environment in the stations and tunnels
during normal and congested operations, and emergency conditions. The model included:
Over-track exhaust (OTE) for the trackways
Under platform exhaust (UPE) for station platforms
Tunnel ventilation fans at each end of all stations
Jet fans in selected locations of the ventilation structures at each portal.
The SES network model is shown in Figure 1.
Normal Operations Operations are considered to be normal when trains are moving
through the system according to schedule and
passengers are traveling smoothly to and from
X14
X15
trains. Normal simulations are run to estimate
Sirkeci
skdar
East Portal
air temperatures and velocities in the tunnels,
along platforms and within station passageways in order to assess the comfort level of
patrons on the platform and the temperature of the intake air for the passenger trains.
Simulations were performed for summer and winter conditions. Natural ventilation provided
by the piston effect of the trains moving through the tunnels was used whenever possible
to avoid mechanical ventilation. The OTE system removed heat generated at the station
trackway when system temperatures were predicted to be unacceptably high. The simulations
showed that the OTE fans would need to be operated under thermostatic control during
high temperature summer conditions, but would not be needed during winter conditions.
Congested Operations. Congested operations occur when the normal movement of trains
through the system is prevented. The ventilation system was based on a requirement to
support the continuous operation of onboard air-conditioning (AC) units, thus maintaining
passenger comfort during congested conditions. Mechanical ventilation was required during
high temperature conditions.
Passenger evacuation does not normally occur during congested operation, but could be
required if a train were stopped in a tunnel for an extended period of time. Simulations with
trains stopped in tunnels were performed for summer conditions. Tunnel air temperatures
predicted by the analyses were checked against plant design criteria to confirm that onboard
AC equipment could continue to operate during a train stoppage. Where violations were noted,
the tunnel ventilation system was operated as necessary to reduce tunnel air temperatures.
Emergency Conditions. The SES simulations considered fire size and locations, fan operating
modes, evacuation routes, etc. Every running tunnel and station was examined to determine
worst-case locations from the point of view of fire development. Factors included:
Tunnel gradient
Distance from nearby fans
Proximity of vents or openings not capable of being closed in conjunction with fan
operation (thus allowing air to short-circuit)
4
Tunnel blockage caused by the disabled train on fire.
41
PB Network #65
In most worst-case scenarios, the fire was assumed to be near the top of the grade, requiring
the smoke to be pulled downhill against buoyant forces for the greatest distance. The aim of
each simulation was to demonstrate that airflow above the critical value could be maintained
in order to prevent the back-layering of smoke and fumes along the evacuation routes.
The SES simulations were performed iteratively, whereby for a given fan configuration, the flow
past the fire was compared to the critical velocity. If the flow was sufficient, the scenario passed.
If the flow was not sufficient, the scenario failed, the fan capacities were adjusted upward, and
the process was repeated.
One unusual aspect of this project was that the concrete walls of the running tunnels were to
be insulated. The thickness of the insulation was conservative in that it was calculated based
on no emergency ventilation (i.e., no cooling effect of the ventilation system operation.) The
SES fire model had to be modified to accurately take into account the dynamic response of
such composite walls. A one-dimensional transient heat conduction model in a semi-finite
solid was used to determine the depth of the temperature front at any given time. This, in
turn, was used to determine the thermal properties of the composite walls as a function of time.
Other Factors for Analysis. The freight trains that will be allowed to use the tunnels during
the night can be up to 1 km (nearly 3,300 feet) long and could give rise to a very large fire
heat release rate. Our concept of the Saccardo nozzles helped to overcome some of the
major challenges associated with this. We have been working closely with the contractor to
optimize the design and layout of the station structures to provide adequate space for the
resulting ventilation equipment.
Another interesting factor was related to a major change for a station. During the architectural
excavations at the Yenikapi TCDD station, significant artifacts were found that meant the entire
station, along with the tunnel ventilation equipment, had to be deleted. Our team worked
with the rest of the client team and the contractor to develop and alternative concept for a
new mid-tunnel ventilation shaft, with a unique arrangement of the Saccardo nozzles and tail
track ventilation system to allow the building to fit into the small footprint available to it.
The analysis has required a good deal of coordination amongst team members, with support
from staff in New York, London and Istanbul, and with contractor design teams in Istanbul,
Singapore, and San Francisco. All team members have been very proactive in coming together
for regular design reviews in both Istanbul and the USA.
CFD Analyses
Three-dimensional CFD analyses were performed to determine heat and smoke distribution
from specified fire scenarios in the stations, where there were large open areas and the
potential for highly complex airflows.
ANSYS CFX 5.7, a commercial general purpose CFD program, was used to create virtual
models of each station geometry. Physical features relevant to operation of the ventilation
system were incorporated, including platforms, concourses, exits to the surface, fan connections
within the stations, and short sections of each connecting running tunnel. CFD was used to
solve the steady state non-linear equations that describe the expected turbulent fluid flow
and the associated heat transfer mechanisms. The software represented the equations for
continuity, conservation of energy, momentum, and smoke for each and every cell as a large
matrix of partial differential equations, and solved them using advanced numerical mathematics.
A CFD analysis was performed for the worst-case fire scenario in each station. In cases that
required tunnel ventilation fan operation, the airflows at the station connections (boundary
conditions) were derived from the appropriate SES simulations. Station entrances from outside were modeled as ambient pressure openings. Each worst-case fire scenario was based
PB Network #65
42
on specific station design elements including layout, stair/escalator locations, egress path(s), and ventilation design, and typically involved a fire in
the center car of a train, usually nearest to a stairway.
Figure 2: CFD model

of skdar Station,
West end.
The initial analysis modeled steady-state conditions at the full fire heat
release rate. Results were reviewed to determine whether a tenable
environment could be maintained along a sufficient number of evacuation
paths to enable safe evacuation. Stairs/escalators were considered
available for evacuation if tenable paths to them could be maintained.
In addition, clear access had to be available for firefighters.
When the evacuation paths could not be kept clear indefinitely, alternative
ventilation modes were considered or in some cases the CFD treatment
was extended to transient analysis, which was performed as a means of
measuring the migration of smoke and heat over time. The results of the
transient analyses were compared to the time of tenability to determine
whether sufficient time would be available for evacuation. The required
time of tenability was 11 minutes after the start of evacuation, which in
turn was assumed to be 4 minutes after the start of the fire.
Figure 3:
CFD model of
skdar Station,
Center.
For illustrative purposes, Figures 2 through 4 show the three-dimensional

geometry of skdar Station (west end, center, and east end, respectively).
This station has a cut-and-cover structure with a center (island) platform
serving both the eastbound and westbound tracks.
Results
Figure 4: CFD
model of
skdar
Station,
East end.
Ventilation components include OTE systems for the trackways, under

platform exhaust (UPE) systems for the station platforms, tunnel
ventilation fans at both ends of each station, and jet fans at selected
locations. Two of the tunnel ventilation fans, one at the east por tal
ventilation structure, and one at the western end of Yenikapi Station,
were required to operate using Saccardo nozzles to give directionality
to the airflow. Unidirectional jet fans were required at the west por tal
and at crossover 14 between Yenikapi Station and Sirkeci Station, and
fully reversible jet fans were required at Crossover 15 between skdar
Station and the east por tal.
Mark Gilbey leads PBs UK-based tunnel ventilation team and visits Istanbul regularly to review the contractors design as relates to ventilation and smoke control, as
well as to coordinate the link between the analysis and design. Mark has a wide range of mechanical design and tunnel ventilation experience with PB in Hong Kong,
New York and the UK.
Kate Hunt is a principle tunnel ventilation engineer for PB in the UK. She led the team during the analysis and development of the concept design, including the
development of the SES network and concept design reports. Kates analysis experience has been developed over a diverse range of tunnels.
William (Bill) Kennedy has been a tunnel ventilation engineer with PB for 35 years. He is a vice president and principal professional associate at PB, and is a
registered professional engineer. Bill has worked on the development of the Subway Environment Simulation (SES) computer program since its inception, specializing
in the aerodynamics and fire models, and he has worked on transit, road and mainline rail tunnel projects around the world. He is a member of the American Society
of Heating, Refrigerating and Air Conditioning Engineers and was chair of its Technical Committee 5.9, Enclosed Vehicular Facilities 1993-1996. He is a member
of the National Fire Protection Association and chair of its committee for Standard 130, Fixed Guideway Transit and Passenger Rail Systems; and Chair of the
American Public Transportation Associations Ventilation Forum.
Simon Drake is PBs lead CFD analyst in the UK and specializes in smoke control related to underground structures. He leads the review of the contractors CFD
applications. Simon has 22 years experience in industrial CFD, including consultancy and project applications, software testing and development, user support,
and technical sales support. In the past 13 years he has used three leading commercial CFD software for analyses in support of underground fire safety
M. Melih Babur is the mechanical engineer for Avrasyaconsult, the joint venture team serving as employers representative. Melihs role includes the review of all
aspects the contractors mechanical design, and liaison with the Employer. Melih undertook a similar role on the Istanbul Metro and brings a wealth of knowledge from
both that project and local custom and practice.
Daniel McKinney provides specialist SES and CFD services for the ventilation analyses and design under the Bosphorus Crossing contract. He is employed by Earth Tech.
43
PB Network #65
Auxiliary Power Supply Design for Stations,

Tunnels and Ventilation Buildings
By Mathew Beard, Godalming, UK 44(0)14 8352 8417 beardM@pbworld.com; and Reha Egemen, Avrasyaconsult, regemen@avrasyaconsult.com
The author describes the

supply and distribution
of non-traction power
to the essential loads
and life safety systems,
telling about the
challenges, including
those associated with
using two power
n e t works, and how
reliability was achieved.
PBs Role
PB produced a concept
design specification that
set the performance
requirements for the
contractor. For simple
systems this was not
much more than stating
which standard or code
of practice to apply and
the performance criteria,
such as voltage drop
requirements on cable.
For more complex or
critical systems, of which
there were many, we were
much more prescriptive.
These included the high
voltage distribution system,
fire detection and
emergency lighting. In
some cases we provided
example detailed designs
for the contractor to
consider. The specification
was part of the Employers
Requirements set forth in
the tender document.
We subsequently took
part in the technical
assessment of the returned
tenders. Our ongoing
role has been to review
the design and help make
changes needed to ensure
it complies with the
Employers Requirements
in an optimal way.
The electrical elements of an underground railway such as the Marmaray Project are substantial.
Setting aside the traction power aspects, there remains a variety of systems connected to the
power distribution system that are critical to the safe operation and business continuity of
the stations and tunnels. There is the apparent equipment, such as lighting, escalators, fire
alarms, power outlets and closed-circuit television (CCTV) installations, and then there is the
less obvious but nevertheless essential equipment, such as tunnel ventilation fans, drainage
pumps, earthing systems and flood gates.
Some of the electrical loads of this equipment are very small, as in the case of CCTV at
only a few kW in total, and some are very large, such as the tunnel ventilation fans at several
hundred kW each, but all can be classified as either essential for life safety or not. Design of
the electrical system must include provision for continuing the operation of these essential
systems should an accident or event occur that impacts their performance. Designing for
continued operation starts at the fundamental level of where power is obtained from and
how it is delivered to the essential loads, which is the subject of this article.
Choice of Voltage Level

The geographic location of this project spans two power networks within Turkey, one in
Europe and one . in Asia. Both are operated
. by the Turkish Electricity Transmission Company,
Trkiye Elektrik Iletim Anonim Srketi (TEIAS). These transmission networks operate at 380
kV or 154 kV but are currently unsynchronised, which prevents interconnection. Within each
network the voltage levels are transformed down to more usable distribution voltage levels,
which include 33 kV, 10 kV and less.
It was decided to use as high a voltage as possible for the primary distribution system of
the auxiliary power due to the anticipated large electrical loads of the system and the long
lengths of connection both within and between stations, portals and ventilation buildings.
Higher voltage levels are also inherently more reliable than lower voltage levels, and the
use of higher levels contributed to meeting the reliability, availability, maintainability (RAM)
performance requirements. Taking into account the availability of standard equipment, local
capability for future maintenance, and size of switchgear and distribution equipment, 33
kV was selected as the most suitable distribution voltage.
Design Approach
Standards. A prerequisite for this project was that it would be designed in accordance
with suitable modern standards, which led to the adoption of the National Fire Protection
Association 130: Standard for Fixed Guideway Transit and Passenger Rail Systems (NFPA 130)
as one of the foundation documents for the design. There are few standards specifically
issued for this type of environment, and this standard from the USA is the most widely used
and applicable.
Routing of Supply Cables. NFPA 130 states that there should be two completely separate
power supplies for safety critical loads. Each critical load, such as a tunnel ventilation fan,
must have an A and B supply, and these cables should, as far as possible, use segregated
routes. It is also necessary to protect these cables from fire and damage due to seismic events.
As each tunnel has two large segregated concrete components (one for each direction, each
thought of as a tunnel), it was logical to run supply A down one tunnel and B down the
other, both in protected locations within the tunnel to minimise the potential for damage
from accidents, such as a derailment or fire.
PB Network #65
44
Sources of Supply. Having decided the routing for the supply cables,
it was necessary to choose the sources of supply. Obtaining two
separate supplies and feeding both circuits from the same end of the
tunnels might have been viable in theory. In practice, however, it was
not possible to source sufficiently separate circuits within practical
proximity of the project boundaries.
In addition, if sources of supply to the tunnels originated from a single

end, there was a possibility that they both would be susceptible to a
single failure-causing event, such as an earthquake. It was decided,
instead, to obtain a supply from both ends (i.e., both continents)
and thereby enable simultaneous provision of separate supplies
as indicated by the two circuits highlighted in gray on Figure 1.
Flexibility. Operational flexibility was provided with the inclusion of
normally open connections at either end of the circuits. Operated by
a supervisor from the remote control centre, these switches effectively
create a double open ring system. Each circuit was sized for a capacity
of 100 percent of the total system load. If any single supply or circuit
fails, power can be redistributed around the system via alternative routes.
Supplies have been further backed up by standby generator facilities.
Station Supplies
Stations are long and thin because of the train and, hence platform
lengths. With them being typically 270 m (886 feet) long, when items of
plant with large power requirements such as tunnel ventilation fans are
situated at the end of platforms, the separation distances are significant.
Power supplies are brought in to the station at either end to maximise
their separation, but immediately transforming down to a usable voltage
(400 V) is a problem because of the long cable lengths necessary to
provide an A and B supply to all essential loads.
Figure 1: Electrical design

showing separate power
sources.
Related Web Sites:

Marmaray Project:
www.marmaray.com
TEIAS: www.teias.gov.tr
Mathew Beard is a chartered
electrical engineer and an
electrical team leader based in
the UK Buildings group. He is
a professional associate and
project manager, and has
worked for the last 10 years
on a variety of PB projects,
including many rail lines.
Reha Egemen has 30 years
of installation and design
engineering experience on
high voltage and low voltage
systems. Reha has worked on
a large ammonia plant in Bursa
and a petroleum refinery plant
in Ismit in addition to working
on the Istanbul Underground
Metro and the Eskisehir Mass
Transit System.
45
PB Network #65
Depending on the current flowing through a cable, voltage decreases

along its length as a result of the cable resistance. The greater the
current, the greater the voltage drop. If the voltage drops too much it is possible that the
equipment it is powering will not operate correctly, so the fan may not start.
To counter this effect, we ran calculations to determine the conductors cross sectional area
that has a tolerable voltage drop. Through an iterative process, larger and larger cables were tried,
and then more and more cables were added in parallel until an acceptable voltage drop resulted
from the reduction in circuit resistance. Increasing both cable size and the number of cables was
limited, however, by the cost (more copper) and by the space requiredspace being a precious
commodity in underground stations. At one of the stations, we estimated that supplying
power at 400 V required forty-eight 630 mm2 single core cables (AWG 12/0), which included
approximately 85 000 Kg (94 tons) of copper. It was decided instead to provide additional
transformers at either end of the station and distribute A and B 33 kV supplies to both ends,
so each distribution board would always have two supplies available under normal conditions.
These supplies are transformed down to 400 V via two separate transformers to an A and
B section of the 400 V distribution panels. The sections are normally electrically separated
but can be connected as required with measures to prevent inadvertent paralleling of the A
and B supplies.
From the 400 V distribution panel, separate A and B cables lead to an autochangeover
device close to the essential load. This device senses if there is failure of one supply and,
if so, automatically changes over connection to the alternative supply, thereby providing two
(page 49)4
separate and segregated supplies to each essential load as required.
Dual Signalling Systems

By David Williams, Birmingham, UK, 44(0) 12 1452 7499, williamsDa@pbworld.com

features the latest signalling and communication systems and is
unusual in that it incorporates dual signaling
systems. This article
provides a brief summary
of the dual systems.
Figure 1: Dual signalling

arrangement.
Gebze
Pendik
Commuter Rail Service
The entire 76-km (47-mile) long Marmaray Project is a three track railway with the exception
of the centre 13.6-km (8.5-mile)-long tunnel section, where only two tracks are provided.
On the 3-track segments21 km (13 miles) on the European side and 41 km (25.5 miles)
on the Asian sideTracks 1 and 2 will be used by the new 10-car trains providing mass rapid
transit (commuter) service and Track 3 will be dedicated to freight and Intercity (high speed)
long-distance trains. In the tunnel section, however, the freight and high speed trains will also
run on Tracks 1 and 2.
Signalling Arrangement. The dual signaling system comprises the European Train Control
System (ETCS) Level 1 fixed block train operations overlaid with the Communications Based
Train Control (CBTC) moving block train operations (Figure 1). The characteristics of each are
as follows:
ETCS fixed block signalling supports:

120 second headway in both directions on Tracks 1 and 2 in the central section
(Atakoy to Pendik)1
300 second headway in both directions on Tracks 1 and 2 in the European and Asian
sections (Halkali to Atakoy and Pendik to Gebze)
300 second headway in both directions on Track 3 (in European and Asian sections).
Ibrahimaga
Kazilcesme
Commuter Rail
and TCDD Service
Atakoy
Halkali
Commuter
Rail Service
Track 1
Track 1
Commuter
Rail Service
Commuter Rail Service
Track 2
TCCD Service
Track 3
Asian Network
Wayside Signalling
CBTC Moving Block Signalling
Commuter Rail
and TCDD Service
Bosphorus
Crossing
Track 2
The signalling is arranged

as follows:
Track 3
Tracks 1 and 2 are signalled

uni-directionally with CBTC
moving block signalling, and
bi-directionally with wayside
(ECTS Level 1) signalling
TCCD Service
European Network
CBTC overlaid moving block

signaling supports 90-second
headway in both directions on
Tracks 1 and 2 in the central
section.
Track 3 is signalled bi-directionally with wayside (ECTS Level 1) only.

Mode of Operations. The normal modes of operations will be as follows:
David Williams is a principal
signalling engineer with more
than 15 years experience
working on various signalling/
train control systems. He is
currently assigned to Network
Rails Trent Valley Re-signalling
project in the UK
1
The locations given in indicating where the signaling

arrangement changes do not
match exactly the locations
that define the central,
European and Asian sections
of the alignment, but for
general discussion purposes
can be considered to be
roughly the same.
Commuter rail:
Uni-directional service on Tracks 1 and 2 in the central section using CBTC moving block
Uni-directional service on Tracks 1 and 2 in the European and Asian sections using ETCS
Level 1
Intercity (high speed) trains:
Bi-direction service on Track 3 in the European and Asian sections using ETCS L1
Unidirectional service on Tracks 1 and 2 in the central section using ETCS L1.
As can be seen from Figure 1, the central tunnel section is the most critical area for train
services because of the high concentration of traffic and tight headways. Needless to say, the
choice of signalling system, signalling components and modes of operation were considered
very carefully when writing the Employers Requirements because any delays within this area
could greatly affect train operations throughout the entire rail network.
PB Network #65
46
Fire Fighting System
By Julian Bresner, Istanbul, Turkey 90 216 349 5997 jbresner@avrasyaconsult.com;
and Barry Biggs, Godalming, UK, +44(0) 14 8352 8439, biggsB@pbworld.com
The authors describe

the fire fighting system
for the underground
stations and tunnels
and the ventilation
buildings. Of special
note are the design
considerations, including
those related to seismic
concerns.
Acronyms/
Abbreviations
OCC: Operations
control centre
SOR: Station operation
room
FAP: Fire alarm panel
NFPA: National Fire
Protection
Association
The underground tunnel sections of the Marmaray project extend 13.6 km (8.5 miles) from
the portals at Yedikule on the European side to Ayrilikcesme on the Asian side and connect to
the immersed tunnel lying on the bed of the Bosphorus Straits. There are three underground
stations and two ventilation buildings. The distances between each vary from 2 km to 3.5 km
(1.2 miles to 2.1 miles).
The project remit was to deliver a robust, reliable and secure fire fighting scheme for the tunnels,
stations and ventilation buildings to protect the subway and all persons from fire hazard.
The fire fighting systems are based upon an automatic combined wet standpipe and dry pipe
pre-action sprinkler system designed to:
Reduce the spread of fire
Protect facilities against damage
Create good conditions for fire fighting
Protect people in the stations and/or tunnels against fire
Ensure that escape routes are safe.
The tunnels are equipped with horizontal standpipes and Class I fire hose cabinets spaced
45 m (148 feet) apart with one located next to every crossover passage. The stations and
ventilation buildings have a combination of vertical and horizontal standpipes with Class I
and II hose reel cabinets connected at strategic locations.
All the stations and ventilation buildings have centralized fire water storage tanks and pumping
stations with each tunnel standpipe interconnected at the midway point by motorized valves
(Figure 1). These valves are monitored and operated by the operations control center. They
will be opened only if a stations water storage runs dry and water needs to be brought in
from an adjacent station to fight the fire.
Each fire pump station consists of a main electric driven pump, a diesel engine driven standby
pump, and an electrical driven jockey pump to maintain system pressure during idle periods
(Figure 2 on the following page).
Figure 1: Overview of the

Marmaray Project fire
fighting system.
The stations and ventilation buildings are equipped with partial sprinklers. Sprinkler protected
areas do not include main public areas and are generally confined to fan and fire pump rooms,
escalators and travelators, truss areas, elevators, refuse stores, store rooms and other areas
that have similar combustible
loadings. The standpipe design is
based on two Class I hose reels
discharging simultaneously on
any one standpipe. It is very
likely the pump duty point will
allow three hose reels to safely
operate simultaneously if needed.
Every hose reel cabinet is
installed with a flow switch and
every sprinkler pre-action valve
with an alarm fire valve to
pinpoint the source of a fire.
Dedicated annunciator panels
located in the station operation 4
47
PB Network #65
Figure 2: Schematic of typical
fire pump station.
room and fire fighting room are designed to include a

mimic diagram of the system and, through the use of
light-emitting diodes (LEDs), highlight:
Activation of any system flow switch, alarm valve
Closure of important and supervised system valves.
At all station and ventilation building main entrances,
tamper proof fire fighting repeater panels are installed
to assist the fire brigade in locating the fire.
Design Considerations
The design focused on the following:
Earthquake resistance up to 7.5 on the moment
magnitude
Effects of a sprinkler discharge in smoke laden areas
Expansion and contraction of long pipe runs between
stations and ventilation buildings.
Pump surge pressures
A 50-year design life for pumps and pipe work systems
Winter subzero temperatures near the portals
Fires of up to 100 MW
The sprinkler system.
Seismic Design. Rigorous dialogue took place on what methods to use in calculating the
seismic force and determining the number and diameter of anchors needed to secure the
plant within the projects structural elements. The decision was to follow the allowable stress
design values for anchors that allowed applying a denominator of 1.4 to the seismic force.
As part of this calculation, a component modification factor of 2.5 was considered suitable
for most E&M plant and equipment. At the time of writing a closer look at low or high
deformability piping systems was being reviewed, and might result in applying different
component modification factors. In general, the FM Global Property Loss Prevention Data
Sheets 2-8 for earthquake protection for water based fire protection systems will be followed
to prevent excessive differential movement of plant and equipment within the buildings.
Sprinkler Discharge. All the stations main public areas have smoke extraction control systems
designed to remove smoke and keep smoke layers above head height for safe evacuation of
the premises. Installing sprinkler systems in these areas was considered, but risks associated
with such uncertain factors that could adversely affect life safety, as the cooling effect and
behavior of smoke and hot gases during a sprinkler discharge, ruled out their installation.
Pipes and Joints. Various pipe materials and their methods of connection were considered.
Ductile iron pipes and grey iron fittings with victaulic joints were chosen because:
Pipes and fittings
They are easy to assemble, operate and maintain.
They offer durability and adaptability in the field.
The internal pressure design has a standardized procedure
A safety factor of 2 is used in the design pressure that incorporates the working and
surge pressures
Wall thicknesses are greater than steel pipe so offer added durability and increased safety
Internal diameters are larger.
Joints
Victaulic joints and fittings are approved by the Fire Protection Associations LPC design
guides and by FM Global, a U.S. based world leader in providing commercial property
insurance and risk management.
PB Network #65
48
Pipe joints are cut, not rolled to reduce hydraulic resistance by eliminating internal pipe beads.
Each victaulic joint allows for expansion and contraction of the pipe length it connects
and permits a certain amount of movement of just over 2 degrees.
Victaulic joints are easy to install, durable and maintenance free.
Subzero Temperatures Near Portals. Two options were considered for preventing the
ends of the tunnel horizontal standpipes that terminate 45 m (148 feet) short of the portals
from freezing in winter:
Introducing an anti-freeze agent

Trace heating the last 25 m (82 feet) of pipeline.
The trace heating option was selected on the grounds that it was more practical and
controllable.
Julian Bresner is an
experienced building services
engineer with particular
expertise in fire fighting, fire
detection, plumbing, drainage
and electrical systems. His
30-year career has been spent
on various projects in Africa,
the Middle East, Turkey, Spain,
and the UK. Julian also
worked on the design of the
Bangkok Metro system.
Barry Biggs is a chartered
engineer, fellow of the Institute
of Plumbing, regional associate,
certified senior project manager
and professional associate. His
extensive career encompasses
all aspects electrical and
mechanical services. Barry
has worked on mass transit
systems, airport terminals,
schools, industrial buildings
and power stations in the UK
and overseas.
Sprinkler System. The sprinkler system selected for use throughout the tunnels and
ventilation buildings is based upon a dry pipe pre-action system that is double interlocked and
integrated with the automatic fire detection system. The analogue addressable fire alarm panel
(FAP) detection system will, in most cases, first detect and pinpoint the location of a fire via
smoke detectors and raise a pre-alarm. A real fire would then cause one or more sprinkler
heads to burst, creating an immediate pressure loss in the sprinkler pipeline. This loss would
generate a secondary alarm, causing the solenoid valve of the deluge valve to open and sprinkle
water over the fire. Similarly, the sole activation of a sprinkler head only raises a pre-alarm
and will only discharge when the FAP receives a secondary fire signal from a smoke detector.
This system has two distinct advantages:

Freezing of water-based systems is avoided.
Should a sprinkler head accidentally break during maintenance, for example, water will not
discharge and fire alarm activation/evacuation of the premises will be avoided.
Conclusions
All underground mass transit systems are unique in some aspects. No standard design can be
applied without first conducting a thorough engineering analysis and adequate consultation
with the local fire authority. The particular challenges with this project are the long distances
between stations/ventilation buildings, the enormous size of the underground stations and the
seismic considerations.
The specified fire protection system is compliant with NFPA with a few minor exceptions that
were required to make the system more robust, such as sprinkler protection of the complete
escalator workings and motorized midway valves in the tunnel horizontal standpipes.
Auxiliary Power Supply Design for the Stations, Tunnels...
Ventilation buildings, because of their shape as vertical cylinders, are relatively compact load centres with fans sitting above
or below electrical switchgear. They can be served by twin transformers because the cable lengths will not be too long
between transformer and load.
Conclusion
The solution discussed above was simple and economic, yet it met all the challenges presented by the large power loads, long
distances, and seismic conditions. It also provided the built in safeguards needed to prevent improper actions, and included
system redundancy and multiple solution options to successfully manage failure events or maintenance requirements.
49
PB Network #65
Flood Protection: A Comparison

By Daniel Horgan, Istanbul, Turkey 90 216 349 5997, horganD@pbworld.com
PB investigated the
flood control systems
of several major transit
systems around the
world in order to specify
the requirements that
best met the unique
needs of the Marmaray
Project.
Protection of underground transit stations and tunnels against flooding has always been
important, but never more so than now, with rising sea levels and extreme weather conditions.
Worldwide, the recorded rise in sea levels attributed to global warming has been 10 cm to
25 cm (4 inches to 10 inches) in the last 100 years. This rise is predicted to be a half metre
(20 inches) this century.
In January 2006, the United Nations Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC)
agreed that recent years have seen a clear increase in heavy and extreme precipitation
events. In February 2006, the IPCC concluded that there was ... a widespread increase
in the risk of flooding from both heavy precipitation events and sea level rise.
The implications for the Marmaray Project are great when one considers that it has two stations
located on the seashore, Sirkeci and skdar, and a tunnel under the sea in an earthquakeprone region. The major flood prevention measures PB specified for this project include
raised entrances, entrance barriers, storm drains, tunnel drainage and floodgates.
Design Objectives
The primary purpose of the flood protection system is to reduce and/or prevent injury to
passengers and staff and minimise damage to the transit system in the event of flooding.
Key design objectives for this system were that it:
Prevent flooding through station entrances (including emergency and lift accesses) from
storm water run off or the combined effects of seawater levels, storm surge and wave effects
Prevent storm water from entering the tunnels
Protect the seashore stations in the event of a major breach of the immersed tunnel.
Flood prevention planning had to include the possibility of tsunami which, in such an
extremely earthquake prone region, had to be taken into account. Research done by
Christian Ingerslev of PBs New York office indicated that although the last recorded event
took place more than 100 years ago, tsunami were not unknown in Turkey.
The Specified Design Requirements
Figure 1: Marmaray
floodgate concept.
In general, we specified that protection be provided against catastrophic inundation of stations

and tunnels by ensuring that the surrounding walls and elevation of all entrances and openings
to the stations and the tunnels prevented entry of water. For example, at skdar station,
entrances liable to inundation from high sea water levels were provided with hydraulic flood
barriers designed to rise in the event of a flood. These are similar to the barriers used in the
Singapore Mass Transit system to protect entrances from inundation by monsoon rains. Our
calculations for barrier heights were based upon a one-in-ten-thousand probability of the
flood defence being overtopped in any one year. They also accounted for the possible
increase in the sea level of 1 m (3 feet) during the design life of the transit system.
The tunnel sumps and pumps were designed to cater for the combined effects of tunnel
seepage, wet rolling stock, discharge of water from the fire-fighting system, tunnel washing
and rainfall at the tunnel portals. The pumps were designed for fail safe operation.
Located at the seaward sides of Sirkeci and skdar stations are the floodgates that will prevent
the stations from flooding in the event of a breach of the immersed tunnel (Figure 1).
A breach may have several possible causes, including an earthquake (the most likely event
in Turkey) or a terrorist attack.
PB Network #65
50
The floodgates will be fabricated from mild steel plate and stiffening frames. They will operate
vertically by means of two hydraulic jacks and have guide wheels to ensure smooth movement.
The gates will be interlocked with the signaling system and their movements monitored in the
control center. There will be three methods of backup operation, including manual operation.
Interestingly, in America, Amtrak recently put back in action old floodgates in its six tunnels that
lead to New York Citys Penn Station. Also in New York City, the Metropolitan Transportation
Authority has considered putting floodgates in subway tunnels to contain raging torrents that
an explosion in an underwater tube might unleash. Hollice Stone, an engineer who is an
expert in explosives, said floodgates make sense as part of an overall strategy.
Learning from Flood Control for Other Transit Systems

In designing the flood control system for the Marmaray Project, we investigated and tapped
into our knowledge of similar systems for other large underground transit systems in London,
Taipei and Singapore.
Figure 2: Thames Barrier,
constructed in 1984 to
protect a London
Underground tunnel.
The London Underground System. Like the Marmaray Project, a significant part of the
London Underground (LU) system is located around or under a large body of water, in this
case the River Thames. Over the years, flooding has become an increasing problem for the
ageing system. The ground water in London has been rising since the 1960s
after the closing of industries that had extracted large volumes of water,
such as breweries and paper mills. By mid 2001, the ground water level
had risen to such a degree that 30,000 m3 (8 million gallons) of water were
being pumped out of LU tunnels each day. This continues to be the case.
In addition to the ground water seepage, there is a strong danger of flooding

from the Thames River itself. This is due to the surge tides coming from
the Atlantic that usually pass north of Britain but occasionally roar up
the Thames. Between 1910 and 1930, a series of floodgates was erected
that could seal off an affected section of tunnel but allow train service to
continue on either side of the floodgates. Then, in 1984, the Thames
Barrier was constructed (Figure 2). It spans 520 m (1,700 feet) across the
Thames. The tunnel floodgates are not thought necessary now, but they
remain in place and are tested three times each year.
LUs Jubilee Line Extension (JLE), which opened in 1999, incorporated a new arrangement of
vertical floodgates (that incidentally were to protect the system from the River Lea). The
design proved practicalit can be operated manually even in the event of a major power failure
and was used as a template for the Marmaray tunnel floodgate design approach. For example,
as was done for the JLE, initially, a risk assessment was undertaken to determine the flood
protection program. Next, the tunnel drainage system was designed upon locating sumps at
every low point with the tunnel alignment. We used the same tunnel drainage system on the
Marmaray project as was designed for the JLE, but with the additional criteria that the pumps
be designed for failsafe operation. Finally, for the JLE, rain and storm water would be prevented
from entering tunnels at portals and floodgates would be provided at both sides of river
crossings. We did the same in Istanbul, but with the gates located at the seaward side of the
two stations on the shores of the Bosphorus crossing.
Taipei Rapid Transit System. In September 2001, Typhoon Nari struck Taiwan, causing
widespread flooding and damage to the island, including the capital city of Taipei. The Taiwan
Central Weather Bureau reported that up to 1255 mm (about 50 inches) of rain fell in some
areas in two days, with 800 mm (32 inches) falling on the first day. That was more precipitation
than normally falls in Taiwan in four months. Unfortunately, the flood protection built into the
Taipei Rapid Transit system was not adequate for these extreme conditions.
4
51
PB Network #65
After Typhoon Nari, an overall review of the flood prevention measures was undertaken, and
enhanced criteria were set by the Taipei Rapid Transit System that applied to all stations. The
entrances would remain, as before, a minimum of 150 mm (6 inches) above the flood level
with a return period of 100 years, and they would also be a minimum of 600 mm to 1200
mm (24 inches to 48 inches) above the adjacent ground level. However, flood barriers at
station entrances would now be 1100 mm (43 inches) above the flood level (in a return
period of 200 years), which was an increase of 600 mm (24 inches) over the previous
standard. In addition, an assessment of all portal areas, tunnel interchanges, river crossings
and earthquake fault crossings was required for the possibility of fitting tunnel floodgates.
While Istanbul is not subject to intense tropical storms of the Typhoon Nari variety, both
systems have raised entrances, tunnel sumps and entrance barriers. Today, the Taipei system
is one of the most recently updated modern systems and, as such, is regarded as a model of
flood protection provision. The Marmaray Project has certainly used the Taipei standards as
references for much of its flood protection design.
Singapore Rapid Transit System. Singapores transit system is relatively new and has
unique problems not encountered by other systems in drier climes. Monsoon rains are a
regular twice yearly feature of the tiny island, and high levels of ground water accrue very
quickly during rainfalls despite extensive island wide drainage systems. It is not unknown to
have 300 mm (12 inches) of rainfall in 24 hours. Consequently, the need for adequate flood
protection in Singapores underground Rapid Transit System is not only of greater importance
than in many other systems, it requires a more comprehensive/broader design to meet the
demands imposed by the high precipitation climate.
Certain basic criteria were established for the design of this flood protection system. First, it
had to minimise storm catchments and channel runoffs into surface drains separate from the
underground facilities to avoid overloading the systems drains. The stations and tunnels had
to be segregated by integrated water tight barriers of at least 1 m (3 feet) above flood and
ground levels. All entrances had to be built with a segregation threshold of at least 1 m
above flood and ground levels. And where it was not possible to prevent rainwater flowing
into tunnels, tunnel sumps and fail safe pumps had to be provided, with a pumping capacity
equivalent to the 100 year return storm.
Interestingly enough, the Singapore system designers did not feel the need to specify floodgates in their tunnels, trusting to the systems other safeguards.
While Singapore has designed for short-lived but regular flooding, the Istanbul design is
directed at protecting against catastrophic and overwhelming flood.
Table 1: Flood Criteria

Comparison.
Marmaray London Taipei Singapore

Raised
Entrances
Tunnel
Sumps
Entrance
Barriers
Floodgates
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Yes
No
Yes
Yes
Yes
No
Conclusion
Table 1, which shows a comparison of the main flood protection features
for the Marmaray, London,Taipei and Singapore mass rapid transit systems,
illustrates that the Marmaray flood protection criteria are consistent
with similar mass rapid transit systems throughout the world. As has
been demonstrated, however, all transit systems are unique and each
system will have some different flood protection/prevention criteria.
Daniel Horgan is a chartered engineer, fellow of the Institution of Mechanical Engineers, senior engineering manager, certified senior project manager and
professional associate. He has worked on design and construction of mass transit systems, railways and buildings in Singapore, Turkey and the UK, including
London Undergrounds Jubilee Line Extension. Daniel is PBs project manager on the Marmaray Project.
PB Network #65
52
Architecture: Three New Underground Stations

In Istanbul By Kevin Peterson, Seattle, Washington, 1-360-378-4680, petersondesign@centurytel.net, and
Zeynep Buket, Istanbul, zbuket@avrasyaconsult.com
The effects of the

Marmaray Project will be
of paramount importance
on Istanbuls important
archeological and historic
context. The authors
provide some insight
into how the process of
determining these effects
unfolds. Their focus is
on the architectural
aspects within the guidelines set by capacity,
function and urban
planning requirements.
Their perspective is that
of one having examined
these issues for nearly
three decades.
Crossing the Bosphorus Straits has been a part of daily life in the great metropolis of Istanbul
for thousands of years. With 14 to 18 million people presently calling this metropolitan area
home, planners predict that more than 1 million people will use the new Marmaray Line immersed
tunnel metro link each day to move between Europe and Asia. This requires a heavy rail
system, comparable with the most heavily used metro lines of the world, be placed within the
historic World Heritage City of Istanbul, along with three huge, new underground stations.
The effects of these stations is of paramount importance to the important archeological and
historic context of the city. Twenty five years ago PB helped Istanbul define fixed guideway transit
corridors and routings where destinations, multi-modal transfer hubs, rail technology alignment
constraints and redevelopment opportunity merged to locate viable stations. This long-range
planning and policy commitment to specific high capacity transit routing was essential if topographical
and technology challenges were to result in an integrated mass transit system. For example,
the Marmaray Line tracks will jointly serve urban metro and Intercity high speed rail with very
constrained 112 percent maximum grade limits, greatly limiting where stations might be placed.
Twenty five years ago I helped to identify station locations for stations of both the Marmaray
and Istanbul Metro systems, conceptually defining indicative station configurations to assure
adequate space and functionality of an integrated metro network was feasible. Very early on
this pointed to a specific vertical and horizontal alignment within the core of historic Istanbul
that would require very careful integration within the United Nations World Heritage City.
Yenikapi Station: Istanbuls Premier Transit Hub

Figure 1: At Yenikapi passengers transferring between
the Bosphorus crossing line and Istanbul Metro may enjoy
a delightful path under a glass canopy if early integration
recommendations are achieved. Numerous design studies,
with graphics like this early indicative sketch, were helpful
to policy makers when planners suggested the Metro and
Bosphorus stations should be side-by-side and not separated
by nearly 600 meters of underground pedestrian tunnel.
At the site of the ancient port of Constantinople, the multimodal,

multilevel Yenikapi station connects the Marmaray line with the
Istanbul Metro, a commuter rail line, busses and ferry connections.
Expected to be Istanbuls transit hub well into the 21st century,
this station sets the stage for major urban transformations and
redevelopment in the historic area. An estimated 150,000
people will use this multimodal environment each morning or
afternoon peak commute hour, with nearly 80,000 of these
customers connecting with the Marmaray Line (Figure 1).
Platform Configuration. An extensive multilevel underground
transit environment for the metro and Marmaray stations will
cater to these huge passengers volumes. For the Marmaray
platform this resulted in nearly 60 fare gates and a 16m (52-foot)
wide platform. Escalators, stairs and lifts are offset within the
platform cross section so that the platform edge serving peak
direction entraining passenger flows has a queue area nearly
twice the area of the off-peak direction platform (Figure 2).
This unusual single central platform configuration evolved from

earlier layouts that called for two center platforms. However,
when the project reached implementation estimated project 4
Figure 2: Two transit lines connect at Yenikapi. To the left is the single
center platform serving the Bosphorus crossing line, to the right are two
platforms that serve the Istanbul Metro line. This early planning sketch
shows a common concourse provides for transfers and ticketing focused
below the rotunda and park setting.
53
PB Network #65
costs greatly exceeded availability funding. We were called on to assist in

identifying possible cost reduction (value engineering) refinements that might
place the cost of the Marmaray project within funding reach.
Merging two large platforms into one very large platform of unusual configuration
allowed huge reduction in complicated and expensive underground trackwork,
switches and turnback tracks. By combining mass transit station physical
planning and rail operations planning exper tise, we were able to help match
facility needs with available funding. Many speculate that the project would
still be a planned improvement if costs were unable to match funding.
Figure 3: Yenikapi Site Plan with conservatory
derived architecture within a park setting.
Urban Land Use. Having the unique and fortunate opportunity to witness
nearly three decades of urban planning thinking about how the dozen city
blocks of important urban land above Istanbuls premier transportation hub
would be redeveloped, I will share a brief overview of the fascinating evolution
of redevelopment schemes proposed for this property. Located between the
two Roman walls of Constantinople, the surrounding city context consists of
four- to ten-story high mixed-use concrete structures built nearly half a century
ago. The station site is relatively less dense and gently sloping, but possibly of
archeological importance.
Early urban planning called for the twelve-block surface area above the station
to be reconstructed as a large urban park, somewhat like a smaller version of
Central Park in New York City. Vent shafts, multiple entrances and pathways
needed for the extensive underground facility were discretely located and
designed to achieve an appearance consistent with ancillary buildings of a park.
Figure 4: Daylight at Yenikapi station is
introduced by opening the platform to the
conservatory rotunda. Humanizing harsh
underground transit environments is
essential and must be considered during
very early design studies.
Central to the park was a spectacular skylight over the station concourse,
nominally 30 m (100 feet) in diameter reaching 20 m (65 feet) above the
surface, recalling a conservancy greenhouse. The station was to be a beacon
providing indication of the stations location filling the station interior with
natural light (Figures 3 and 4).
Just prior to commencement of final design the city started planning for a
large shopping center at the site. This caused decision makers within the
Marmaray Project to require detail designers of surface penetrations to
discover an appropriate architectural solution while maintaining the rotunda
vision of the conservancy rotunda (Figure 5). Detail design advanced as site
excavation commenced.
Figure 5: With nearly 12 city blocks

required for underground transit platforms
and trackwork, redevelopment of the surface
provides opportunity for urban renewal.
These very conceptual site plans suggest the
choices presently being debated, with possible
interpretive museum and shopping center.
A dozen roman boats and hundreds of thousands of artifacts later the historic
and archeological significance of the site, now referred to as the Por t of
Theodosius, caused great interest and excitement. Policy makers decided that
the rich archeological discoveries of the site required incorporation into the
station design. Presently, design studies are underway to integrate the archeological importance of the site into a design that is responsive to its location
adjoining a large pedestrian shopping complex (Figure 6).
Istanbul is designated to be celebrated by the EU as the 2010 Cultural City
of the Year. Historic discoveries at Yenikapi and the innovative Marmaray
immersed tunnel may become a feature of this celebration. We look forward
to the station contributing to Istanbuls future as a grand transpor tation hub
sharing the thousands of years of history that is this great crossroads
between Asia and Europe.
Figure 6: Hundreds of thousand of daily transit users suggest an Interpretive Museum that
shares the history, archeological discoveries, and the story of the Bosphorus crossing is
viable. This sketch was prepared to help facilitate understanding of this opportunity.
PB Network #65
54
Sirkeci Station: Deep Underground in the Shadow of the

Acropolis
Figure 7: 3D image of station shows the basic

station elements, including elevator shafts and
ventilation buildings,
It is estimated that 35,000 people will use this deep mined station each hour
during commute periods. It is the first station on the European side of the
Bosphorus, this station is very deep (nearly 60 m or 200 feet) to align with
the immersed tunnel. Two large diagonal shafts, each containing four highspeed escalators, connect the station platform with the surface (Figure 7).
Even so, passengers will need six to eight minutes to travel from station
entrances to the platform. Two vertical mined shafts accommodate
ventilation and disabled lifts.
The need to mine caverns for the platform and separate tracks for tunnel
boring machine construction resulted in a binocular-type station configuration
where a central mined concourse distributes passengers to side platforms.
During an emergency, the depth of the station precludes passengers exiting
to the surface within a reasonable period of time. Therefore the station is
designed to allow people to find refuge in the central concourse or opposite
platform where mechanical systems and smoke doors provide a safe place.
Figure 8: During summer thousands of people

promenade along the Bosphorus shore at
skdar enjoying exquisite views of Istanbul
and the drama of hundreds of large and small
boats darting about on the Bosphorus.
Figure 9: Adjoining the Bosphorus Straits is

the historic city of skdar where the station
is placed under an expansive urban square
with an eclectic variety of historic and modern
structures. A shopping level separates the
station for the plaza allowing convenience
retail needs to be part of the pedestrian
environment without sacrificing an open
landscaped surface plaza.
Kevin Peterson, an architect and transit facility
planner, is senior consultant to PB. He has twenty five
years of experience in mass transit station planning
and architecture. Kevin has helped define station
solutions for many metros of the world including
Dubai, Taipei, London, Singapore, Bangkok, Istanbul
and numerous North American transit facilities.
Zeynep Buket, who holds a Ph.D. in civil engineering, has
specialized in the design, management and coordination
of railway projects since 1987. She has worked on the
Istanbul light rail transit system and the Istanbul Metro
System Second Stage construction between TaksimYenikapi as design manager and technical coordinator.
55
PB Network #65
Unlike Yenikapi, the surface urban fabric at Sirkeci is very tight and crowded,
requiring small surface penetrations to be designed at a scale appropriate
to the surrounding built environment.
skdar Station: City Center Station

skdar station, the first stop on the Asian side of the Bosphorus, will be
a multimodal hub connecting the Marmaray system with light rail, bus and
ferry transportation systems. This station is located in the heart of skdars
historic city plaza that adjoins the very busy harbor where dozens of
passenger ferries serve multiple destinations up and down the shores of the
Bosphorus (Figure 8). Sadly, skdars pedestrian civic plaza has experienced
sixty years of ever increasing car and bus intrusion resulting in the civic
role being more like a large intersection and parking lot than a true urban
center. With the Marmaray Line, light rail and ferry focused at skdar,
policy makers very early elected to resurrect the historic pedestrian focus
of the civic center.
The station itself is a 20-m (65-foot)-deep cut-and-cover structure located
primarily in poor soils, with one wall retaining the waters of the Bosphorus
(Figure 9). Three entrances serve the center platform station.Two entrances
are located at station ends and primarily serve the urban area and bus
transfers, with one central entrance that will link directly with a planned
light rail line and ferries. Up to 40,000 people will step on and off the
Marmaray platform every hour during peak commute periods.
skdar, already the hub of commerce on the Asian side, is expected to
evolve into a much more important commercial, transportation and
pedestrian place. skdar municipality is currently completing a master plan
for the urban plaza that will dedicate up to 40 000 m2 (430,000 square
feet) to pedestrians and nearly 20 000 m2 (215,000 square feet) to a commercial level sandwiched between the cut and cover Marmaray platform and
a redeveloped urban plaza at ground level. This underground environment
has major pedestrian circulation routes, ticketing halls, shopping units and
cultural places that assure weather protected linkages to adjoining city
destinations and transport transfers.
(page 63)4
Linking Two Continents: The Marmaray Project Rolling Stock
Train of Thought: Selection of Rail Car Design

Requirements
By David Nickeson, Pacific Consultants International, Istanbul Turkey 90 216 349 5997 dnickeson@avrasyaconsult.com
Passenger loads for the

upgraded
Istanbul
commuter rail system
will be amongst the
highest in the industry.
These high loads presented an extremely
challenging mix of
technical and safety
requirements for the
rolling stock, even
though the stock itself
does not represent
unique or break-through
technology. The author
describes the logic and
thought process that
went into determining
how to have the rail
cars meet the edge-ofthe-envelope requirements presented by
this unique scenario.
Acronyms/
Abbreviations
AC: Alternating
current
AW2: Passenger
Loading Level 2
NFPA: National Fire
Protection
Agency
More information about these

train control systems is
available in a preceding
article, Dual Signalling
Systems by David Williams.
Often the design of a rail system upgrade utilizes an existing rail car fleet. In the case of the
Marmaray Project, however, both the line and rolling stock were to be replaced. First the
design requirements for replacement/upgrade of the line were developed for issue of the first
design-build contracts. The development of requirements for the design of the new rail car
fleet followed shortly afterwards.
Design Objectives
The clients end requirements and the operating environment always drive design decisions in
the mass transit industry. Of course, rail car design must provide for a lot more than boxes on
wheels to carry people. Just how much more is based on the unique requirements of each
project. For the Marmaray Project, the design had to cater to many aspects that are common
to any surface mass-transit passenger service. There were many more issues, however,
considering the 13-km (8-mile)-long underground section, a part of which was underwater.
Our mission was to provide trains for the 76-km (46-mile)-long permanent way and for crossing
the Bosphorus Straits through an immersed tunnel with 75,000 passengers per hour per
direction in peak hours. This task was not as simple as just providing enough rail cars to carry
X persons per hour. Ultimately the railway would provide three types of train service
mass transit, Intercity (high speed) and freight. The challenges presented by the complicated
array of design objectives were extraordinary.
The design criteria had to include:
State-of-the-art, proven technology
Compliance/compatibility with Euro Norms and NFPA-130
High train capacity
Short headway performance
Good ride quality
High reliability/durability
Low maintenance and rapid routine maintenance turnaround
Maximum resilience/redundancy to recover from failures in the tunnel
Maximum safety features for tunnel operation and passenger safety/rescue in the event
of security/emergency incidents.
Technology
The client wanted state of the art technology compatible with contemporary European
systems and built according to Euro Norms (EN Standards). This requirement also prepares
Turkey to accommodate European passenger and freight traffic for the Euro-Asia link provided
by the immersed tunnel. This is the only southern rail route connecting Europe and Asia.
European Train Control System Level 1 (ETCS-1) would be provided on the line for the existing
Intercity trains (which currently used obsolete signaling technology), freight services and the
future high-speed-rail. The new rolling stock would use Communications Based Train Control
(CBTC). It was decided that the ETCS-1 system would be installed on the new trains as well
to serve as an automatic safety fallback measure in the heavily loaded central core area.1
PB Network #65
56
Headway-Driven Train Capacity

Passenger loads and headways drove the size issue. Generally, train length, number of doors per
car, platform length and other dimensional elements are designed to be a compatible system for
greatest efficiency of handling passengers so the capacity of the system could be achieved.
Figure 1:
Interior concept.
The passenger loading capacity was calculated using transportation studies and predictive
software to provide a system capable of supporting predicted ridership for 2025. Results
showed that the loads could be handled by the following standards for trains and dwell times:
The optimum configuration was 10-car train consists.
This is longer than most mass transit trainsets; however,
10 cars were needed to meet the capacity requirements.
Nominal car length was 22.5 m (73.8 feet), for a nominal
train length of 225 m (738 feet). This length was chosen
for maximum passenger ingress/egress efficiency through
5-doors, it is not necessarily an off-the-shelf car length.
Driver cabs should be at either end for bi-directional
running and rapid reversing.
Perimeter seating was chosen to provide maximum
capacity and circulation (Figure 1).
Capacity at AW2 level provided 300+ per car and
3000+ per train (even more) at crush load. (AW is
the standard used for measurement of passengers of an average weight per m2. AW2
is a medium load.)
Five doors per side provided for rapid passenger entry/exit and ensured short station
dwell times (on the order of 45 seconds).
Headways of 120 seconds, which could be achieved with the preceding parameters,
were the goal to meet the capacity requirement of the line.
Performance/Recovery
The railway is powered by an overhead catenary 25 kV AC system. The minimum criteria for
traction effort to be provided by the cars were calculated accordingly.
The EMU (Electrical Motive Units) configuration was chosen for the rolling stock, 60 percent
of cars as powered units with AC motors. EMUs are rail cars having some percentage of cars
powered, which distributes the traction power rather than concentrating it in one locomotive.
The traction effort criteria was driven by the headway and recovery requirements:
Train acceleration performance had to maintain the required short headways.
Any train had to be able to push/pull a disabled, loaded train out of the tunnel.
Ride Quality and Passenger Satisfaction

Passenger comfort and satisfaction (perception) specifications included the features listed below
as minimums for providing high ride quality (technical). In addition, we recognized that events
might occur where a train stoppage in the tunnel could last for some minutes. Passengers
would know that they were in a confined environment, and some might have a claustrophobic
reaction. For this reason, special attention was given to the on-board comfort, safety,
communication and information systems because they would increase passenger confidence.
The specifications called for:
Double suspension, self-steering bogies (the axles on wheels to which the rail cars are attached)
On-board passenger information displays and public address announcement system
4
Air conditioning.
57
PB Network #65
Reliability/Durability
Criteria to provide high levels of reliability and durability were met by:
Stainless steel body shell metal that was fire resistance and eliminated the need of repainting
All on-board electrical and mechanical, and communication, command and control systems
being resilient/redundant and operationally proven on other working railroads. For example,
there is a separate voice radio transceiver in each cab.
Low Maintenance/Rapid Maintenance Turnaround

Recommendations to achieve rapid maintenance turnaround included:
On-board systems health monitoring and data storage including data download ports for
the maintenance management system in stations.
A line replaceable units maintenance philosophy. This requires that electrical and mechanical
elements would be modular and generally plug-in type, easily changeable without major
disassembly of railcars. This was to support the one-shift maintenance turn-around requirement.
8-hour routine maintenance turn-around for non-catastrophic failures.
Safety/Security
David Nickeson, a former PB

employee, has contributed
to the rail and air sectors of
the transportation industry.
Assistant project manager on
the Marmaray Project, he has
had project management roles
for Los Angeles Metro, Taipei
Metro, Cairo Metro, Athens
Metro extensions, Istanbul
Commuter Line, Tel Aviv Metro
RFQ, Riyadh Airport, and Tel
Aviv Airport. David has had
eight technical articles
published in the Diagnostic
Engineers Publication (two
Collacott Prizes), and two
adventure novels published.
He has 26 years expatriate
experience in 10 countries.
David also developed the
Skyphone prototype for
Motorola in 1975, which has
since evolved into the modern
pay phone used today on
airliners.
NFPA-130 was the benchmark for safety design requirements in tunnels. Next was the
redundancy of vital systems such as train control, communications traction power and
electrical and mechanical systems. Beyond that, passenger personal safety drove the design.
The measures we recommended in this regard included:
Passenger activated emergency stop
Passenger-activated emergency door opening for stationary train
All doors open command for both-side evacuation
Intercom between passengers and driver
Fire detection and alarm system reporting to the drivers display
Fire extinguishers in passenger salons
External air intake shutdown by driver in event of a smoke-filled tunnel
High impact window glass on the front and back ends of each train
ASTM 119 fire-rated floor, with a 45 minute rating.
1-hour uninterrupted power supply for vital systems and emergency lighting and ventilation
Hand-hold stanchions with not greater than 1mm gaps between metal elements, to prevent
accidental catching of jewelry.
Full train walk-through design to aid in passenger distribution and to provide bi-directional
evacuation paths.
On-board security provided by closed circuit television cameras in each car displayed to
and selectable by the driver.
Anti-Terror Aspects
We also considered anti-terror designs for a rail system, which is of major concern in these times.
We found that designing for this on board rolling stock is effectively impossible. Anti-terror
efforts must be station-based and must be focused on preventing terrorists from entering a
train. The rolling stock design described above provided for the best reasonable precautions
to limit the spread of a fire and loss of life, and provided enhanced probability of survival and
rescue for passengersincluding if an act of terror should occur aboard a train.
Conclusion
Thanks to the hard and smart work by all of the joint venture member contributors, the
effort to produce design requirements to fulfill all the clients needs was successful. The design
effort for this rolling stock truly justifies the motto selected by the team: Train of Thought.
PB Network #65
58
Middle East: The Place To Be Transportation Infrastructure
Major Road Improvement Schemes for Kuwait

By Basheer Mohammed, Kuwait, 965-531-1923/4/6, mohammedB@pbworld.com
PB has identified some

of the most elaborate
road network enhancements planned for
Kuwait in recent history.
This work is part of the
countrys prestigious
Road Network Development Project. The author
tells about some of the
modeling challenges
the project team faced
and describes the solutions identified to ensure
a safe and efficient
roadway network for the
next 25 years. These
include a new 21-km
(13-mile)-long coastal
highway; several new
complex, multi-level
interchanges; and extensive widenings.
Acronyms/
Abbreviations
RNDP: Road Network
Development
Project
Kuwait Municipality engaged PB in November 2004 to undertake the prestigious Road Network
Development Project (RNDP). The main goal of this 18-month project was to investigate the
future expansion requirements needed for Kuwaits major roadways to carry the expected
traffic volumes up to 2030 safely and efficiently. Other more specific objectives included:
Identifying new strategic routes and cross-town roads
Developing solutions for road sections that required access and safety improvements
Recommending the organizational structure for a new traffic and transportation department
for Kuwait Municipality.
The project team members were experts in transportation planning, traffic engineering, traffic
modeling and highway engineering.
Project Approach
The project comprised two stages. Stage 1 involved:
Developing a traffic model and demand forecasts
Performing capacity analyses
Identifying concept improvement solutions needed to remedy capacity deficiencies of the
road network.
Stage 2 involved:
Developing concept design drawings based on the concept solutions developed in Stage 1
Conducting preliminary feasibility analyses
Developing cost estimates.
Our team faced several challenges related to the huge size of the network to be studied, the
scope of the upgrades needed to the Kuwait traffic models, and information needed about
future planning and land use allocations. These challenges were overcome through careful
planning and execution of the project and by ensuring the availability the necessary specialist
resources at various stages of the project. Further, constant liaison with the client and ensuring
client participation at various stages of critical decision making were keys to our success.
Developing the Model

A SATURN1 traffic model for Kuwait was the primary tool for testing and developing concept
solutions in RNDP. The model we were provided by Kuwait Municipality was based on 1987
socioeconomic and travel data. Since then, however, the travel patterns changed significantly
so, in its given form, the model was not suitable for the RNDP. We subsequently recalibrated
and revalidated the model before using it in RNDP. We also incorporated changes to planning
data to account for the latest developments in Kuwait City.
SATURN (Simulation and

Assignment of Traffic to Urban
Road Network), a product of
W.S. Atkins plc of the UK, is
an operationally-based model
that enables a large number of
roadways and intersections to
be modeled and evaluated in a
meaningful and cost-effective
manner.
59
PB Network #65
In the absence of a robust traffic model, the large size of the network size was bound to
cause problems during the analysis stage. This issue was resolved by adopting a hierarchical
analysis approach wherein first the capacity requirements of the strategic road network
were addressed, and then the issues of a localized or minor nature were addressed. As
expected, by addressing the capacity deficiency problems of the strategic road network,
many localized issues, particularly those associated with movements at major highway
4
junctions, were addressed.
Identifying Solutions
Road network improvement solutions were developed through an iterative process involving
capacity analysis on the one hand and network updating on the other. In general, the analysis
was performed along the existing major corridors, including the three ring roads around
Kuwait City. Using this approach enabled us to present and organize the improvement
schemes in a systematic manner.
As a first step, the project team members fully utilized their significant local knowledge when
developing an exhaustive set of strategic network improvement options. The strategic road
network changes investigated in RNDP included enhancing the capacity on the major
corridors by:
Adding more lanes in the existing right-of-way
Adding new road links and cross-town roads
Introducing new inter-district connections.
A short list of the sixteen most appropriate strategic improvement options was identified
through extensive discussions with the officials of Kuwait Municipality, the Ministry of Public
Works, and the Ministry of Interior. Using the recalibrated and updated traffic model, each
strategic improvement option was tested individually for network-wide traffic benefits. The
results of this analysis were presented to the client at an interactive workshop session and
the four most beneficial improvement options were selected.
The adopted strategic changes were incorporated into the traffic model and new forecasts
were generated. A capacity analysis was subsequently undertaken to identify locations that
required further localized changes. Typical localized solutions included:
Grade separating signalized junctions
Widening weaving sections
Introducing service roads
Adding new district access links.
Preliminary Assessment of Impacts

The concept solutions identified were subjected to preliminary assessment to evaluate the
potential impacts on right-of-way and utilities. Further, an assessment of the environmental
considerations that should be investigated during the development of the proposed schemes
was also undertaken.
In total, eighteen road improvement schemes were identified. These were then organized
and presented in ten projects. A tentative prioritization of these projects was also developed
based on seven-point selection criteria that included the estimated construction cost and
duration, expected operational/capacity improvement and the complexity of the schemes.
The corridor-based concept solution development enabled the organization of proposals of
in a more logical manner.
The total value of projects proposed amounted to approximately $1.8 million. The proposed
schemes include:
21 km (13 miles) of new highways
69 km (43 miles) of carriageway widening
5 new interchanges
30 intersections and interchanges upgraded
22 ha (55 acres) of land reclamation.
PB Network #65
60
Figure 1 shows the upgrades and additional lanes proposed at

intersections with Kuwait Citys First Ring Road; Figure 2 shows
the new junction we designed for the Third Ring Road; and
Figure 3 shows one of the more complex interchange upgrades.
Organizational Structure for Traffic Studies Unit
Figure 1: Upgrades proposed for the First Ring Road

interchanges.
Figure 2: New junction proposed on the Third Ring Road.
As part of this project, we also developed a new organizational

structure for the traffic studies unit of Kuwait Municipality. We
began by investigating in detail the current and future roles of
the Municipality as the agency responsible for the planning and
implementation of transportation infrastructure. Selected case
studies from around the world were also made to draw the
best practices.
We noted that organizational capabilities at the traffic studies
unit needed to be strengthened, and that additional professional
resources were needed to enable the Municipality to better fulfill
its role as the focal point for developing Kuwaits transportation
infrastructure. Based on our findings, our final recommendation
was for Kuwait Municipality to establish a full-fledged traffic and
transpor tation depar tment. We also assisted the Municipality
in developing its organizational set up, optimum staffing pattern,
and the required qualifications of key staff.
We worked with the Municipality to identify overlapping duties and
responsibilities among its staff and other stakeholder government
departments in the traffic and transportation areas. During the
process, we helped to identify the causes of these jurisdictional
overlapssome of which stemmed from the need to better
implement regulations over the review and approval of traffic
impact assessment applications from private developers.
Correspondingly, we have proposed streamlined, yet structured,
procedures for approvals of traffic impact studies as well.
Keys to Success
Figure 3: Upgrades
proposed for the complex
Interchange 15.
Throughout this commission, our team strived to maximize

capacity of the existing road network in Kuwait. For instance, widening of some of the existing
highways within the existing right-of-way by narrowing the shoulders was one of the major
solutions to increase capacity.
We ensured the involvement of client at every stage of the project. In particular, during the
development of concept solutions we held major workshops to elicit the views of Kuwait
Municipalitys experienced staff. One of the most important of these workshops focused
on the selection of strategic road network improvement schemes.
We developed and presented an elaborate list of factors to be considered while implementing
the RNDP schemes. Fur ther, we also recommended several suppor ting measures to
maximise the benefits of the proposed road improvement projects. These measures range
from the traditional transpor tation demand and supply management measures to necessary
changes in the organizational structure of Kuwait Municipalitys traffic studies unit.
Basheer Mohammed, MASc, MIHT, is a senior transportation planner based in Kuwait. He leads the transportation and traffic team in Kuwait and served as deputy
project manager for RNDP. Basheer has extensive experience in transportation planning for new developments and within the built-up urban environment. Other
areas of expertise include institutional advice, travel demand analysis, traffic and transportation policy, public transportation, traffic modeling and microsimulation
modeling. Basheer has authored several journal articles and conference papers on these topics, and has consulting experience in Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and Canada.
61
PB Network #65
Developing a Road Network for a New City in

Kuwait By Salman Ahmad, Kuwait, 965-531-1923/4/6, sahmad@pbkuwait.com, ahmads@pbworld.com
PBs development of a
roadway system for a
new, large city had
many facets. The focus
of this article is on the
development of a local
transportation model
and its use in a very
iterative analysis and
design process. The goal
was to provide a transportation system that
was safe, efficient, costeffective and sustainable.
The Kuwait metropolitan area is reaching saturation with its current population of more than
2.3 million. To meet new housing demands, a new city is planned in northern Kuwait for a
population of 400,000 to 500,000 by 2030. The new city, named Subiya, is also envisaged
as being home to people working in the northern oil fields or at a new container seaport
planned at Boubyan Island. It is one of Kuwait Municipalitys most prestigious projects.
A new 30-km (nearly 20-mile)-long Jaber Al Ahmed causeway is planned that will connect
the new city with Kuwait City and reduce the travel time between them from 1.5 hours
to approximately 20 minutes. The causeway will connect with Subiya at an interchange of
Jahra-Subiya Road located south of the new city.
The new city will have a multi-modal transportation system planned to fully complement its
land use plans. This system will be capable of carrying people and goods in a safe, efficient
and sustainable manner. A combination of bus-based transit and light rail transit, potentially
functioning as a separate network, will be a major component of the transportation supply.
Pedestrian movements will also be an important component.
PB provided specialized transportation services for the development of the roads network
for the new city. These services were part of the project that was carried out by the team of
consultants to update the Master Plan of 1989 with the new city. With its geographic location
on Kuwait Bay and Khor, the project provided significant opportunity for waterfront development.
Complex Modeling and Analysis

Our approach to handling this high profile project was to divide it into three areas
transportation planning, traffic engineering and highways disciplines. The transportation
analysis approach was designed to meet the objective of planning a safe, efficient and
cost-effective transportation system.
We performed the transportation and traffic analysis with the help of a land use-transportation
planning model for the entire State of Kuwaita SATURN model 1 referred to as the
metropolitan model. This model is intended to forecast traffic flows between cities and
major developments within Kuwait. We determined, however, that we needed to develop
a local SATURN model for the new city because the urban planning consultants had made
significant changes to the land uses.
We used the local model extensively for testing and developing complementary road networks
for the various land use allocations and development scenarios. External zones were
added to handle the traffic flows along the causeway and the Jahra-Subiya Road. These
also functioned as a proxy to the rest of the metropolitan area. The traffic flows for the
causeway and Jahra-Subiya Road were determined and input to the model.
At this stage, we reviewed the zoning system followed in the metropolitan model and made
appropriate changes to the number of zones and their boundaries on the local model. These
changes were required to get a more realistic distribution of internal traffic in Subiya.
SATURN (Simulation and
Assignment of Traffic to Urban
Road Network) is an operationallybased traffic model that enables
a large number of intersections
to be modeled and evaluated in a
meaningful and cost-effective
manner. It is a product of W.S.
Atkins plc of the UK.
After establishing the necessary zoning system, we computed the trip generations from each
zone and their distributions to other zones. Appropriate trip generation rates from Kuwaits
metropolitan model were used for computing the trip generation from Subiya. Trip generation
was calculated based on the land use allocations and related population assumptions. This
step resulted in travel desire lines (origin-destination points) between various land uses within
Subiya, and between Subiya and the external zones.
PB Network #65
62
The trip distribution calculations were based on a number of assumptions, including:

The number of jobs and schools in various parts of Subiya
Travel between Subiya and other parts of the metropolitan area
Peak-hour travel
The layout of the proposed road network, including connections to the national
highway network.
Local Road Network
Figure 1: Subiya, a new

city in northern Kuwait,
showing the new causeway
approaching from the
south and the planned
roadway network.
The local road network was to be prepared as a buffer model that was used to test out the
suitability of the proposed strategic grid arterial network inside Subiya. This model was also
used to identify the possible locations of the car parks within Subiya. At this stage, the analysis
was iterative in nature, with very close interaction between the urban and the transportation
planners. The process continued until an acceptable road network with proper roadway
hierarchy was developed to complement the land use plans.
Based on the land use plans and the location of major pedestrian traffic generators, we
prepared the desire lines (origin-destination points) for pedestrian movements. We also
investigated the interaction between the transit system and pedestrian movements.
Roadway Corridors
The intense traffic modeling process gave way to the traffic
analyses process under which
traffic volumes obtained from the local Subiya traffic model
were used. The traffic analyses were carried out for the
capacities for the main line roadways and the intersections.
This process enabled us to establish the number of lanes
on the mainline roadways and also helped in determining
the intersection/interchange types. Taking into consideration the results from the traffic analyses the roadway corridors were established (Figure 1).
On Time and On Budget

PB worked on this project on a very aggressive time
schedule. We were successful in completing the transportation part of the project in time that enabled the urban planning consultants to meet
their start date. The project was also successful budget wise.
Salman Ahmad has more than17 years experience in the field of highways and traffic engineering. He holds an M.S. degree in transportation engineering,
and has managed projects in USA, United Arab Emirates and Kuwait.
Architecture: Three New Underground Stations In Istanbul

Conclusion
Through careful planning and design that tapped our station planning experience and multidisciplinary transit engineering
capabilities, the core stations of the Marmaray line will further define a contemporary vision unique to the evolving built
environment of this historic city. Helping define this future has been a joy and privilege.
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PB Network #65
Upgrading and Maintaining Kuwaits Motorway

Bridges By Keith Horsfield, Kuwait, 965-531-1923, horsfieldK@pbworld.com; and
Anas Kassem, Kuwait, 965-531-1924, kassemA@pbworld.com
A major program was

undertaken by Kuwaits
Ministry of Public
Works to upgrade and
strengthen bridges on the
motorway/expressway
network. The authors
present a general
description of work
carried out so far and
tell of the concrete
testing and repair work
performed after extensive
reinforcement corrosion
on the bridge substructures was discovered.
Kuwait enjoys a modern road network more than 40 967 km (25,455 miles) in length (as per
data published by the Ministry of Planning, 1999), including a motorway/expressway network
of approximately 313 km (194 miles). The motorway network has more than 300 highway
bridges, most of which were designed and built in the early 1980s to American Association
and State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) and Kuwaits Motorway standards.
After the liberation of Kuwait following the Iraqi invasion in 1990, the Ministry of Public Works
(the Ministry) commissioned PB to perform an overall assessment of all existing bridges on
the motorway system. We met several important goals of the project, which were to:
Perform a physical condition assessment of the bridges
Evaluate their live load carrying capacities according to up-to-date AASHTO criteria using
the increased design live loading adopted by Gulf Cooperation Council Countries
Update the Ministrys inventory of bridges and establish a database for bridge condition
and required maintenance repairs
Make recommendations to upgrade and strengthen deficient bridges and bring them to the
new standards.
This work, carried out in 1994/1995 by engineers from the Princeton, New Jersey office and
staff from the Kuwait Technical Consulting Office, showed that:
92 percent of the bridges were in satisfactory condition or better, requiring only general
maintenance and minor repairs
6 percent were in fair condition, requiring repairs
2 percent were in poor or serious condition, requiring major rehabilitation or strengthening.
The Ministry introduced an ongoing remedial works program for all bridges found to be in
less than satisfactory condition. PB prepared the designs, contract drawings and documentation;
carried out tender reviews; and provided construction supervision for all of the works.
The remedial and upgrading programme comprises the follow four phases, of which the first
three are completed and the fourth is in progress:
Phase 1. Replacement of degraded elastomeric bearings
Phase 2. Upgrading of steel bridges by additional steelwork and repair of corroded
structural members
Phase 3. Upgrading of prestressed concrete bridges by strengthening for shear using
external steel reinforcement
Phase 4. Upgrading of prestressed concrete bridges by strengthening for flexure using
externally applied carbon-fibre reinforced plastic laminates.
In this article we present a general description of work carried out so far and an overview of
the concrete testing and repair work done following the discovery of extensive reinforcement
corrosion on the bridge substructures.
Phase 1: Spalling Revealed

Work on Phase 1, the replacement of elastomeric bearings, began in 1999 with the contract
being let to United Gulf Construction, a local contractor. Freysinnet of France was the
specialist sub-contractor for jacking and bearing replacement. The bearings had to be
replaced at both abutments and at piers, a process that was not always straightforward.
PB Network #65
64
Most abutments had sufficient space to use conventional hydraulic jacks;

however, pancake type jacks had to be used at abutments that carried fixed
bearings utilizing large diameter steel pintle rods. These had only a 75-mm
(3-inch) thick bearing with no plinths. At other locations, replacement of
fixed bearings on circular columns required the design of a support system
to carry the jacks because the entire top of the columns had to be broken
out to replace the fixed bearings (Figure 1).
Figure 1: New fixed bearings on columns

bridge decks supported by temporary
jacking towers.
Figure 2: Deteriorated concretetypical

ground-level corrosion of reinforcement
found on columns and piers of motorway
bridges.
In the process of excavating down to the bridge foundations to form the

bases for jacking towers, severe spalling of concrete on either side of the
adjacent ground level line was revealed (Figure 2). Basic examination and
testing showed that the spalling was the result of expansive reinforcement
corrosion, most likely initiated by the brackish irrigation water penetrating
the concrete, which generally did not have any protective layer applied.
As other areas of reinforcement corrosion had been seen during preparation
works for the contract, we prepared a repor t to bring these problems to
the attention of the Ministry. As a result, they authorized additional investigation and remediation works to be carried out during Phases 2, 3 and 4 of
the rehabilitation works to the bridges. Accordingly, the following items were
added to each of the following three contracts:
Cover meter survey
Hammer test survey for delamination
Half-cell test for corrosion activity
Core sampling of existing concrete and analysis of cores for carbonation,
cement content, chloride profile, and the petrographic report
Concrete repair
Protective painting of concrete.
All of these tasks were to be carried out on the structures we determined
to be vulnerable as a result of the site surveys.
Phase 2: Concrete Deterioration Revealed
Figure 3: Strengthening of steel bridges

installation of additional diaphragms,
temporary jacking towers.
Phase 2 works, started in August 2001, were the strengthening and remediation
of the steel bridges together with the added brief of limited concrete
investigation, testing, and repair. The structural work involved was technically
straightforward, but the use of high-strength friction grip (HSFG) bolted
connections and the need to apply a preload to the new diaphragm beams
necessitated working to tight tolerances in a restricted workspace (Figure 3).
It was while working on the steel bridges in this contract that our investigations
revealed deterioration of the concrete protection collars to the steel columns.
Trial removals of the collars revealed severe corrosion of the reinforcement
of the collars and of the weathering steel columns inside the collars (Figure 4).
The corrosion of the columns took the form of the well-documented
phenomenon known as pack rust, where weathering steel is kept permanently
wet because of poor detailing.
Figure 4: Corrosion of steel bridges

severe pack rust and chloride corrosion of
base of weathering steel bridge columns
exposed after sand blasting.
65
PB Network #65
In this instance, the columns were in an irrigated planted area and it is likely
that the corrosion was instigated by the brackish irrigation water penetrating
into the small, annular gap between the column and the collar that was created
by shrinkage of the concrete. This corrosion had reduced the wall thickness
of the columns by up to 30 percent in some cases.
4
As this amount of section loss could not be accepted, the Ministry agreed to
incorporate remedial works to these columns in Phase 3, along with the original
shear strengthening works and the already added concrete testing and repair.
Phase 3: Repairs Made
Figure 5: External Shear Strengthening

tensioned steel bars applied to webs of
prestressed concrete box girder bridges.
Figure 6: Deteriorated Concretecorrosion of top steel on bridge foundation.
Phase 3 works were for the installation of external shear strengthening utilizing
steel prestressing bars bolted to the webs of the bridge decks (Figure 5), in
addition to the concrete repairs and investigations resulting from Phase 1 and
repairs to the steel columns on which defects were found in Phase 2.
The remedial work to the columns took the form of first sandblasting them so
that the exact amount of section loss could be determined. If the loss was critical
to the strength of the column, 6-mm (1/4-inch)-thick, curved, steel flitch plates were
welded over the affected areas. The columns were then painted with coal-tar
epoxy and new protective collars were cast in fibre-reinforced concrete. Finally,
the collars themselves were painted with coal-tar epoxy and the joints between
the collars and the columns sealed with gun-applied polysulphide sealant.
During breaking out of the concrete collars to the columns, we found extensive
areas of hollow concrete on the top surfaces of the bridge foundations. Removal
of the delaminated concrete revealed extensive corrosion of the reinforcing steel
(Figure 6) which was, once again, due to brackish water penetrating unprotected
concrete. Repairs were carried out to these bases as provided for in the additional
items provided in the contract for concrete repair.
Phase 4: Flexural Strengthening and Concrete Repairs
Figure 7: Strengthening using C-FRP

removal of backing film and application
of C-FRP mat to beam soffit.
Phase 4 of the work is now underway, with the application of carbon-fiber

reinforced polymer (CFRP) laminate flexural strengthening to the soffits and
decks of prestressed concrete box girder bridges (Figure 7). As with the previous
contracts, concrete investigation and repairs are being carried out and, for the
first time, electrolytic chloride extraction is being used to stabilize the condition
of bridge piers at an interchange where chloride penetration had started but
had not reached the reinforcing steel. The conventional concrete repairs are to
the columns of interchanges selected during Phase 3 works as having a visibly
obvious problem with reinforcement corrosion (Figures 8 and 9).
The Future
Figure 8: Concrete Deterioration

Visible spalling of bridge column.
Our observations and the testing and investigation carried out so far have made
it obvious that the Kuwait Ministry of Public Works is facing a major problem
with corrosion of reinforcement on its stock of bridges. Following the conclusion
of the Phase 4 works, we will present a report to the Ministry that will detail the
problems found during our investigations. This report will recommend that they
instigate a full survey of the bridge stock to determine its condition and to formulate
a strategy for a further round of remediation works. In this way, the decline in
the condition of Kuwaits bridges can be arrested, their safety can be assured,
and possible large future expenditures on reconstruction can be avoided.
Keith Horsfield joined PB in 1997 as owners agent for the expansion of Aruba Airport. He has more than
40 years experience, including 18 years in the Middle East. Keith has worked in Kuwait since November
1999 on bridge strengthening and refurbishment. His areas of specialism include construction supervision of
bridges, ports and harbours, and new town development.
Figure 9: Concrete Deterioration

Corrosion of reinforcement revealed
after removing spalls.
Anas Kassem, joined PB in 1989 in the Princeton, NJ, USA office as a junior engineer. He received his B.S.
degree in civil engineering from Florida Institute of Technology in 1987, M.S. degree in the same field from
Rutgers University in 1989, and professional engineering license in 1992. As part of the Assessment of Kuwait
Motorway Bridges Project, which was staffed and run from PBs Princeton office; he was based in Kuwait in
late 1996. He is still working in Kuwait, now as a project manager and Middle East service line manager for
design (highway and bridges) in addition to being a location general manager.
PB Network #65
66
Bridge Design Experience: A Major Construction

Tool for Design-Build Bridge Projects
By Naeem Ismaily, Dubai, 971-50-558-7713, ismaily@pbworld.com
Our construction management team came up

with several changes to
improve the design of
the very wide and long
bridge extending from
Dubais mainland to the
man-made Palm Jumeirah
Island. These included
adding shear keys to
resist seismic loading,
providing an innovative
way to access bridge
bearings, improving the
installation of precast
panels, and more.
PB was appointed as a program manager responsible for construction management of one of

the longest and widest post-tensioned concrete bridges in the City of Dubai. The bridge is
comprised of twin structures 360 m long (nearly 1,180 feet). Each has five travel lanes and
full shoulders (Figure 1).
This fast-paced design-build project presented numerous design challenges. Construction
started with 60 percent complete design drawings and the remaining design information was
made available in a series of subsequent design packages just prior to the time of construction.
The fast-track nature of the project required quick reviews of the design submittals and timely
incorporation of any modifications that were required. Under these circumstances, PBs bridge
design knowledge and experience was instrumental in coordinating all design details with the
design consultant before designs were approved for construction.
On many occasions, we instructed the bridge designer to improve upon the design for better
facilitationchanges that were later acknowledged to be better solutions to certain design
challenges. Some key design checks and innovative design ideas implemented during the
construction are described briefly in this article.
Shear Keys Between Superstructure and Substructure

The bridge was located in the coastal waters of Arabian Gulf near the Gulf seismic belt. Although
high damping bearings were detailed as part of the original bridge design to resist seismic loading,
we strongly endorsed the idea of providing vertical shear keys by improving the design details.
This change also facilitated the construction process.
The bridge superstructure consisted of concrete box girder spans 25 m wide
and 60 m long (82 feet wide, 197 feet long). It was required that these large
bulks of concrete not move in lateral or longitudinal directions during a seismic
event, which was why we encouraged the use of shear keys.
Figure 1: Gateway bridge

from Dubais mainland to
Palm Jumeirah Island.
The shear keys were reinforced concrete square blocks 1 m by 1 m and 1.5 m
high (3.3 feet by 3.3 feet and 4.9 feet high). They were integrally constructed
with the pier caps and inserted through the bottom slab of concrete box girder,
thus providing a movement control link between bridge superstructure and
substructure. A gap of 150 mm (6 inches) was maintained all around between
the shear key and bottom slab opening to allow routine movement of the bridge superstructure.
One shear key was constructed at each bridge support. Function of the shear key was mainly
to restrain any large movement in both transverse and longitudinal direction caused due to
any unforeseen large seismic events and avoid bridge deck collapse.
Access to Bridge Bearing from Inside the Bridge Box Girders

The bridge superstructure consisted of concrete box girders with inside vertical openings of
approximately 2 m (6.6 feet). The opening was wide enough horizontally for placement of
electrical cable trays, telecommunication cables and water pipes. Because all the access inside
the box girder was available for the utilities, we came up with the innovative idea of accessing
the bridge bearings from inside the box girder. Access to the bridge bearings will be required
on a frequent basis for inspections and maintenance. This idea eliminated the traditional
approach of bridge bearing inspection from underneath the bridge, where pontoons or barrages
in the water would be required for long periods of time to access the bridges 80 bearings.
These accesses also proved to be very useful for monitoring bearing longitudinal movements,
which were significant enough due to long post-tensioned concrete spans.
4
67
PB Network #65
This approach was implemented by providing an opening in the bottom slab

of each concrete box girder right above the bridge pier (Figure 2). Adequate
walkway corridors were constructed above the pier caps to provide access to
all bearing locations at that particular pier. Ladders from the bottom slab of each
box girder to top of the pier cap were installed. The ladder ends at the pier
cap were kept movement free to compensate for bridge longitudinal movements.
Figure 2: Bottom of the

bridge showing the piers.
The opening to the walkway
access is from inside the
box girder at the pier
location, which is not
visible in this photo.
In addition to readily available in and out walkway access inside the box
girder, large utility chambers were constructed at each abutment location,
providing large access space for entering and exiting through the concrete
box girders. Inside, lighting and adequate ventilation were also provided.
Improvements to Installation of Precast Panels

Large precast panels 6 m high and 3 m wide (20 feet high and 10 feet wide) were to be installed
at the face of the pier caps for the bridge aesthetics. A large numbers of panels were involved,
and they had already been cast, painted and stored on-site and were ready to be installed.
The panels were designed as free hanging, supported only at the top. The top of the panel
was shaped as a U-hook that would rest on top of the pier cap. The U-hook portions of the
panel were supported only at the panel ends.
We decided to review the original design with an eye for possible improvements. The panel
support details and amount of reinforcement in the panels were checked, and we performed
a free body analyses to determine the adequacy of the top support. Our conclusion was
that the support design could be improved by making two changes:
Providing continuous support contact between the top of the panel and the pier cap
instead of providing support contact only at the panel ends (which behaved as a simple
beam). This change distributed the vertical hanging load over the entire panel width.
Providing additional bolts to connect the vertical hanging panel leg against the face of the
pier cap.
These improvements were detailed and verified by the bridge designer. By improving the
design of the panel support mechanism rather than modifying the panel itself in case of any
deficiency, potentially significant additional costs were avoided.
Experience Proves Valuable in Many Ways

The three examples presented above are some of the more striking illustrations of how our
bridge design experience helped us in our role as construction manager to provide the client
with a more sound structure. Perhaps less striking but nevertheless important were the
many instances on almost a daily basis where this experience also proved to be valuable.
Naeem Ismaily graduated

from George Washington
University in Washington, DC,
USA, where he completed
undergraduate studies (B.S.) in
civil engineering and graduate
studies (M.S. )in structural
engineering. He is a registered
professional engineer in
Virginia and Maryland. He has
21 years of in bridge design
and construction, Naeem
worked on many projects
around the world, including
The Palm Jumeirah Island,
which is the largest man-made
island and is considered to be
the eighth wonder of the world.
For example, with bridge construction proceeding with 60 percent design drawings, major
design drawings had to be reviewed and approved as construction progressed. The design
experience of our on-site staff enabled them to give quick and accurate reviews and to
coordinate with all disciplines, including architectural, utility and roadway drawings, and it
facilitated timely construction progress. Their experience also enabled our staff to respond
to the contractors design queries without any delays.
As another example, the bridge adjoined with another concrete box girder bridge with no
gap between them, resulting in a common pier for both bridges. Both bridges had different
design consultants and contractors, so extensive coordination was required. The design data
for both bridges were required for construction of the common pier, and construction details
had to be matched accordingly to allow one contractor to build it. Our job was to undertake
the coordination process, verify the design data and confirm the construction details. This
entire process was another example of how strong bridge design experience facilitated the
construction works, with a great deal of coordination between the contractors.
PB Network #65
68
Middle East: The Place To Be Traffic Management
Abu Dhabis Traffic Information and Management

System: Traffic Counting and Operational
Analysis (COPAS) By Ahmed Ghaly, Abu Dhabi, 9712-677-5511, ghalyA@pbworld.com
Abu Dhabis Traffic
Information and Management System (TIMS)
is one of the worlds
most advanced systems
of this type. 1 This
article is about the
Traffic Counting and
Operational Analysis
(COPAS) module, one
of two that PB
designed. The author
tells about the traffic
counting methods and
strategies developed and
the microsimulation
analysis technique
chosen to assist Abu
Dhabi in maximizing
the safety and efficiency
of its roadways now and
well into the future.
Figure 1: Components
of Abu Dhabis Traffic
Information Management
Systems (TIMS)
The City of Abu Dhabis dramatic economic growth has placed a huge demand on its
infrastructure networks, including its roadways. To cope with such demand, the Abu Dhabi
Municipality embarked on an ambitious project to operate and manage its surface transport
system efficientlythe Traffic Information and Management System (TIMS), which consists of
several modules (Figure 1). The Municipality commissioned PB to plan, design, and build the
first two modules:
Continuous Traffic Counting and Operational Analysis System (COPAS)
Accident Recording and Analysis System (AREST).
This article is about the COPAS module layout, design, and implementation strategy.
COPAS consists of two componentstraffic counters and the traffic operation analysis.
COPAS Traffic Count Component

Types of Counts. We established three groups of traffic counts based on the road
classification and anticipated growth for each road:
Continuous traffic counts, with data collected 24 hours a day using automated traffic
recorders (ATR)
Control traffic counts, with data collected using radar units for one week every three
months to cover the seasonal changes at each site
Coverage traffic counts, with data collected once every three years where slow growth
is anticipated.
Criteria for Count Locations. Strategic areas were identified, including:
The central business district, city center, Abu Dhabi Island, greater Abu Dhabi, and major
industrial areas
Other important traffic generators, such as the airport and Zayed port
Areas of expected high traffic growth
Factor locations (required for factoring non-continuous counts).
We recommended that the strategic areas be monitored by traffic counters located on screen
lines demarcating the relevant areas. Doing so provides information about traffic flows and
growth on individual roads as well as on the total screen line. The most important strategic
screen lines should be monitored by continuous counts
and the others by control counts, or possibly coverage
counts in low-grade strategies.
Factor locations, required for factoring non-continuous
counts, are monitored ideally by continuous counts, although
certain sites are monitored by control counts but with
minimum of four 2-week survey periods per year instead
of the four 1-week survey periods mentioned above. 4
1
69
PB Network #65
This project was introduced to PB Network readers in Issue No. 63, May,
2006. Please see System Integration: The Route to Fewer Accidents and
Improved Traffic Flow in Abu Dhabi by Roy Pemberton, Ahmed Ghaly,
Jerry Mahany and M. Atef Garib on pp. 17 to 19. This article is also
available on the Web at http://www.pbworld.com/news_events/publications/
network/Issue_63/63_.

Figure 2: Screen line and
counters locations.
For links not covered by the strategic screen lines, the criteria
depend on road type. We recommended:
Primary road links be monitored by coverage counts
at least once every three years
Arterial road links be monitored by coverage counts
at lease once every six years or by request
Local roads be monitored by request or estimate.
Figure 2 shows the selected locations of the permanent
traffic counters and the control traffic counts. These locations
were selected to form screen lines to monitor the changes in
the traffic pattern more efficiently.
Recommended Strategies. We developed three strategies
for conducting traffic countspreferred, minimum and maximum.
The principal difference between them is the type of count conducted.
We recommended the preferred strategy for the initial system. It contains approximately
30 continuous count sites, 21 control count sites, and 84 coverage or request ATR or manual
count sites. This is a practical and sufficient approach that aims to slightly under-provide
rather than over-provide in order to avoid waste. The system can be upgraded as needed
and more sites added.
The minimum and maximum strategies are also realistic options, but they covered fewer or
more sites, and are likely to under and over-provide respectively. While the minimum strategy
could be suitable as the first phase of a two-phase implementation, we recommended that
anything more than the preferred strategy was excessive for an initial system, but could be
considered in the future.
Use of Collected Data. All collected data is processed, analyzed, and viewed using Counts
View, an in-house developed GIS-based computer application. Users can process and view
the traffic counts data using the powerful statistic tools in the GIS platform.
Data is graphically viewed as well as tabulated to produce periodic reports (monthly, quarterly,
and annually). The collected traffic counts will be essential in:
Planning, by improving accuracy for future traffic forecasts used to plan suitable
transportation facilities
Design, by helping designers to decide on the number of lanes needed, road classification,
pavement type, pavement thickness and traffic control type
Construction, by providing numbers that will be essential to detour design and mitigation
measures.
Operations, by providing data that is key to
Incident management, accident data analysis, and mitigation measures
Signal timing design, and traffic control type
Maintenance prioritization and scheduling.
Please see the following article,

Abu Dhabis Traffic Information
Management System: Accident
Referencing and Analysis System
(AREST) by Jerry Mahany for
information on this TIMS module.
The traffic counts are a main parameter in calculating the accident rate. COPAS data are
sent to the police traffic department through a link to the municipality traffic control center,
where they are used to measure the effectiveness of safety measures.2
COPAS is integrated with other modules to form the overall TIMS using the GIS platform.
When additional modules are developed in the future, such as the incident management
module, the traffic counts system can be integrated to provide direct input to it.
PB Network #65
70
COPAS Traffic Operation Analysis Using Microscopic Tools

Micro-simulation is very effective in analyzing urban street systems similar to that of Abu
Dhabi. It helps engineers to better understand causes of traffic problems and develop and
evaluate various alternative solutions, and helps decision makers implement the most efficient,
economically sound and applicable solution.
Software Selection. Among our objectives was establishing the criteria to:
Select the most suitable microscopic tool for Abu Dhabi
Demonstrate its suitability by using it to model different roadway facilities in Abu Dhabi
Provide the proper training to the municipality staff to use the tool.
VISSIM was selected as the micro-simulation software best suited to the objectives of the
TIMS project and to the local conditions of the City of Abu Dhabi. This decision was based
on our team members extensive experience in the UK and US, their familiarity with various
software capabilities, and an extensive literature review of the available tools.
Model Input. We selected a network that represented the average congested conditions in
Abu Dhabi and then gathered the information needed to set up the model, including:
Roadway and traffic characteristics, such as traffic volumes, geometry, and signal timings
Traffic flow characteristics, such as measured delay and traffic queuing
Driver characteristics, such as aggressiveness, passiveness and gap acceptance.
Calibration. Calibration is the process by which the built model is adjusted to replicate
the existing traffic performance conditions in the field. There was no record of calibration
parameters that could replicate the average driver behavior in Abu Dhabi, however, so we
conducted a sensitivity analysis to establish a reliable set of calibration parameters.
Theoretically, parameters should be measured in the field, but driver characteristics are difficult
to measure because they are related to the psychological conditions of the driver. In addition,
the time, cost, and labor this process consumes could make the microsimulation technique
an impractical and costly practice. Instead, a set of iterations that include different values for
each parameter was used and the results analyzed.
Once the parameters were calibrated and validated to replicate the average driver behavior in
Abu Dhabi, they were used to build the VISSIM model for roundabouts, isolated intersections,
and arterial streets. Our engineers provided hands-on training to the municipality assigned staff.
The microscopic traffic operation analysis technique has proven its role in enhancing the decision
making process in the municipality regarding traffic operation strategies in the city of Abu Dhabi.
Much Achieved, More to be Done
Ahmed Ghaly, who has been

responsible for the COPAS
aspects of the TIMS project,
carries experience in traffic
and systems engineering in
the United Arab Emirates and
USA. Of particular relevance
to Abu Dhabis project, he was
responsible for the introduction
of micro-simulation tools,
and he is an experienced infrastructure project manager.
71
PB Network #65
PB successfully delivered this project after overcoming many obstacles, such as balancing
between the Police Department, with its sensitivity toward data security, and the Municipalitys
eagerness to commission the system to make the data available to different parties. This
project represents a high quality step forward in these two entities cooperating with one
another to improve safety for the road users in Abu Dhabi. The systems open-architect
platform allows other agencies to benefit from it according to their needs, and facilitates the
adding of other modules.
TIMS is a vibrant and ongoing project that will enhance its functionality as long as it receives
the proper maintenance and support from the client. For example, PB provided a mechanism
to use the factoring concept to predict traffic volumes on links that do not have continuous
traffic counts. For this mechanism to be meaningful, however, it needs to be developed over
a period of 2-3 years of system operations so it can be properly calibrated and validated.
Abu Dhabis Traffic Information and Management

System: Accident Referencing and Analysis System
(AREST) By Jerry Mahany, Abu Dhabi, 9712-678-6060, mahanyJ@pbworld.com
The second module
PB developed for Abu
Dhabis TIMS is a stateof-the-art system that
features touch-screen
mobile data terminals
in police cars, global
positioning system
receiver inputs linked
to a database with
geographical information
system mapping and
accident analysis software via global packet
radio service.
Acronyms/
Abbreviations
AARS: Accident Analysis
and Reporting
System
AREST: Accident
Reference and
Analysis System
ARMS: Accident
Recording and
Referencing
Management
System
GIS: Geographic
Information
System
GPRS: Global Packet
Radio Service
GPS: Global Positioning
System
MDT: Mobile Data
Terminal
TIMS: Traffic Information
and Management
System
AREST is a portable, state of the art system developed to record and store the details of an
accident on site and accurately reference the location of the accident. Portable computer
devices in police cars or motorcycles are used to register the accident location within the
allowed tolerance and transfer the data to the central database.
AREST consists of two componentsAccident Recording and Referencing Management
System (ARMS), and Accident Analysis and Reporting System (AARS).
The Foundation for AREST

At the start of the project we conducted a thorough review of current international and
regional practices. Key findings were that:
Most organisations faced a problem in accurately recording accident location, a key
component in being able to develop effective accident remedial measures
Accident under-reporting potentially created a bias in the reporting and analysis towards
fatalities and serious injuries.
The level of under-reporting depended on a number of factors and varied from one
country to another.
Systems were being developed using electronic recording systems because of the improved
consistency in the data collected and the ability to have on-site validation.
A review of current practice in Abu Dhabi showed that:
All road accidents must be reported to the policea requirement that is strictly enforced.
The police have officers in attendance at all times at hospitals used for emergency treatment
of people involved in traffic accidents.
Since January 2003 hand held global positioning system (GPS) units have been used by
the police to record the coordinates of accident locations. (This data has not proved to
be reliable, however, due to operational difficulties with the units, especially in areas with
many high-rise buildings, such as downtown Abu Dhabi.)
Among our conclusions were that:
The system must be able to cope with failures of any part of it and ensure that all data is
secure at all times.
At least the data collection part of the system should be available in Arabic for ease of use
with standard flexible input for accidents (both injury and property damage only). For
Accident Analysis, which may be carried out by both the Police and the Municipality, the
system could operate in English but some report outputs might need to be in Arabic.
Accident Recording and Referencing Management System (ARMS)

Because GPS on its own was not robust for referencing, we recommended a system that used
GIS mapping together with GPS to provide pin point locations. The need to view geographic
information system (GIS) maps, download data from the accident site to the central server,
and have an input format that was easy to use dictated the requirement for a rugged type
mobile data terminal (MDT), illustrated in Figure 1. In addition, there was a need for in-car
printers so forms could be issued at the accident site in the case of accidents involving property
damage only. These, too, had to be rugged to withstand day-to-day use and extreme temperatures.
PB Network #65
72
The MDT incorporates a data form that is set out in a logical manner and
automatically prompts the user with valid data types. Validity checks are
carried out as data are entered. If the driver is a United Arab Emirate
resident, some data, such as driver and vehicle details, can be downloaded
directly from the police central server into the relevant sections of the form
using global packet radio service (GPRS).
Figure 1: Rugged mobile

data terminal used in
police cars showing a user
entering accident location
information.
We developed a consistent method of drawing accident diagrams for the

MDTs using Easy Street Draw software that we translated into Arabic.
Completed accident forms are automatically sent to the police central
server using GPRS. Incomplete accident forms cannot be sent so that the
accident database is always up-to-date, although new accidents are not marked as validated
until further manual checks are carried out in the police office.
Accident Analysis and Reporting System (AARS)

The function of AARS, a GIS-based system, is to identify high accident-prone locations, identify
their problems, and help determine the countermeasures to treat them. GIS has the ability to
incorporate non-traditional databases (land use, counts, accidents, etc.) into an identification
and analysis system. In addition, the evaluation using spatial relationships are better and faster
than that using traditional plots and tabular data.
The analysis system allows for engineers from both the Police and the Municipality to access
accident details. The needs of the two groups are different, however:
The Police need access to all the information collected at the scene of an accident,
especially because some of it may be used for prosecution purposes.
The Municipality needs access to the more general aspects of the data but not, for instance,
some of the personal details related to those involved in an accident.
Meeting these requirements and ensuring the Police could protect personal data was a
particularly challenging aspect of developing the analysis system. We did achieve these goals,
however, and up-to-date data is available to the relevant bodies almost immediately.
Figure 2: AREST system

being used in a
Municipality office.
We used the ArcView GIS platform for easy-to-use front-end data query. ArcView provides:
Map interaction, map creation, and map analysis
Data creation, data management, read-only database management system capability
Application developer tools.
We used off-the-shelf software developed by Exor and having a GIS interface
for more detailed analysis of accident clusters, remedial measures, etc. These
analysis systems allow spot/intersection analysis, cluster analysis, sliding scale
analysis, corridor analysis, and area wide analysis.
Conclusion
AREST can also be used, if required, from a desktop system in the police or
municipality offices (Figure 2). It has the ability to exchange the data to the
Municipality Roads Directorate based on a filtering criterion, and provides
the functionality to view, analyse, and report accidents.
Jerry Mahany has been responsible for the AREST
component of TIMS. He has also assisted in setting
up and maintaining a UK local authoritys
computerised accident data storage and retrieval
system. On other assignments, Jerry carried out
numerous accident studies and developed a Road
Safety Plan for part of the UKs M25 on behalf of
the Highways Agency.
73
PB Network #65
Our design philosophy was to provide a simple interface, reduce typing, and
provide a on-line validation rule engine to carry out real-time checks and
improve data quality. The result is a mechanism that stores the information
online from the accident location, taking advantage of wireless technology to
the fullest extent possible.
Middle East: The Place To Be Transit Oriented Development
Transit Oriented Development for Dubai Metro

By Amer Khan, Dubai, 971 50 552-8241, KhanAm@pbworld.com
Transit oriented development is establishing

itself in key international
development environments, and it was only
a matter of time before
it came to the Middle
East. The ways in which
PB is helping to make
its introduction to Dubai
successful and the
benefits TOD offers are
the focus of this article.
Acronyms/
Abbreviations
RTA:
TOD:
Roads and
Transport
Authority
Transit Oriented
Development
The Dubai Roads and Transport Authority (RTA) was interested in incorporating transit
oriented development (TOD) with its new Dubai Metro, currently under development, and
in divesting itself of 16 vacant sites adjacent to metro stations. As a result of its international
search and review conducted in early 2006, RTA identified PB as being a pioneer and leader
in rail transit projects in general and in TOD particular.
After discussions with RTA, our Dubai office was invited to submit a proposal to conduct real
estate market analysis and, subsequently, prepare preliminary TOD plans with recommendations
for a divestment strategy for the 16 vacant sites. We teamed with a leading real estate firm
that could provide quality input needed for the real estate, market and divestment analysis.
The combined offering resulted in a world-class project team with TOD experience from
across the globe to take on this challenge.
Win-Win Opportunities For All Stakeholders

The primary objective of the project was to provide end-to-end innovative and creative solutions
for implementing TOD on all 16 sites, thereby maximising value to RTA and stakeholders.
In particular, RTA wanted to create opportunities for capital return by leveraging the sale and
ultimate development of the station sites in a buoyant real estate market coupled with the
new Dubai Metroa driverless, fully automated system 70 km (44 miles) long with two lines,
the Red line and Green line, and 43 stations.
The situation presented win-win opportunities for all involved:
Master planning the sites to maximize opportunity for transit ridership (i.e., TOD) would
contribute significantly to the overall success of the Metro project.
Success of the Metro project would benefit investors by helping to increase the value
of their real estate.
RTA would have increased metro ridership and operating value.
Development residents and users would benefit from reduced travel times and new,
modern, mixed-use and integrated communities.
Another part of our project scope was to propose possible branding solutions to reinforce
the identity of the TOD as an additional method to add value. Our overall
proposal was to establish a String of Pearls, with the TOD communities naturally being the
pearls and the metro line being the string to connect the communities to the rest of
Dubai. The branding will be developed further for implementation in conjunction with
the final master plans and infrastructure designs.
Innovative Methodology
We prepared the concept master plans for the 16 sites using some traditional planning and
design techniques and some techniques that were new to the client. In particular was the
use of the charrette process, used in the RTA for the first time for such a project. The
charrettes brought together our multi-disciplinary project team members from around the
world and allowed direct interaction with RTA and other stakeholders. Charrettes proved
to be effective in initiating discussions and analysis of alternatives and other issues, and in
helping all involved to come to an early conclusion on the way forward.
PB Network #65
74
For each site, a similar set of plans were prepared to enable the planning
and design process to proceed efficiently. One of the most important and
potentially valuable sites, known as Al Kifaf, surrounds the Al Jafiliya metro
station on the Red Line (Figure 1). This site is used to illustrate our approach.
First, it was important to understand the site context so a plan was prepared
accordingly. Hand drawn sketches depicting the concept site layout and land
use plan were then developed further and drawn in CAD (Figure 2), and
then the concept transportation circulation plan was developed (Figure 3).
Figure 1: The Al Kifaf study site at the Red

Lines Al Jafiliya Station.
In general, most of the 16 sites were proposed as mixed use TOD

developments by accentuating some local themes and oppor tunities.
In Dubai, much emphasis is placed on the visualization and graphic
representation of projects. This project was no exception, and we
prepared many high quality visuals to aid senior decision makers.
Figure 4 shows a rendered perspective of the Al Kifaf site.
Major Challenges
We faced numerous challenges typical of those found in major planning
projects, such as scope creep and client and resource management, but these
were managed with usual prudent project management techniques. We
also faced some special challenges related mainly to helping the stakeholders
understand the full spectrum of TOD principles and benefits, and what was
required to achieve them. This required the RTA and other authorities to
consider and accept policies and design standards that were contrary to
the thinking and stipulation of the prevailing regulations and codes.
An example of this was to design the mixed use developments with the minimum rather than
the maximum number of car parking spaces to give maximum opportunity for transit ridership.
It must be remembered that for the past 30 years all communities planned in Dubai have
relied exclusively on the use of cars as the primary mode of transport. In this case, we
highlighted experience from other cities and TOD developments to help demonstrate how
this principle could be implemented practically in Dubai.
Advancement of State of Art
Figure 2: CAD drawing

of Al Kifaf site layout
and land uses.
It is expected that the addition of TOD in Dubai through this project will further advanced
the state of the art for both PB and the industry. This is because Dubai has the practical
means and vision that enable relatively new concepts to be implemented quickly. In the
short term, model TOD communities will certainly be developed in Dubai. In the long term,
Dubai can be considered as being among the worlds major transit cities, along with London,
New York, Singapore, Hong Kong and others.
4
Figure 3:
Transportation
circulation plan.
Figure 4:
Perspective of the
developed Al Kifaf
site.
75
PB Network #65
Intercompany Collaboration Was Essential

The very high demands and expectations of the client were met by intercompany collaboration
among PBs offices around the world and by taking advantage of global time zone differences
to have staff working on the project around-the-clock. Staff in the Dubai office, who had
the local knowledge, client relations and infrastructure planning expertise, worked closely
with our U.S.-based PlaceMaking staff, who are experts in TOD planning, and with our U.S.based architects. Our PlaceMaking experts were successful in transferring much of their
knowledge to other team members, RTA, and other stakeholders, such as government
departments and private developers.
Figure 5: Poster of the

Al Kifaf site prepared by
PB for TRAs exhibition
stand at CityScape, the
worlds largest real estate
exhibition, which was held
in Dubai in December 2006.
Project delivery was achieved by careful management of staff in two main PB locations; Dubai
and Portland, Oregon, with additional support from our Beirut and New York offices. PBs
Company 39 in Denver prepared impressive visuals and a video for the project. This video
was played at the worlds largest real estate exhibition, CityScape, in Dubai in December
2006 at the RTAs exhibition stand, which was adorned by posters of the sites prepared by
us (Figure 5). The roles played by the U.S.-based staff allowed them a unique opportunity
to work on an international project with great effect.
Sustainability
TOD by definition promotes the use of public transportation within and between communities
as well as walking. In Dubai, public transport had never been planned from the beginning as
an integrated, let alone a primary mode of transport. Therefore, this project created the first
real opportunity to implement these important facets of sustainable development planning.
An even more impressive extension of sustainable development planning was applied to the
largest site in the portfolio, a nearly 2 million m2 (20 million square-foot) site in Jebel Ali,
which was designed as a concept Solar City. Particular sustainable development features
planned included:
Solar powered buildings
Street level circulatory tram and bus systems
An aerial cable car linking the community center to the transit station.
Whilst this was a concept, our proposals were very well received and it is intended to develop
these sustainable development concepts in more detail in the detailed design stage, which is
being carried out us.
The Next Stage

Following the completion of our preliminary TOD plans and other aspects of the project was
our successful pursuit of the next stagethe final detailed master planning, infrastructure design
and construction management of the 16 TOD sites. At the kick-off meeting for this project, the
RTA formally praised the excellent work carried out in the concept design stage for the TOD sites.
This new project was awarded to PB in March 2007 and, at the time of writing this article, we
are engaged in further design charrettes involving the RTA, other consultants and stakeholders.
All of us involved in this projectRTA, stakeholders, and our teamare hopeful that other
cities in the region that are in an early stage of development will adopt key TOD principles
in the planning and design of their new communities. It is our view that the sooner these
projects are established and the right technical skills and planning principles are in place,
the greater the opportunities and ultimate success of the transit projects.
Amer Khan holds a B.S. degree in civil engineering and an M.S. degree in transportation. He has more than 22 years experience and has been involved in numerous
projects in various capacities in transportation, infrastructure and development. Amer is currently responsible for the transportation and urban planning service line
for the Middle East, based in Dubai.
PB Network #65
76
Middle East: The Place To Be Sustainable Development
Workshop on Sustainable Development and Its

Barriers to Change in the Middle East
By Roy Pemberton, Abu Dhabi, 44(0) 1925-296-546, pembertonR@pbworld.com; and Amer Khan, Dubai, 971 50 552-8241, khanAm@pbworld.com
A workshop on sustainable development and

its barriers to change
revealed some of the
issues related to
implementing sustainable development in
the Middle East. Those
attending produced a
10-point action plan to
overcome these barriers.
In January 2007, PB led a workshop entitled Achieving Sustainability in Construction,

Development and Communities. This was a pre-conference activity for the Leaders in
Construction Conference organised by the International Quality and Productivity Center
(IQPC) in Dubai. Although attendance was low, with only 9 of the 30 who had registered
for the conference attending, the post conference feedback was excellent.
Those who attended represented a good mix of local government officials, consultants, architects
and concept planners. They participated enthusiastically and, as the day progressed, warmed
more and more to the topic. They also became more and more frustrated, however, with
what they saw as obstacles to progress, seen largely to be due to the lack of awareness and
lack of consultation among the most senior levels of government and other stakeholders.
Notably, an emphasis emerged that was somewhat different from the traditional, heavily ecologically based issues that emanate from similar gatherings across the globe. Without diminishing
the importance of the ecological issues, there was a strong feeling that in the Middle East
region in particular, a fundamental breakthrough in the understanding
of and action regarding economic and social sustainability needed to be
achieved before sustainable development as a whole (Figure 1) would
take hold for any worthwhile length of time. Indeed, there appears to
be a greater awareness of the need for environmental impact assessments
than there is for the very fundamental consideration of how to sustain
a community in economic, social and political terms.
The group considered possible initiatives that would place sustainability
more into the driving position. We discussed for example the transit
oriented development in Dubai, a project in which PB participated,1
which was well received as good practice (Figure 2).
Figure 1: Elements of
sustainable development.
Figure 2: Proposed transit

oriented development at
a Dubai Metro transit
station.
Ten-Point Action Plan Developed

As a step toward developing an action plan, the participants were asked to state what they
saw as the key barriers to change in relation to sustainable development in their particular
areas of responsibility. In response, they identified the following nine issues:
1. Lack of consultation in sustainability matters
2. Lack of awareness
3. Complacency
4. The perceived relative importance of other social issues
(such as smoking and safety)
5. Apparent divergent vision of senior decision makers in sustainability
issues
6. The almost obsessive tendency of decision makers to avoid showing
weakness
7. The extreme competitiveness in the Middle East development
market, which drives secrecy
8. Insufficient government responsibility and initiative to legislate and
regulate
9. Lack of sufficient social integration between the numerous and
diverse resident cultures in the Middle East countries.
4
1
77
PB Network #65
Please see Transit Oriented Development for Dubai Metro, a preceding article by Amer Khan, for more information about this project.
Middle East: The Place To Be Sustainable Development
Roy Pemberton is a multidisciplinary project manager with

specialist skills in electronic
systems. He is managing the
development of PBs portfolio of
project management for mega
projects in Abu Dhabi, and is
managing such projects as Al
Raha Beach Development and the
Abu Dhabi Traffic Information
Management System.
Amer Khan holds a B.S.
degree in civil engineering
and an M.S. degree in
transportation. He has more
than 22 years experience and
has been involved in numerous
projects in various capacities
in transportation, infrastructure
and development. Amer is
currently responsible for the
transportation and urban
planning service line for the
Middle East, based in Dubai.
2
LEED, which stands for

Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design, is a
voluntary, consensus-based
standard for developing highperformance sustainable
buildings. Several articles
in PB Network Issue 59,
November 2004, which
focused on sustainable
development, discuss LEED
and other similar standards
in practice around the world.
Issue 59 is also available on
line at http://www.pbworld.com/
news_events/publications/
network/issue_59/59_.
The group then developed a 10-point action plan for dealing with sustainability in the region.
They also felt that a recognisable benchmarking system, such as LEED, 2 needed to be
implemented. The action plan was as follows:
1. Establish a Gulf-wide Web site. Such a site should be established to present coordinated
information on sustainability matters. Although the group thought that the initiative for
sustainable development should originate with government, they recognized that this was
unlikely to happen, and that this forum for interested bodies might be a way to gain
recognition, acceptance and practice of sustainable development principles.
2. Demonstrate value of sustainable development. Demonstrations of the value of
sustainability measures needed to be prepared and publicised. This could be done by
using models as well as by demonstrating the marketability created by LEED or LEEDtype certification, and ultimately by simply implementing the measures and allowing
their benefits to become self-evident.
3. Include sustainability in procurement. A scoring method needed to be developed
that was used in evaluating tenders.
4. Increase stakeholders understanding. It was key that illustrations of the translation
of sustainability into marketability be published in order to help stakeholders understand
the importance of sustainability.
5. Address complacency. The complacent view of Weve done enough already needed
to be addressed by publishing global league tables of progress against internationally
accepted criteria. Such league tables would show that indeed there was considerably
more to do and achieve in comparison with many other countries.
6. Demonstrate cost of non-compliance. Decision makers needed to be advised as
to the economic impacts of non-compliance. Such impacts can be very compelling and
can drive home the adverse economic effects for future generations.
7. Educate the public. As much data as possible needed to be obtained and disseminated
about as many aspects as possible, including public opinion and world opinions.
8. Encourage government action. The following steps should be taken to encourage
the government to take the policy lead:
a. Propose a matrix of responsibilities
b. Demonstrate the benefits of meeting global standards (World Trade Organization,
World Bank, United Nations, etc.)
c. Request a league table of performance against the international community on
agreed sustainability issues
d. Encourage the signing of agreements and convention
e. Support the issuance of decrees and laws from cabinet ministers that promote
sustainable development
f. Lobby those in power and those who influence those in power.
9. Foster social integration. The need for social integration across all sections of the
community needs to be addressed.
10. Promote openness. The cloak of mystery surrounding developments in the region
needs to be lifted.
The group recognized that Points 9 and 10 were at least long term and, in the case of Point 10,
possibly beyond our reach. In addition, in the case of Point 9 they felt this integration would
come only when there is a path to citizenship, as is the case with most of the world.
Despite the small number of attendees, the session was very stimulating, with especially
strong participation and vocal views from the local government employees and female
members of the workshop. If these people start to act as a vanguard with this action plan,
maybe steady progress will result.
PB Network #65
78
Middle East: The Place To Be Power
400 KV Interconnection of Abu Dhabi Island

By Walter Bullock, Abu Dhabi, 9712-677-5511, bullockW@pbworld.com
This power network

project proved to be a
most interesting and
demanding one. Undertaken to augment the
supply of electricity to
Abu Dhabi Island and
prevent blackouts, it
incorporated some of
the latest developments
in circuit breaker and
cable technologies.
Acronyms/
Abbreviations
ADEWA: Abu Dhabi
Electricity
and Water
Authority
ADST: Abu Dhabi
Station
XLPE: Crosslinked
Polyethylene
Abu Dhabi Island was subject to a total black out in the height of the 2001 summer season.
To prevent this from happening again, Abu Dhabi Electricity and Water Authority (ADEWA)
gave high priority to augmenting and securing the electricity supply to the island. To this end,
the 400 kV Interconnection Project with a dedicated team of the most service from the client
for this particular project was established. PB was awarded the consultancy, which covered
design, tendering, project management and warranty services.
The upgraded network is illustrated in Figure 1. The four main elements to the project are:
Double circuit lines. Double circuit 400 kV overhead lines are provided from Mussafah
on the mainland to Abu Dhabi Island via Umm Al Nar Power Station (Figure 2). These lines
terminate at the E48 Grid Station approximately 30 km (19 miles) from Mussafah (Figures 3
and 4). The second stage of this element is the replacement of the existing 220 kV overhead line from Umm Al Nar to E48 with a new double circuit 400 kV line.
Substation Works. An existing 220 kV substation is being converted to a 400 kV substation (E48) and a new 400/132/11 kV substation (E19) is being constructed on the island to
receive the power at 400 kV and distribute it at lower voltage levels.
New cables circuits. Four new 400 kV cable circuits are being provided, each rated at
1000 MVA. Two circuits are installed between the E48 and E19 grid stations and, in a second
stage, two circuits are being installed between E19 and the Abu Dhabi grid station (ADST)
at the north end of the island. These were required to form a 400 kV ring on the island to
secure the supply.
Reconfigured network. The substantial reconfiguration of the 132-kV cable network on
the island includes the installation or modification of 20 cable circuits using approximately
100 km (65 miles) of new cable.
4
Existing 400kV OHL

From Taweelah Power Station (TWPS) to Abu Dhabi Power Station (ADPS)
2x400kV Cable Circuits
Each 4.0kM Long
2 Bays Extension
2x400kV Cable Circuits

Each 8.0kM Long
E19
400kV Grid Station
400kV S/S
132kV S/S
11kV S/S
TWPS
E19
400kV Grid Station
400kV S/S
Figure 1: 400 kV
Interconnection
of Abu Dhabi
IslandNetwork
Block Diagram.
1xDouble Circuit
Overhead Line
~ 30kM Route Length
UMM AL NAR
400kV Grid Station
Future IPP S/S
220kV S/S
132kV S/S
Existing To
Be Retained
11kV S/S
Modification of
Existing Double Circuit
Overhead Line to
Upgrade to 400kV
2 Bays C1 & C3
Available for Overhead
Line Circuits to E48
MUSSAFAH
400kV
Grid
Station
ADPS
Figure 2:
400 kV
Interconnection from
Mussafah
to Umm Al
Nar Power
Station.
79
PB Network #65
Figure 4: Location of
E48 and E19 Grid Stations.
Figure 3:
Upgraded
E48 Grid
Station
showing
lines from
Mussafah.
Middle East: The Place To Be Power
The value of the works contract is in excess of $300 million. The duration of the project was
originally 53 months but was extended to cover substantial increases in the scope of works.
Some Latest High-Tech Developments

The power network business is not considered to be high technology generally; however,
there is considerable high tech research and development that goes on to improve the
products comprising the network. Interestingly, some of the latest developments in circuit
breaker and cable technologies have been in introduced into this project.
Circuit Breakers. The substation contract was awarded to Consortium Siemens and Toshiba.
Each contractor proposed new circuit breakers to the market in this area:
Toshiba proposed a 400 kV SF6 circuit breaker with a single-break interruption, where
a two-break interruption is the industry norm. These circuit breakers have fewer
components than others, thereby reducing potential failures.
Siemens offered a 400 kV circuit breaker with the usual double-break interruption. The
mechanism proposed was a spring type, however, which was new at this voltage level for this
type of switchgear. Typically, the more complicated hydraulic and pneumatic mechanisms are used.
The client accepted both types of circuit breakers (Toshibas for E48 and Siemenss for E19)
only after a rigorous type tests regime had been performed because they proved to be more
reliable and require less maintenance. Our staff members drew on their renowned resources
in this field to specify, witness and approve the tests.
Figure 5: Horizontal directional drilling was used to

install cables in critically
busy areas of Abu Dhabi.
Cable Technology. Crosslinked polyethylene (XLPE) insulated cable technology has been
around for many years. At the 400 kV level and above, however, development of XLPE cable
systems with joints was relatively new and not proven at the start of the project. We provided
the client with a number of options in addition to XLPE, including fluid-filled cable technology
and gas-insulated line. After much debate the client decided to use the relatively unproven
400kV XLPE cable as the industry trend is moving to this technology.
It was quite a challenge for PB to develop a very stringent specification and test
regime to minimise the risk to the client in adopting this technology. Particular
attention was paid to specifying the quality of the material used and a rigorous
set of tests to ensure the highest standards of production and quality control.
Acknowledgements
We had a team of approximately
30 members, including engineers
and support staff. Senior staff
included the following:
Project Manager, Walter Bullock
Principal Resident Engineer,
Overhead Lines: Cedomir Guzina
Principal Resident Engineer,
Cables: Robert Nobes
Design Coordinator:
Kaliyaperumal Jeyaraman
Walter Bullock is an electrical
engineer whose, specializations
include EHV switch gear, power
protection systems and project
management. His projects
include the first 400 kV transmission systems in Saudi Arabia
(central), Dubai and Jordan.
Routing and Installation. Another challenge we faced was in determining a

route and installation method for the 400 kV circuits between E19 and ADST,
which had to be routed through the already service congested streets of Abu
Dhabi. We used trenchless technology to overcome planning objections and
get through some difficult route patterns without disturbing critically busy
areas. This called for long duct installations in continuous lengths of up to
500 m (1,600 feet), a solution that required extensive use of horizontal directional drilling
for installing the cables (Figure 5).
Conclusions
The main phase of the works has been completed successfully and on time to meet the clients
requirements. The second phase of the works is in the advanced stage and is on target to be
completed in June 2007. When completed, the objective to establish a secure power supply
to Abu Dhabi Island and cater for projected growth for the near future will be achieved, and
the probability of a full black out of the Abu Dhabi grid will be virtually nil.
This project has been a most interesting and demanding one in part because of the clients
interest in using the latest technology as much as is reasonable. With the existing two
200 kV circuits and two 400 kV overhead line circuits, the power transmission capacity
was 4100 MVA. With the four new 400 kV overhead line circuits, the power transmission
capacity is increased to 9500 MVA. We are pleased that the client uses this project as a
reference, and it can be chalked up as another successful project for our power team.
PB Network #65
80
Middle East: The Place To Be Risk Management
Avoiding Construction Risk Through Proactive

Project Management By Tim Judge, Dubai, +44(0) 1483-528910, judgeT@pbworld.com; and
Roy Pemberton, Abu Dhabi, +44(0) 1925-296546, pembertonR@pbworld.com
This article was intended

initially for project
managers working or
contemplating working
in the Middle East, but
the approach the
authors describe for
managing construction
risks on mega projects
would be good practice
for any project manager
working in the private
sector developer/
construction business,
certainly in Europe and
Asia. Their approach is
much more proactive
than the traditional
approach, which might
be considered to be
mitigative, and it relies
far more heavily on
information management, decision making,
and the developer/
client playing an active
role in project execution.
It is gaining considerable attention in the
Middle East.
On large-scale developments In the Middle East, when serving as programme or project

management consultant and agent for private-sector developers whose own money is on the
line, we have had to respond to hugely magnified risks and uncertainties as a result of high
expectations for project delivery and return on investment. Readers who have not visited
this region might ask, Whats so different about project execution and risk management or,
for that matter, construction and project management in the Middle East compared to what
we do elsewhere? The full answer could take up several issues of PB Network, but, in
shor t, when the developer is the client and time is money, it is a different world in which
to do projects.
A few key factors that help to illustrate the differences are:
We are managing the building of cities within cities on a regular basis on behalf of private
developers or government-associated entities acting as developers.
These projects are often within close proximity to each other and to existing conurbations.
Projects often have overlapping issuesif not of actual physical boundaries and the use
and connections of available utilities and services, then at least of their combined impacts.
The required pace to completion is faster than has ever been demanded and achieved
successfully on such a scale, even in places such as Hong Kong and Singapore.
The developer base is generally small and well-established, having been formed from a
mix of local private sector and quasi-private sector government-based entities. Some
arrangements that have been followed in the pastparticularly with regard to the
relationships and understandings of how roles and responsibilities should be allocated among
developer, agent/project manager, designer/ consultant and construction contractor
were based on long-established local practices that may not be useful with such large
and challenging mega projects
Proactive Project Management Approach

Much of our approach may appear at first consideration to follow good practice that is
already the norm in more mature construction markets. The Middle East market is much
newer, however, and its fast pace of growth unprecedented. What has been proven to be
good practice in other markets may be resisted because it is new and considered to be
unproven in this market.
As one reads this article, it could also be a useful exercise to re-examine approaches in
the more mature circumstances to determine if good sense is applied as thoroughly as we
would hope.
Effective Relationships. The main thrust of our proposition is that the successful completion
of the project (i.e., delivering the time-cost-quality triangle) depends centrally on effective
relationships. This tenet is drawn from our experience and portfolio of lessons learned from
having worked in the Middle East for several years on a variety of projects. As an example, at
times we had to perform our services in a situation involving adversarial relationships, albeit
not of our choosing. In one case, we found the organizations we managed to be adversarial 4
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PB Network #65
because of the demanding requirements placed on them. In another, we were expected to

take on an adversarial posture by those employing us. We can say that, without exception,
these adversarial arrangements have not served to bring about successful projects. Here, as
in other spheres of human activity, consensus management is the most likely path to achieving
ultimate success.
Clear Objectives. There is no question, desired results are best achieved when objectives
are understood and shared. The project or programme manager, in particular, has to first
obtain the clarity of understanding and purpose of his or her management organization and
then to be strong and clear when defining the project objectives. The manager must also
remain open to suggestions for achieving these objectives. It is best if all members in the
relationship, the project team, share in developing problem solutions.
Our Responsibilities. It must never be forgotten that the client (developer) owns the
ultimate vision and that it is the project managers job to deliver that vision, using the
leadership and proactive project management skills needed to mitigate shortcomings and
prevent failure. It must also be remembered that each project is unique and will require
its own unique approaches to achieve success.
When objectives are agreed to and responsibilities for all involved parties are defined and
agreed upon, the foundations for successful relationships and a successful project are set.
From this point on, a typical action plan might run as described below.
Typical Action Plan

Freeze the Master Plan. As early as possible, the concept master plan must be approved
by the developer and frozen with an expected and agreed-to return on investment (RoI)
included. While it is the developer who defines RoI, the PM should advise and help to
develop cost and revenue budgets, and accept responsibility for managing them in order
to achieve a robust project.
We must also make sure that the clients vision is agreed and adequately defined, and that
the master plan includes sufficient data to enable detail design to progress. While those
coming to the Middle East from more mature environments might assume this would be
the case, it is not always so here because of the extremely fast pace with which projects
are pushed forward.
These steps are essential. Without firm and agreed-to foundations, the project simply cannot
be built. The company and the project would be exposed to change, and a future review
could require major changes to the project to meet financial requirementssomething that
might require mitigation by our client.
Apply Strong Commercial and Change Management. The procurement strategy should
be defined at the earliest possible stage. This is more essential than ever in this region
because the supply/demand equation for contractors is already highly stretched, and is
becoming increasingly so.
To have a chance of success on this front, it is necessary to establish long-term commitments

at as early a stage as possible. Despite the very high level of low-to-medium-cost expatriate
workforce, the scale of operations involved in these new projects requires the largest
international resources, and, to ensure their continued commitment, it is important to ensure
payment is always made within contract terms, not a well-recognised frame of mind in the
region. It is equally important that disputes and claims are resolved as quickly and fairly as
possible, based on strong control mechanisms.
PB Network #65
82
Clarify Role and Scope. Central to the success of our approach is the need to provide a
clear role and scope definition to all parties. As fundamental as this appears, unclear role or
scope is one of the most common problems in the region. Multiple partiesoften too many
consultantscan have overlapping responsibilities. This situation causes strain and uncertainty,
which are synonymous with risk and can easily result in increased costs.
Contracts need to contain as much certainty as possible and responsibilities must be

packaged appropriately. When changes are required, they must be defined and instructions
communicated as early and as clearly as possible. Further, it is possible for the project
manager to put in place effective change management control. Reluctance to empower
the project manager to fully manage within clear guidelines has to be dispensed with.
Establish Utility Requirements. One of the key stumbling blocks in these major projects
that have to provide their own infrastructure is the tendency for utility requirements to be
defined inadequately. If the project is to succeed, the PM must be highly active in establishing
and obtaining agreement at the start as to what the utility requirements will be and who will
be the utility providers, and then holding tight to these throughout the project. Achieving this
goal requires that secondary developers buy into the provision of services at the same time
as defining the requirements for their land plots.
The danger is that with developers constantly looking for RoI they might be tempted to
increase the capacity of their plot. This may be done by adding more floors to a building or
squeezing more villas into an area. Typically, PMs dont become involved in this aspect of
the project. On the face of it, they are quite correct to not do sothis is the developers
responsibility. It is extremely expensive to change infrastructure once it is in the ground,
however, so it is essential that the developer and the PM are in close communication if
problems with inadequate utility loadings are to be avoided later.
The key steps are to ensure that the land use brief has been defined extremely tightly,
with the requirements defined and agreed to as early in the process as possible. The utility
providers need to be locked into this as early on as possible as well. In our experience,
however, even after such measures have been taken and the worst-possible-case utility
loadings have been developed, and the firmest controls have been agreed to in writing and
signed up to, it is best to double the figures. Regardless of how extreme the result may
seem, it is our experience that this will ultimately prove to be only just sufficient.
Take an Active Role. The PM must be professional and co-existent. There have been far
too many false starts on the regions projects, and many slow, uncertain starts, often on very
high profile projects. Conflicting messages to the contractors result, and they add to cost.
The PM must not just report on progress, as has been the case traditionally in the region,
but must drive the project.
Doing so requires the closest working relationship possible between the client and the PM, and
a clear definition of the clients key success parameters. The traditional triangle of time, quality
and cost are as relevant as ever, but it is essential to understand how they translate into
profitability for our client. One local developer recently surprised many folk by saying that if his
supply chain could ensure that his projects were delivered on time, he could bear the quality and
cost variance. This is quite a change from the traditional view that cost must be kept to target,
and understanding such key needs are essential to providing the best PM service as possible.
It is then essential that the PM brings in the right resources and builds a team that matches
the project needs and will work efficiently. To do so, the PM must know how the project will
be built, not just how it will be costed, measured and tagged.
4
83
PB Network #65
The level of authority for the PM must be defined very early on and then the PM must be
allowed to deliver. The important, underlying point here is that successful delivery with
require the PM to actively seek out and resolve problems.
Implement Strong Risk Management. One of the keys to a successful project is having a
strong risk management system in place. This requires identifying the truly critical issues, not
just developing a cost model for risk. In doing so, it is important to note that the clients risks
may be different from project risks and to establish the key requirements for both categories.
It is equally important to ensure that all project risks are identified, not just cost risks and to
recognize that most decisions are time critical not cost critical.
To relate this, for instance, to a UK context, remember the biggest risk issue for the
construction of the second runway at Manchester Airport? It certainly was not the cost,
although it did, of course have a cost impact. As long as the eco-warriors occupied the
space, that project completion was never going to be achieved.
Impor tantly, it is the client risks that have to be the basis for prioritisation of the project
risks. Having covered all of this ground, risk then has to transcend the typical project
add-on that it so often is, and instead become an integral par t of the project delivery.
Integrate Document and Data Control Systems. Finally, as part of, our avowed
determination to be progress pushers and problem solvers rather than paper-pushers,
we thoroughly insist on the need for integrated document and data control systems.
This is because projects typically produce far too much paperwork internally, taking up
resources and time, and duplication of effort creating high levels of cost and delay.
A fundamental level of documentation is critical to success, however. Our approach is to

use an IT application, but preferably one with no frills, just a practical and cost-effective
solution. There are some very sophisticated and expensive packages on the market, but
we have adapted some of PBs own systems to the particular needs of our clients and
projects here, and the result has been very well received, low cost, and highly effective.
They provide visibility to all, subject to security; strict control of the information flow and
document storage; and clear and unambiguous action reminders that act as a safety net.
Lessons Learned
Related Web Sites:
www.iqpc.com
We have learned many lessons in our existing appointments in the region, and from careful
examination of other ongoing developments. While it is not possible to include them in this
article, PMs working or planning to work in the Middle East are invited to contact us for
additional information at the e-mail addresses provided in the by-line.
Ed note: This article is based on a paper presented by its authors to the International Quality and Productivity Center (IQPC) conference on Construction Risk
in Dubai in July 2006.
Tim Judge, a civil engineer, serves as a major and international projects director. He joined PB in 1996.
Roy Pemberton started in Abu Dhabi as general manager for infrastructure development in the emirate, but as business progressed he has become project
development manager, concentrating on the formative stage of the mega-projects arising there. He focuses on those early and critical stages where he develops
a relationship with our client, gets to understand the project and its needs, and develops for and with our client a robust basis for execution of the project and
implementation of a PB project management team. He has also successfully led the pursuit for a number of other similar projects in Abu Dhabi and Oman.
PB Network #65
84

By Hiba Barghash, Kuwait, 965 531 1923 4/6, hiba@pbkuwait.com
Many people in the west believe that women in the Middle East are not privileged with any
rights to work and are confined to their homes. That is not quite true. Certain societies
and/or families do not want their females to be exposed to the difficulties and pressures that
might be found in any work field. The intent is not to demean them, but to protect them and
spare them from the double work of being a working wife and mom. In turn, the womens
major concern and responsibility is to take care of her children and raise them to become
decent and successful men and women of the future.
Hiba Barghash
At the same time, many women enjoy being independent, as do I and several of my female coworkers. My parents always encouraged me in that regard. As I was completing undergraduate
studies at Kuwait University, they encouraged me to apply for jobs to both enhance what I had
learned and to build up my personality. They gave me advice on being proactive and relating
with my colleagues and superiors, and they convinced me to proceed with my studies and join
the Masters program, which I am about to complete with a degree in transportation.
I am also married and blessed with a two-year-old boy. Sometimes I struggle to get to work
promptly as a result of the many tasks that need to be done at home, including preparing my
son for daycare, and I worry that I do not spend enough quality time with my son. While it is
really challenging to be a working wife and mother, as many women around the world know, my
parents and my husband have been and continue to be very supportive. As a matter of fact, many
men in the Middle East prefer their wives to be educated and to have professions so that they
can be capable of instilling in their children the idea that life is about hard work and self-reliance.
In addition, in many families another source of income is needed to pay the bills and meet a
certain standard of living.
Many women in Kuwait are seeking jobs in the service sector as doctors, lawyers, administrators
and engineers. For a woman to rise to a higher position, she must have the support of her
family members, especially her husband if married.
Hiba Barghash has been with

PB since 2003. Upon graduation,
she joined the firm as a member
of the project team for the First
Ring Road project.1 She has
more than two years experience
in traffic modeling that was
acquired by working with
SATURN for Kuwaits Road
Network Development Project,
a low-cost housing proposal, and
several traffic impact studies.
Hiba performs capacity
assessment of intersections,
interchanges, roundabouts and
links using Synchro and the
Highway Capacity Software,
and is working on developing
her technical skills in order
to take on responsibility for
larger jobs.
1
Kuwaits Road Network

Development Project is the
topic of a preceding article,
Major Road Improvement
Schemes for Kuwait, by
Basheer Mohammed.
85
PB Network #65
The female worker should be careful not to be too friendly with her male colleagues because this
can be considered flirtatious. For example, in the Gulf countries, a woman stretching her arm out
to shake hands with a man may be misunderstood. I do not see it as being wrong to shake hands
with male colleagues, clients or visitors to the office because it is strictly a business environment.
Mutual respect is evident here in PB and, as I have been told by my friends, in other companies
around Kuwait. At PB, men and women work side by side productively, and senior colleagues
do not hesitate to provide work opportunities for females. I get assigned to tasks and am given
the chance to develop skills in various aspects of my job. Actually senior staff/managers like to
hire females because of our strong commitment to our jobs.
Civil engineering is male-dominated in the Middle East, as in the rest of the world. Female
engineers are not encouraged to work on construction sites because of the harshness of the
work environment. Equally important, they may have to deal with laborers and even some
narrow-minded male engineers who normally see women as soft and not qualified for the job,
and do not take them seriously. Still, some women are adventurous and like to try the site
work, or other jobs that do not require sitting in an office, just for the experience. Personally,
I find it more convenient to work in an office. I prefer having the opportunity to work on
several projects, and have gained experience in how to approach a variety of different tasks.
While working in PB is a plus, I find some difficulties in certain occasions. For example, not a
lot of opportunities to travel away for training are offered to working wives. This may be because
the management understands that a wife is obliged to her family and home, and it might be
inconvenient for her to leave them and to travel alone. I am eager for such an opportunity,
(page 95)4
however, and have my husbands consent to travel alone if necessary.
Networking
Project Management: Tracking Costs of Poor

Quality By Dave Loduca, St. Louis, Missouri, 1-314-421-1476, loduca@pbworld.com
The authors position is
that if companies
determine the costs
associated with maintaining a certain level of
quality of their products,
then they can identify
ways to cut these costs
while maintaining or
improving quality. Such
changes could make
significant improvements
to a firms bottom line.
Acronyms/
Abbreviations
COQ: Cost of Quality
ISO
9004-1:1994
Reads
It is important that the
effectiveness of a quality
system be measured in
financial terms. The impact
of an effective quality system
upon the organizations
profit and loss statement
can be highly significant,
par ticularly by improvement of operations, resulting
in reduced losses due to
error and by making
contributions to customer
satisfaction.
And by reporting system
quality activities and effectiveness in financial terms,
management will receive
the results in a common
business language from all
departments.
1
Lean manufacturing is a disciplined approach to minimizing

waste in work system design.
In a perfect world, all employees consistently perform work correctly, there is never a flaw in
design or drafting, and subcontract work is always perfect and delivered on time. We do not
live in a perfect world, however. People make errors, software malfunctions, and processes
break downall affecting the quality of a firms products. Identifying and systematically
reducing even a small percentage of the cost of maintaining quality can have a tremendous
impact on profitability; but without knowing what these costs are, opportunities for savings
may never present themselves.
What Are the Costs of Quality?

In most modern quality philosophies, the basic measure of quality is also the oldest and most
respected. . .cold, hard cash. The cost of quality (COQ) is defined as:
All costs beyond pure value-added, or the necessary cost of delivering value to clients
on-time and without error. It is the cost of doing things wrong, and it includes
preventing, finding, and correcting defective work.
As a percent of a total project budget, these costs can be quite high, so segregating quality
costs has practical benefits.
Imagine COQ as an investment portfolio of sorts where costs fall into one of four categories:
External error. Costs associated with correcting errors that are seen by clients.
External errors inconvenience clients, and raise their cost of doing business. They tarnish
the providing companys image and cripple business development.
Internal error. Costs associated with correcting errors before a product is delivered
to the client, regardless if the client is outside the firm or inside. Internal errors are a
substantial part of total quality costs and a drain on profitability.
Appraisal. Costs associated with activities that uncover errors and intercept them before
a product is delivered. Ordinary appraisal costs include activities such as plan-checking and
design reviews. It is important to note that appraisal activities do not eliminate error, but
merely shift it away from the external into the internal error category.
Prevention. Costs associated with empowering employees to avoid errors before they
occur. Prevention costs ordinarily take the form of planning, education, and training,
with the goal of eliminating internal and external error, and reducing dependence upon
appraisal activities.
ISO 9000, the quality system adopted by PB, recommends that the success of the quality
system be measured financially. To accomplish this, the standard offers three financial models:
Quality Cost Approach. Collect and report costs of activities that correct errors, find
errors, and prevent errors. (This is the approach I follow.)
Process-Cost Approach. This method is similar to the Quality Cost Approach, except
only error-correcting costs are segregated. It is a different philosophy that is used as somewhat of a scorecard for lean manufacturing activities.1
Quality-Loss Approach. This approach attempts to capture the intangible as well as
the tangible costs due to nonconformance. These hidden failure costs are thought to be
substantial when compared to common failure costs, such as scrap and rework. Auto
manufacturers use this method to estimate warranty costs from their quality statistics.
PB Network #65
86
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Should the Cost of Quality be Tracked?

The study of quality costs is an exceptionally useful tool for revolutionizing the way employees
and management think about the prevention and detection of errors. Surveillance of quality
costs is specifically intended to:
Get management attention. By using the common language of dollars, management can
move beyond the concept of quality as an abstraction and into the realm of reality where it
can effectively compete with cost and schedule.
Change the way employees think about errors. An employee who misses a coordination
opportunity will more likely examine future performance if the error is understood as a
rework effort with a measurable cost. Knowledge of error costs empowers employees to
effectively focus their own efforts.
Provide better return on problem solving efforts. When ranking improvement projects
by quality costs, they can be prioritized to help maximize return on scarce investment dollars.
Measure corrective actions. The true impact of corrective actions and changes made to
improve key business and technical processes can be measured. By focusing on the total cost
of quality, isolated improvement activities that do not improve overall quality can be avoided.
Analyze true external costs. Insight is gained into client and stakeholder quality costs,
including the errors that most drive cost.
Establish benchmarks. Tracking quality costs enables a firm to establish credible benchmarks.
Can Quality Costing Work for Engineering?

Estimates of a firms quality costs vary quite a bit depending on the data source and the
industry under study. Publications on the subject suggest that when firms first undertake a
study of quality costs, their initial data exposes costs that are much higher than first expected.
In his book, Quality is Free, quality expert Philip Crosby asserts that manufacturing operations
with no initial awareness of their quality costs usually find a total COQ at 25 percent to 30 percent
of sales. Any correlation of engineering with manufacturing quality costs would be dubious at
best, however. Engineering is an intellectual, rather than a physical product, so its development
is subject to special human and logical constraints. The engineering project delivery system is
closely related to software development, however, in that it:
Is a high value-added effort
Has relatively insignificant material costs
Requires professional labor
Includes a mix of technical processes.
In his book, Principles of Quality Costs, Jack Campanella of the American Society for Qualitys
Quality Cost Committee asserts that software developers with poor or no initial awareness of
their quality find a COQ of 45 percent to 65 percent of sales. He goes on to report, however, that with mature quality systems and excellent visibility into quality costs, COQ can be
less than 20 percent. While COQ can never be eliminated, it can be minimized through systematic improvements using opportunities targeted by quality cost
data and effective management of the quality cost portfolio.
Figure 1: The Knox

Improvement Model.
Percentage of Revenue
70
prevention
appraisal
internal error
external error
total COQ
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Maturity Level
87
PB Network #65
In his article, Modeling the Cost of Software Quality in the Digital Technical Journal (1993), S. T. Knox extrapolated a model for
software quality costs (Figure 1) through the Software Engineering
Institutes capability maturity model (CMM). There are many similar models, most are similar in that they identify levels of quality
maturity.
The CMM categorizes five levels of process maturity each resulting
4
in a lower COQ as a function of revenues.
Networking
Level 1, Initial: Technical processes are undefined and depend on the individual effort of a
few high performing individuals. External error is high, and internal error is nearly as high.
Investment in prevention and appraisal costs is minimal. Total COQ is 60 percent.
Level 2, Repeatable: Discipline, basic project and configuration management enable
repeatability. Investment in appraisal costs increases, resulting in a large portion of external
error being intercepted and shifted to internal error. The cost of an internal error is less than
the same error in the hands of a client, so internal error costs go up but by much less than
the corresponding reduction in external error costs. Total COQ drops slightly to 57 percent.
Level 3, Defined: Technical processes are documented, standardized and integrated into
the organization. Appraisal activities hold steady while investment in prevention activities
increase. Higher investment in smart preventative activities continues to reduce external
error costs without a corresponding increase in the costs of internal error. Total COQ
begins to slide . . . now at 52 percent.
Level 4, Managed: Technical process and product quality are managed using detailed
measures. Additional investment in prevention activities further reduces costs of external
errors. Despite the near flat spending on appraisal activities, reduction is also evident in
the costs of internal error. Total COQ begins to sink dramatically to around 38 percent.
Level 5, Optimizing: Continuous technical process improvement is enabled by quantitative
process feedback. Even more investment in prevention activities continues to reduce the
costs of external and internal error, reduces fear of error, and permits substantial reductions
in appraisal activities. The net reduction in COQ, now below 25 percent, is dramatic.
Illustration of Potential COQ Savings
Table 1: Income Statement

($1,000).
Total Revenue
Contract Costs
Subcontract Costs
General and Administrative
Operating Income
Table 1 shows a sample profit and loss statement. Contract Costs comprises professional and
administrative/ support personnel costs charged to projects. It has an implied component of
value-added and nonvalue-added costs. If we assume that 60 percent is nonvalue-added,
then the value-added portion is 40 percent, or $204.3 million. So ideally, total annual revenue of $1.4 billion should cost only $204.3 million in contract costs.
1,447,756
510,651
345,428
545,773
45,904
At the lowest
maturity level,
contract costs
include $306.4
non-value-added
and $204.3 million
value-added.
Table 2: Projected Savings; Comparative Income Statements ($1,000).
Quality Maturity Level

Projected Cost of Quality
(% of total contract costs)
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
60%
52%
22%
Total Revenue
1,447,756
1,447,756 1,447,756
Less Contract Costs:

Value-Added Kept Constant
Quality Costs
204,260
306,391
205,260
270,764
204,260
221,282
Subcontract Costs
General and Administrative
345,428
545,773
345,428
545,773
345,428
545,773
45,904
81,531
131,013
Improvement in Operating Income

baseline
From Quality Maturity Level 1
78%
185%
Operating Income
Contract costs are separated into value-added, which are kept constant,
and quality costs, which fall as quality maturity improves.
Table 2 compares three income statements using only

the first three maturity levels from the predictive model.
At each level, revenue and the value-added percentage
of contract costs is kept constant at $1.4 billion and
$204.3 million, respectively. Only the percentage that
represents COQ (or nonvalue-added) is adjusted.
At maturity Level 2, we assume that COQ drops to
57 percent (or $291 million) for a total contract cost
of $475 million. Already, this indicates a 7 percent
reduction in costs, and a matching increase in
operating income of 78 percent.
After advancing to maturity Level 3, we assume a 52
percent COQ (or $221 million) for a total contract
cost of $426 million. The Table shows contract costs
down by 17 percent from the baseline level and
operating income increases an impressive 185 percent.
In his book, Jack Campanella chronicles the improvement
of Raytheon Electronic Systems. Raytheon used quality
costing as a backbone to its quality improvement system.
Similar to the dramatic improvement shown in Table 2,
Raytheon advanced to maturity Level 4 from maturity
PB Network #65
88
Networking
Level 1. Their corresponding COQ was over 60 percent in 1988; in 1995, COQ at Raytheon
was less than 30 percent, and it is still falling.
Implementing A Quality Cost System
Related Publications
and Web Sites:
The following publications
have been used in the
preparation of this article:
Campanella, Jack.
Principles of Quality
Costs: Principles,
Implementation, and Use.
3rd ed. Milwaukee: ASQ
Quality Press, 1999.
Crosby, Philip B. Quality
is Free. New York: New
American Library, 1980.
Harrington, H J. Poor
Quality Costs.Vol. 11.
New York: ASQC Quality
Press, 1987.
Kaner, Cem. Quality Cost
Analysis: Benefits and
Risks. www.kaner.com. Jan.
1996. Florida Institute of
Technology. 31 Mar. 2006
<http://www.kaner.com/
qualcost.htm>.
ST Knox , Modeling the
Cost of Software Quality,
Digital Tech. J., vol. 5, no. 4,
1993,pp. 9 16.
I suggest that firms would benefit from a method of tracking the cost of quality. I believe
it would be possible to implement such system, cost center-by-cost center and project-byproject. An overview of the necessary steps proposed is as follows:
Educate all project personnel. Train staff on concepts and philosophy behind COQ.
This first step requires substantial upper and middle management training and commitment
to use COQ data to improve the system, not as a motivational tool. (The first time a
COQ report is referenced in a performance review, objective support for the program will
evaporate.) COQ data should not be viewed as an indicator of poor, or even exceptional
performance, but as an invaluable tool for improvement.
Develop a cost collection system. Devise chargeable tasks that correspond to major
elements within each of the four major quality cost categories. In this way, a firms internal
project cost tracking systems assists project managers by collecting and reporting costs.
In the interim, focus cost collection efforts on use of supplemental manual timesheets for
project personnel. Manual timesheets provide the most flexibility until a history of quality
costs categories can be established.
Develop a reporting format. Report each quality cost element as both a raw cost and as
a percent of project budget. Then, roll-up costs up to the four COQ categories. Develop a
report format that further subdivides these costs into disciplines and perhaps project phases.
Aggregate the data for the entire cost center for the purpose of benchmarking and cost
center improvement.
Develop a plan to improve. Prioritize the individual COQ elements from largest to the
smallest and focus on the costs that have the most dramatic affect on the project budget.
If cost due to coordination failures (an internal, or possibly an external error cost)
represents the largest single cost element, use it as a basis for justifying an allocation for
coordination review (appraisal costs) and coordination planning (prevention cost) for
the next project. Remember the words from quality giant W. Edward Demings system of
profound knowledge:
For each failure, there is a root cause
Causes are preventable
Prevention is always cheaper.
Fine tune the process. Keep records of quality costs. Consolidate COQ elements
where possible and diversify them where necessary. Develop benchmarks to measure
improvements. Provide ongoing training for personnel on the philosophy and concepts
of costs of quality continuously and forever.
Conclusion
The goal of any quality cost system is to facilitate quality improvements that will lead to
oppor tunities for increased operating efficiency, higher quality, and cost reduction. By
segregating the costs of quality from the base costs incurred by delivering final products
on-time and without error, corporations can uncover oppor tunities that will lead to
tremendous improvement in their bottom lines.
Dave Loduca is a supervising electrical engineer and a certified project manager. He has worked on airport facilities, light rail and highway projects, as well
as educational, commercial, and industrial facilities. Dave serves on the Board of Examiners for the Excellence in Missouri Foundation, a public corporation
that promotes excellent companies in the State of Missouri and is fashioned after the Malcolm Baldridge National Quality Award. Dave has an M.S. degree in
engineering management with a specialty in quality management and is currently pursuing a doctoral degree.
Ed. note: For another article by Dave, please see Business Development: Disruptive Technology, Issue No. 63, May 2006, pp. 68-70. This article is also
available on line at http://www.pbworld.com/news_events/publications/network/issue_63/63_25_loduca_business_development.
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PB Network #65
Networking
Demand Management for Sydney CBD and

Inner West Area
By Hanzheng Duo, Sydney, 61-2-9272 5168, hduo@pb.com.au; and Damir Jaksic, Sydney, 61-2-9272 5336, djaksic@pb.com.au
PB was tasked with

determining how energy
demands could be better
managed to possibly
eliminate the need for
increased supply. The
tool our team in Sydney
developed met the
rigorous requirements
of this project, and it
could be used for similar
projects in other fields,
such as water, traffic, or
environmental assessment.
Acronyms/
Abbreviations
CBD: Central
Business
District
DIPNR: Department of
Infrastructure,
Planning and
Natural
Resources
(now the
Department of
Planning)
DMPP: Demand
Management
and Planning
Project
NMI: National Meter
Identification
NSW: New South
Wales
Customer demand for electricity had been increasing continuously in the Sydney central business
district and the Inner suburb region, so Energy Australia and Transgrid proposed to augment
the electricity supply networks. Their proposal was approved in March 2002 with Conditions
of Consent imposed by then the Department of Infrastructure, Planning and Natural Resources
(DIPNR). The Conditions of Consent defined the projects key deliverables and included
several key areas for investigation and reporting, such as standby generators, power factor
correction, interruptible loads, energy efficiency, energy management, cogeneration and
distributed generation opportunities.
DIPNR in partnership with EnergyAustralia and TransGrid established the Demand Management
and Planning Project (DMPP) to enable the Conditions of Consent to be met. Their primary
objective is to provide robust, practical and accurate information on the electricity demand
reduction opportunities that might defer or replace the need for further augmentation and
expansion of the electricity supply infrastructure. The project has a $10 M budget over a
5-year period.
PB won the DMPP for the Sydney CBD project in 2005 and then for the Inner West project
in 2006. These assignments cover a total number of 328 sites, or commercial electricity
customers. Our challenges were to:
Get the site managers involved in the project voluntarily
Collect information that was as accurate as possible within a limited budget
Complete numerous inspections of each site within a tight time frame
Analyze the information and data collected in order to recommend peak demand
reduction measures.
Site audits were conducted in accordance with energy audit standard AS/NZS 3598:2000.
The Energy Management Database

Because of the big number of sites, a key issue of the project was to process the information
and complete the site reports within a tight time frame. To do this, we designed the Energy
Management Database, which provides a platform to:
Input, store and process the multi-site information effectively
Produce the deliverables: site reports and datasets.
We also standardized a pre-audit input and post-audit analysing procedure that helped to
produce the required site reports and datasets efficiently and keep the data consistent.
This menu driven system, an example of a relational database, enabled us to achieve significant
efficiency in data processing, analysis and report production. It is user friendly and flexible,
with strong emphasis on a robust quality assurance process to monitor the quality of data and
reports. It can also accommodate changes of the project schedule and reporting requirements,
and it provides project progress information that can be used for project management.
Basic Information. The basic information provided for each site by the Department of
Planning was summarised and uploaded to the database. This information included site
address, contact details, national meter identification (NMI), electricity consumption summary,
power factor, and tenant information.
Team members used this information to make initial contacts with the customers. This
information was updated whenever applicable.
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Pre-audit Work. The key data processing activities undertaken before the audit were:
Analyse the base building and tenant load profiles with time of use data available
Analyse energy consumption and peak demand data of all tenancies included at a particular site
Review the findings from the power factor study undertaken by another firm in 2004
Update the calculations using recent tariffs in order to estimate the power factor correction
(PFC) potential and discuss it with the site manager during the audit.
Pre-audit work gave team members background information about each site to be investigated
and helped them to have a basic understanding of the site activities and load features.
This understanding enabled them to have effective communications with site managers
about current practices and demand management opportunities at each site.
Post-Audit Work. The data processing activities completed after the audit were:
Update the site details, including address, NMIs, and contact person
Analyse energy consumption and end-use peak demand attribution (e.g., lighting, HVAC,
plant equipment).
Recommend peak demand reduction options in each area and provide cost and payback
estimations
Complete the site report and the dataset.
The data analysis is carried out partly on a spreadsheet that is then linked and uploaded
to the database for further processing and analysis. The site report and the dataset can
be generated by the click of a button. Because they are generated from the same data
source, data consistency is ensured.
Upon the completion of all site investigations, collective information can be processed using
the existing data. This formed the basis of the aggregated analysis and the final report.
Internet Link. The Energy Management Database was linked through the Internet to allow
on-site data entry through laptops. Users can synchronise with the central data repository
through the network to make sure they have the latest information available.
Related Web Sites:
http://www.planning.
nsw.gov.au/dmpp/
Hanzheng Duo is an energy

management specialist with
the Sydney office. His areas of
expertise are energy efficiency,
renewable energy, power system
and greenhouse gas management.
He acted as a senior specialist
in the DMPP project.
Damir Jaksic is an application
consultant in the Sydney office.
He is skilled in the preparation
of project-based applications
including front end and back end
databases for specific projects.
Damir has expertise in the
design, development, and
operational implementation of
management information systems
in a variety of industries.
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PB Network #65
A Valuable Tool with Many Uses

The Energy Management Database was developed initially for CBD project and then
improved upon for the Inner West project. An important lesson was that the design and the
construction of the entire system must be carefully reviewed and quality-assured. In addition,
the designed functions must be tested thoroughly prior to the application being put to use.
We completed the CBD project in March 2006 and the Inner West project in October 2006.
Our team identified energy-saving and demand-reduction potentials. The demand-reduction
potentials will be evaluated and trial cases developed by the Department of Planning to validate the findings and make final recommendations.
Since completion of the projects, we have been awarded other similar projects. We are currently working on the Demand Management Program in Wetherill Park with Integral Energy,
Energy Savings Action Plan for a number of high-power users, and Energy/Greenhouse Gas
management for GPT (a major developer).
The Energy Management Database has been proved efficient. In addition to site reports and
datasets, the information can be sorted and processed to provide collective information for
the entire project. Analysis of the collective information can be performed easily with the
existing data in the database.
The Energy Management Database that emerged is a powerful tool that can be used to deal
with other large-scale multi-site investigation projects. It can be easily modified to apply to similar
projects in other fields, such as water, traffic, and/or environmental assessment/investigation.
Research & Innovation

Explore the Possibilities...
Larger and larger wind

turbines are being
developed for off-shore
wind farms. The loads
from these huge turbines
combined with the
loads associated with
off-shore facilities are
creating new design and
construction challenges
related to the foundation
systems. The author
reports on his research
of European foundation
systems and tells how
these can be adapted
for off-shore conditions
in the U.S.A.
Figure 1: Components of
a wind turbine system.
Design and Construction

Considerations for Offshore Wind
Turbine Foundations
By Sanjeev Malhotra, New York, New York; 1-212-465-5231; malhotra@pbworld.com
The growing energy needs of the world and the sustainable nature of wind energy makes this
sector a highly promising growth industry. The next generation of wind turbines that are on
the drawing boards are gigantic in size, making them more cost-efficient, but also putting large
demands on their support structures and foundations. As an increasing number of wind farms
are being planned offshore in water depths of over 40 m (130 feet), the combination of water
depth and increased windmill tower heights, turbine weights, and rotor blade diameters create
loads that make foundation design very complex.
This article summarizes various relevant foundation and geotechnical issues for offshore wind
turbine tower foundations. Offshore foundations are exposed to additional loads that do not
affect land-based towers. These include ocean currents, storm waves, ice and potential ship impacts.
Currently, a lack of precedence in the U.S. leaves no established technical guidelines for the
selection, design and construction of such structures. In addition, the established European
practices may not be applicable to the environmental conditions in the U.S., which include
deeper waters and greater wind, wave, and ice loading.
Wind Turbine Tower System Configuration

The components of a wind turbine system (Figure 1) include the:
Foundation system, which is comprised of support structures that connect the foundation
to the transition piece, and the foundation itself
Transition piece, which connects the foundation system to
the tower
Tower, which is made of steel plate rolled into conical
subsections that are cut and rolled into the right shape, and
then welded together.
Nacelle, which contains the key electro-mechanical components
of the wind turbine, including the gearbox and generator
Rotor blades, which are made using a matrix of fiberglass mats
impregnated with polyester or epoxy
Typical Support Structures

Support structures for offshore wind towers can be categorized
by their configuration and method of installation as described
below. These foundations and associated water depths are shown
in Figure 2. The typical sizes for offshore foundations and their
construction sequence are presented in Table 1.
Gravity Structures. These foundations resist the overturning
loads solely by means of their own gravity. They are typically
used at sites where installation of piles in the underlying seabed
is difficult, such as on a hard rock ledge or on competent soil
sites in relatively shallow waters. Gravity caissons are typically
concrete shell structures. These structures are competitive when
Figure 2: Foundation types and typical water depths.
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the environmental loads are relatively low and the dead load is significant, or when additional
ballast can be provided at a reasonable cost.
Monopile. This is a simple design in which the wind tower, made of steel pipe, is supported
by the monopile either directly or through a transition piece. The monopile consists of a steel
pipe pile up to 6 m (20 feet) in diameter with wall thicknesses as much as 150 mm (6 inches).
Depending on the subsurface conditions, the pile is typically driven into the seabed by either
large impact or vibratory hammers, or the piles are grouted into sockets drilled into rock.
Compared to the gravity base foundation, the monopile has minimal and localized environmental
impact. By far, the monopile is the most commonly used foundation for offshore wind turbines.
Guyed Monopile Towers. The limitation of excessive deflection of a monopile in deeper
waters is overcome by tying the monopile with tensioned guy wires.
Tripods. Where guyed towers are not feasible, tripods can be used to limit the deflections
of the wind towers. The pre-fabricated frame is triangular in plan view and consists of steel
pipe members connecting each corner. A jacket leg installed at each corner is diagonally
and horizontally braced to a transition piece in the center.
The tripod braced frame and the piles are constructed onshore and transported by barge
to the site. These foundations do not require any seabed preparation.
Braced Lattice Frame. A modification of the tripod frame, the lattice frame has more
structural members. The jacket consists of a 3-leg or 4-leg structure made of steel pipe
that is interconnected with bracing to provide the required stiffness.
Table 1: Basic Sizing and

Construction Sequencing
for Offshore Wind Turbine
Foundations.
Typical
Water
Depths
(m)
Type of
Foundation
Size
(m)
Gravity Base
12 - 15 500 1000
0 15
(a) Prepare seabed

(b) Placement
(c) Infill ballast
Monopile
3-6
175 350
0 30
(a) Place pile

(b) Drive pile
Monopile with
Guy Wires
3-6
175 350
20 40 (a) Place pile

(b) Drive pile
15 20
125 150
20 40 (a) Place frame

(b) Insert pile
(c) Drive pile
Tripod
Weight
(ton)
Suction Buckets. This design consists of a center column connected to a steel bucket through
flange-reinforced shear panels that distribute the loads from the center of the column to
the edge of the bucket. The steel bucket consists of a steel skirt extending down from a
horizontal base resting on the soil surface. The bucket is installed by means of suction and
behaves as a gravity foundation, relying on the weight of the soil encased by the steel bucket.
Construction
Sequence
Braced-Frame 10 15 200 400

with Multiple
Piles
20 50 (a) Place frame

(b) Insert pile
(c) Drive pile
Suction
Bucket
10 20 150 400
0 30
Tension Leg
Platform
10 20 100 400
>50
(a) Place base

(b) Suction
installation
(a) Drive anchor
pile or suction
bucket
(b) Float tension
leg platform
(c) Install anchor
cables
The stability of the system is ensured because there is not

enough time for the bucket to be pulled out of the soil during a
wave passage. As the bucket is pulled up, a cavity is formed
between the soil surface and the bottom of the bucket which creates a suction pressure that resists the uplift loads.
Floating Tension Leg Platforms. These structures are floated
to the site and submerged by means of tensioned vertical anchor
legs. The base structure helps dampen the motion of the system.
Installation is simple because the structure can be floated to
the site and connected to anchor piles. The structure can be
subsequently lowered by use of ballast tanks and/or tension
systems. The entire structure can be disconnected from the
anchor piles and floated back to shore for major maintenance
or repair of the wind turbine.
Typical Foundations
Foundations anchor the support structures to the seabed, and
typically fall into the six types described below.
Gravity Caissons. This type of foundation has been used for
several offshore wind farms in Europe. For economical fabrication
of gravity caissons one requires a shipyard or a drydock near the
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PB Network #65
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site (Figure 3) so the massive foundation structures can be floated out to the site
and sunk.
Site preparation and placement required for gravity caissons typically involves dredging
several meters of generally loose, soft seabed sediment and replacing it with compacted,
crushed stone in a level bed. Special screeds and accurate surveying is required for
this task.
Figure 3: Gravity base

foundation being constructed
for Nysted Offshore Wind Farm
at Rodsand, Denmark.
(Courtesy of Bob Bittner, Ben C.
Gerwick, Inc.)
Driven Pipe Pile. The driven steel pipe pile option is an efficient foundation solution in
deep waters. The typical method of offshore and near-shore installation of piled structures
is to float the structure (monopile, tripod or braced frame) into position and then to drive
the piles into the seabed using hydraulic hammers. The handling of the piles requires the
use of a crane of sufficient capacity, preferably a floating crane vessel (Figure 4).
Use of open-ended driven pipe piles allows the sea bottom sediment to be encased inside
the pipe, thus minimizing disturbance. The noise generated during pile driving in the
marine environment might cause a short-term adverse impact to aquatic life, however, but
because the number of piles is typically small, these adverse impacts are only short-term
and relatively minor.
Recent innovations in the pile driving industry, such as the bubble cur tain, offer a way
to mitigate noise impacts. A bubble cur tain involves pumping air into a network of
perforated pipes surrounding the pile. As the air escapes, it forms an almost continuous
cur tain of bubbles around the pile, preventing the sound waves from being transmitted
into the surroundings.
Figure 4: Monopile 50 m (165

feet) long with a 4 m (13-feet)
diameter being installed at the
North Hoyle Wind Farm, UK.
(Courtesy of RWE npower)
Figure 5: Reverse circulation

drill
Post-Grouted Closed-end Pile in Predrilled Hole. A closed-ended steel pipe pile is

placed into a predrilled hole and then grouted in place. This option is used often for offshore pile foundations less than 5 m in diameter and offers significant advantages over
the cast-in-place drilled shaft option, including advance fabrication of the pile, better quality
control, and much shorter construction time on the water. This option requires a specially
fabricated large diameter reverse circulation drill (Figure 5). It also requires handling and
placement of a long, large-diameter pile, of considerable weight. Closed-end piles can be
floated to the site and lowered into the drill hole by slowly filling them with water.
Drilled Shafts or Bored, Cast-in-Place Concrete Pile. The installation of bored, cast-in-place
concrete pile (Figure 6) requires driving a relatively thin-walled (25 mm) casing through
the soft sediment to the underlying denser material (if necessary to establish a seal), then
drilling through and below the casing to the required base elevation. Bending resistance
is provided by a heavy reinforcing cage utilizing high strength, large diameter bars, with
double ring, where necessary. The casing provides excavation support, guides the drilling
tool, contains the fluid concrete, and serves as sacrificial corrosion protection. This
approach requires a large, specially fabricated reverse circulation drill.
Composite Drive-Drill-Drive Pile. This procedure requires an adaptation of existing
drilling and piling techniques and involves a combination of drive-drill-drive sequence to
achieve the design depth.
Suction Caissons. Like piles, suction caissons (Figure 7) are cylindrical in shape but
have larger diameters (10 m to 20 m) and subsequently shallower penetration depths.
These caissons are closed at the top. They are installed by sinking into the seabed and
then pumping the water out of the pile using a submersible pump (Figure 8). Pumping
the water creates a pressure difference across the sealed top, resulting in a downward
Figure 6: Construction of drilled shaft. From left to right, install casing and auger drill, place
reinforcement cage, and pour concrete by tremie.
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hydrostatic force on the pile top. The hydrostatic pressure thus developed
pushes the pile to the design depth. Once the design depth is achieved, the
pumps are disconnected and retrieved.
Suction caissons are expected to be particularly suitable for foundations in the
type of soft cohesive sediments found around the U.S. coasts. These foundations
cannot be used in rock, in gravel or in dense sand.
Figure 7: Suction caissons for an offshore

platform being transported to site in the
Gulf of Mexico. (Courtesy of E. C. Clukey).
Mooring
Cable
Suction caissons are less expensive to install because they do not require
underwater pile drivers. At the end of a wind turbines life, a suction caisson
can be removed completely from the seabed, unlike piled foundations. This
provides room for recycling.
General construction characteristics of the various foundation types are
presented in Table 2.
Differential
Pressure
Conclusions
Caisson
Completed
Installation
Self-Weight
Installation
Phase
The increasing windmill tower and turbine sizes and installations in deeper waters
have clearly demonstrated a need for more innovative and cost-effective foundations.
There is room for improvement in all areas; in design, through the innovative use
of composite materials, support structures and foundations; and in construction
processes, through improvements in drilling techniques, fabrication, and transportation.
Suction Installation Phase
Figure 8: Installation of suction caisson.

Construction
Phase
Gravity Base
Onshore
Fabrication
Transport
Offshore
Pre-placement
Activities
Tripod/Braced Tension Log

Monopile
Frame
Platform
On land and
No
On land and
No constraint
close to site
constraint close to site to
to be economical
be economical
Float to site or Float to site
On barge
Float to site
on barge
or on barge
or on barge
Seabed
preparation
required
None
None
None
Placement
Lift or float over Lift and sink Lift and sink
Lift and sink
Fixing Tower to
Bolt to
Grout to Grout to tripod Tie to tension
Substructure
substructure
piling
central member
cable
Installation of
Requires
No hindrance
Tower and
specialized cranes to lifting
Turbine
and large barges
Requires
specialized
cranes
No hindrance
to lifting
Table 2: Construction Characteristics of Offshore Wind

Turbine Foundations
The need for high-capacity foundations that can be installed in

deep water with limited accessibility and with little disturbance to
the existing environment can also be fulfilled by new technologies
and process improvements. Environmental impact can be mitigated
by the use of geotextiles for scour protection, and the use of a
bubble curtain for noise mitigation.
I have drawn upon the experience of European offshore wind farm
developments and the current practices of the U.S. offshore oil
platform industry to amalgamate a set of guidelines for selection
and design of support structures and foundations for offshore wind
turbine towers. Additional information on support structures and
foundations, as well as construction, maintenance, and site selection
concerns, is available in the on-line version of this article.1
Acknowledgements: The author wishes to thank Dr. George Munfakh for constantly promoting innovation; Mr. Phil Rice, Mr. Frank Pepe, Jr., and Mr. Vahan
Tanal for encouraging this work; and Mr. Raymond Castelli for his review and valuable suggestions. The author is grateful to Dr. E.C. Clukey, Mr. Bob Bittner,
Elsam, and RWE npower for the various construction photographs, and to Mr. Pedro Silva for creating the illustrations of the various wind turbine foundations.
Sanjeev Malhotra, a supervising geotechnical/seismic engineer who has been involved with foundation design of a few offshore wind farms. A project manager and
professional associate, he joined PB in 1999.
1
http://www.pbworld.com/news_events/publications/network/issue_65/65_index.asp
Because Kuwait, along with other Middle Eastern countries like Egypt, Jordan, and Syria, are of semi-conservative culture,
many work fields are dominated by men. However, if men work side by side with women respectfully and women maintain
self confidence to the maximum level, many problems can be avoided. Looking at the future, the Kuwaiti government has
recently granted its local women the right to vote and run for office. In addition, there are now two female ministers
for the Ministry of Health and the Ministry of Education. You can say that women here are practicing their right to vote
and are rising to the top in many positions.
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PB Network #65
Turning on a Pivot
By Jud Wible, Princeton, New Jersey; 1-609-734-7052; wible@pbworld.com
The author explains

how to select data
from a spreadsheet
and use it in a way that
is meaningful to you.
As an example, he uses
a spreadsheet of data
from Oracle or the
PBIS system.
The concept behind pivot tables is quite ingenious. We take this glob of information that we
have in a spreadsheet, stretch it, play with it, tweak it and then come out with exactly what
we need in a ridiculously short amount of time.
The formal Excel definition states: A PivotTable report is an interactive table that you can
use to quickly summarize large amounts of data. You can rotate its rows and columns to see
different summaries of the source data, filter the data by displaying different pages, or display
the details for areas of interest. Yes, but what does that mean?
Ill put it in PB terms with an example. Say youre a regional manager, and you want to see the
total dollar revenue each manager of projects (MOP) has in each office. You download the
data from Oracle or the PBIS system, and you have this huge spreadsheet with many columns
and rows. This is when the pivot table makes it really easy to organize and summarize, just make
sure the spreadsheet has column headings.
Heres all you do:
1. Click on any cell of data in the spreadsheet (Pivot Table will copy your data into a
separate table, so dont worry about accidentally deleting it.)
2. Click on Data on the menu bar.
Figure 1: Pivot table

screen.
3. Select Pivot Table and Pivot Chart Report... to bring up the PivotTable and
PivotChart wizard. The default settings are generally what youll need. The wizard will
automatically select all of the data in your spreadsheet. If it doesnt you can select it
by highlighting the area when prompted. If you click on Next, Next, and Finish,
you should skip right through to the actual pivot table screen.
4. A separate screen comes up with a pop-up box titled Pivot Table
Field List with your column headings (sometimes this appears on the
right-hand side of the screen), and a new spreadsheet showing four
blue-bordered areas (Figure 1). The titles are:
Drop Page Fields Here
Drop Column Fields Here
Drop Row Fields Here
Drop Data Items Here.
This is the screen where you get to play. Who says Windows is just for work?
5. Take MOP field from the pop-up box and drag and drop it into the
Drop Page Fields Here, to follow our example above. Doing so creates a drop-down
list that allows you to summarize data by any MOP that you select.
6. Take the Office field from the drop-down list and drop it into the Drop Row Fields
Here. Once again, a summary drop-down list will appear.
7. Take the Total Dollar Revenue field and drop that in the Drop Data Items Here.
You now have a summary of each project managers revenue by office.
8. If you want to compare the total revenue versus cost, drop the Total Dollar Cost
field into the Drop Data Items Here field and youll see a two-line comparison.
Jud Wible has been with PB

for about 3 years and works on
bridge projects as a structural
engineer in the Princeton office.
9. If you want to compare by client, drop the client name in the Drop Column Fields
Here box.
10. If you dont want that Total Dollar Cost field, just drag and drop that field back to the
pop-up field box.
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Computer Tutor
Powerpoint Tools for Aligning Objects

By Jim Hinshaw, Austin, Texas; 1-512-347-3504; hinshaw@pbworld.com
Jim explains how easy

it is for you to make
your PowerPoint files
look more professional
by aligning the objects
and making sure the
spacing is adequate
and consistent.
We computer graphic specialists often receive PowerPoint files of organization charts or

similar graphics for proposals or other documents. Usually a file is accompanied with a
request that we clean it up so that it is more aesthetically pleasing. The most common
problems are the lack of alignment and poor spacing of objects. In this article, Ill describe
the tools available in PowerPoint that will help you to align and space objects to make your
graphics look more professional.
Grids and Guides. A key to better looking graphics is consistency. Objects in an organization
chart, for instance, should be consistently sized, proportioned, aligned, and spaced. Making
this happen is easiest when you set objects to snap to PowerPoints grid the Grid and
Guides dialogue box Figure 1).
The command to open this dialog box is accessed through the View menu or
by the keyboard shortcut Ctrl-g. Users can turn the snap settings on and off
by clicking on the various options.
Figure 1: Grid and Guides dialog box.
Figure 2: Show-Hide grid button.
You can make the grid be visible onscreen (or hide it) by clicking the Show/Hide
grid menu button on the top of your screen (Figure 2). The grid is represented
by dotted lines placed at one inch intervals. From the Grid and Guide dialog
box you can modify the spacing of these dots by selecting a default setting
from the pull-down list in the Spacing box. You can also type in your own
setting preference. In the example above, I set the spacing to 0.125, or one
eighth of an inch.
There are often times when you need to move an object without it snapping
to the grid. To do this, you can temporarily disable the snap feature by holding
down the control key and using the arrow keys to nudge objects in the direction
you want.
Aligning Objects. PowerPoint has a default setting of one vertical and one
horizontal drawing guide. These guides can be moved around the screen by
clicking and dragging them. You can also duplicate or clone a guide by using
the Ctrl key while clicking and dragging the guide. I will often select an object
to see its mid-point. You can tell the mid-point by the little squares called
handles that show up when an object is selected. I then drag the guide over
the selected objects mid-point. Now, I can line up other objects, such as lines,
so they are centered in relation to the original object (Figure 3).
4
Figure 3: Lining up mid points of objects.
Turning on a Pivot
(continued from previous page)
There are other nifty things you can do with pivot tables:
Take individual dates and have them summarized by quarter
Make a pivot chart out of the information (a graphical representation of that data)
Export data summaries into another table.
There are many other uses for pivot tables, and I always feel that playing with a program helps me learn about it.
A tutorial on the Microsoft Web site allows you to learn about pivot tables. It has three 15-minute sessions that are
quite worth the time. The link is: http://office.microsoft.com/en-us/training/CR1004 79681033.aspx. Best of luck!
97
PB Network #65
Computer Tutor
PowerPoint provides a set of alignment tools that you will find under the
Draw menu (Figure 4). The Draw menu is usually found in the lower left
corner of the PowerPoint window. PowerPoints alignment tools are on a
pallet that you can tear off from the main menu. You can have the alignment pallet float over your screen so you can reposition it at will. You can
also drop it into the border area of the PowerPoint window, so it behaves
just like other formatting buttons.
This tool is so helpful that I leave it open all the time. In fact, I have menu
buttons of various sorts on three sides of my PowerPoint window so I can
have quick access to PowerPoints tools.
Figure 4: Draw-alignment
commands.
Figure 5: Objects and
connecting lines and the
Freeform line menu.
The button icons on the pallet are intuitive for experienced computer
users. Not only can you align and center objects, you can use the buttons to distribute them
equidistant from each other. The Relative to Slide option allows users to instantly snap an
object to the center, side, top or bottom of the slide.
A trick to keeping objects consistent is to clone them, something that can
be done easily by Control-click-dragging an object. An exact copy of the
object will be created as you drag it away from the original. You can press
Shift on your keyboard to constrain the movement of the cloned object
either horizontally or vertically.
Lines on an Organization Chart. Going back to the organization chart
example, Id like to offer one last tip. Getting the lines that connect boxes
to show the chain of responsibility to join up at corners is an excruciating
task. Many users draw several separate lines to make connections across and
down to the next level, but its a lot easier if you have Snap to Grid turned
on. Or, you can bypass this mess by using the Freeform Polygon line tool.
The Freeform tool is located in the AutoShapes menu , which is usually

located next to the draw menu. As with any line tool, you can constrain
the line you draw to horizontal, vertical or diagonal lines (at 15 degree
increments) by holding down the Shift key as you draw (Figure 5).
The nice thing about the Polygon tool is that you can draw exact corners.
Click once to start your line, click again to establish a corner point, and
double click to finish your line. You can also use line connectors that will
automatically establish beginning and end points at an objects control handles.
You dont have to get the lines to meet exactly with the edge of your object.
You can let the connecting lines overlap your objects and then send them to
the back using PowerPoints Order commands (Figure 6). I use these buttons
all the time when working on organizational and flow charts in PowerPoint!
Figure 6: Order commands.
While PowerPoint doesnt have the drawing tools of professional level illustration software, it
does offer many tools to help the average Microsoft Office user create some pretty nice
graphics. Using Grid and Guides, Align, Order, and AutoShapes can help you maintain consistent
order, alignment, and spacing of objects in your drawings, resulting in a more professional look
for your graphics.
Jim Hinshaw is a senior graphic designer. He earned a Bachelors degree in fine arts in graphic design from the University of Iowa. Jim worked for PB in the Tempe,
Arizona office from 1984 to 1990, and then rejoined PB in 1997 after working for ICF Kaiser for several years.
PB Network #65
98
Envisioning Consequences
By Ozgem Ornektekin, Ipek Baga, Dubai, 971 (4) 335 0555, bagaI@pbworld.com; and
Vahan Tanal, New York, New York, 1-212-465-5208, tanal@pbworld.com
The authors describe how

the Istanbuls Marmaray
Project, one of the worlds
largest transportation
projects under construction, was designed with
principles of sustainability in mind.
This is the first article

in a new column that
focuses on sustainability.
This column is being
coordinated by
Sarah Kemp in the
Newcastle, Australia
office. If you have a
suggestion for an article
related to sustainability,
please contact Sarah at
KempS@pbworld.com.
Many thanks to the
Sustainable Development
PAN for offering
suggestions for a name
for this column, and an
extra thank you to
Achim Hoehne, formerly
in PBs Melbourne,
Australia office,
for suggesting the
column name.
We often hear the word sustainability, but what is the official meaning? In 1987, the U.N.
World Commission on Environment and Development defined sustainable development as
development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of
future generations to meet their own needs. Nowadays, sustainability has become more
relevant than ever in light of global warming.
Being passionate about the environment and being from Istanbul, we decided to look at how
PB is addressing sustainability within the context of the Marmaray Project. While this mega
project covers 76 km (47 miles) of alignment and includes 37 new stations, our focus is on
a portion in Istanbul referred to as the Bosphorus Crossingthree huge new underground
stations and the immersed tunnel under the Bosphorus Straits. Those of us who have
suffered through traffic jams crossing the Bosphorus have a special appreciation for this
new underground mass transit connection!
This project is multidimensional in terms of sustainability, incorporating responsible treatment
of the economic, social, and natural environment. It also respects artifacts being unearthed
from past civilizations that have contributed to Istanbuls rich history.
Protecting Istanbuls Rich History

With station construction underway, historically-significant structures and artifacts are being
brought into daylight on both sides of the Bosphorus. The construction at skdar Square,
for example, revealed ports and historical monuments dated from the 11th to 13th centuries
(Figure 1). Dr. Ismail Karmut, the Director of Istanbul Archeology Museums, stated in a recent
article in Atlas Magazine, that the Marmaray Project is a great opportunity. Without this
project, places like skdar Square probably would not have been discovered.
Many of these new discoveries thrilled archeologists around the world, but they also resulted
in project delays and, in some cases, the project route had to be altered. Despite the
inconveniences, the project continues to respect the works of past civilizations to preserve
the history for future generations while becoming a historical landmark itself.
Addressing Social, Economic and Environmental Concerns

From more of a classic sustainability perspective, how did this project address social, economic,
and environmental challenges? A long list of sustainable engineering and management
strategies that illustrate these points were incorporated into the project. Among them:
The Marmaray Project shaped environmental laws in Turkey on confined
disposal facilities (CDF), which did not exist before.
The contaminated sediment dredged close to the Golden Horn on the
European side of the Bosphorus is being transported to a CDF, which will be
permanently capped and reclaimed upon completion of disposal operations.
This project will eliminate 115,000 tons of greenhouse gases (especially CO2)
and 29,000 tons of other polluting gases (NOx, NHMC, CO, etc.) per
year for 25 years according to the Turkish Ministry of Transport and
Communications,
With more than 1 million passengers expected to travel through this
tunnel each day, the project will reduce roadway congestion significantly
Figure 1: skdar Square Ancient Port.
99
PB Network #65
(continued on bottom of following page)4
The Two-Mile Dash

By Tracey Nixon, Dublin, Ohio; 1-614-791-5181, nixon@pbworld.com
Some document fixes can be made easily by using the Search and Replace function of your
word processing program, but other problems seem to need an editors eye. One of these is
the use of dashes in describing lengths of time or distance.
For example, why is it correct to write, a long-term solution always works best in the long
term? Or The sixty-meter-long highway segment had a width of four meters?
Tracey explains when to
dash.
Often the editors corrections to these seem inconsistent, and the editor is assumed to be wacky.
To which your editor might reply Consistency is the hobgoblin of little minds (a paraphrase
of an Emerson quote). Of course, this further convinces you of your editors wackiness.
Really, though, there is a simple explanation. Sometimes a length is a noun I ran two miles.
A dash in this case would be wrong. But sometimes the length is a modifier (adverb or
adjective) I ran a two-mile race. And here the dash is correct.
Tracey Nixon is a column

coordinator for PB Network,
and works as a transportation
planner in PBs Dublin, Ohio
office.
These dashes can make a sentence easier to read. A two-foot candle is different from two
foot-candles (a foot-candle can be either a measure of luminescence or a very strangelyshaped wax product) . . . and reducing confusion is always best in my book.
Envisioning Consequences
(continued from previous page)
Related Web Sites:

overallespecially on the two bridges spanning the Bosphorus
Turkish Ministry of Transport and Communications
and reduce Istanbuls noise and particulate matter pollution
on Marmaray www.marmaray. com.tr
music to the ears of Istanbullus!
The project will link existing and planned light rail and metro routes on both sides of the Bosphorus to connect
residents to major commercial, industrial, cultural, entertainment, and historical hub, enhancing prosperity through
social and economic connectivity.
The sustainable construction methods being exercised and the fact that the tunnel is fully immersed ensure that
there will be no permanent impacts to the diverse aquatic habitat of the Bosphorus, its currents, or its salinity.
Future generations of fish can swim along the Bosphorusas long as they watch out for the ships!
No visual impacts will detract from the breathtaking views of Istanbuls historic skylinepriceless!
We should not forget about the short-term implications that could have long-term consequences. As just three examples
out of many:
Dredging and disposal activities were sensitive to migrating fish and were curtailed during key periods of the migration
cycle because the Bosphorus is the only route available for fish to migrate between the Black Sea and the Mediterranean
Sea, (environmental responsibility).
The construction schedule was carefully developed to minimize impacts on commercial and public transportation
because the project is located in a heavily utilized route for commercial and public water transportation (social and
economic responsibility).
According to the Turkish Ministry of Transport and communications, the project contract has been drafted to require
the general contractor to minimize noise and vibration impacts, utility service interruptions, dust and mud accumulation,
and roadway traffic in the various neighborhoods during construction (environmental and social responsibility).
The sustainability of the Marmaray Projects development and construction serves as a showcase for Turkey.
Ipek Baga is a civil engineer with M.S. degrees in Coastal Engineering and Construction Management. She has been with PB for five years and currently serves
as the Marine Specialist for the Coconut Island Project in Abu Dhabi, UAE.
Vahan Tanal is PBs head of the Ports and Harbours department. He is a senior vice president, senior project manager and a principal professional associate.
Vahan has more than 35 years engineering experience.
PB Network #65
100
An Expatriate in the United Arab

Emirates
By Ipek Baga, Dubai, 971 (4) 335 0555, bagaI@pbworld.com
Ipek Baga describes

her experience moving
from Istanbul to Dubai
to work on the Palm
Jumeirah Project, the
self-declared Eighth
Wonder of the World.
My experience as an expatriate started two years ago when I

realised that I didnt want to work in the head office in Istanbul
any longer. I thought to myself, I am young and it is time to
invest in my future, so I should work in a place where I can
experience a different environment. I expressed these feelings
to my mentor, Mr. Vahan Tanal, with the words I miss my
calculator and I want to be by the dust. Finding myself in
the desert, however, was not something I had in mind!
Ipek Baga
I was lucky, and as a young coastal engineer I was asked to move to Dubai to work on one
of the most prestigious coastal projects in recent years. This project is the Palm Jumeirah,
the self-declared Eighth Wonder of the World.
I broke the news at home and it was met with some excitement and many concerns. To
most people, the notion of a young female engineer going to work on a construction site
in the Middle East is a bit scary. But I am glad I chose to come and work in Dubai, one of
the fastest growing cities in the world.
Figure 1: Palm project
photo
The Palm Jumeirah Project

From a technical standpoint, even before I started working
I was sure the experience would be a unique challenge.
This project includes 78 km (48 miles) of coastline including
12 km (7 miles) of breakwater, 62 km (39 miles) of beach,
4 km (2.5 miles) of diaphragm walls and 5 marinas.
I was part of a team that managed about 100 different companies
(including contractors, consultants, subconsultants, third party
checkers, subcontractors, supervising consultant, etc.). These
project team members had different priorities, different agendas,
and from time to time conflicting interests. This resulted in a work
environment that was sometimes harmonic, but more often hectic.
Although I am sure that all mega projects around the world have the common challenge of
managing a large number of work teams, what made the Palm Jumeirah experience unique
was that all these companies and their employees were from different countries, each with
their own culture and religion.
Before coming to Dubai my knowledge of construction management was all from text books
that covered scheduling, budgeting, quality management, etc. After working for two years on
the Palm Jumeirah project, I now appreciate the importance of human factors and interpersonal
dynamics on the project. I came to understand the importance of the relationships you build
within the team. I also came to realise that at times it doesnt matter how knowledgeable
you are because it is not what you say that matters, it is what people understand from it.
Therefore, especially during conflict resolutions, the way you say things can be more important
than what you say.
4
101
PB Network #65
Globetrotters
Uniquely UAE
Several aspects of working in the United Arab Emirates are quite unique. For example,
the weekends are Friday and Saturday. Believe it or not, the hardest thing for me to get
used to was calling Sunday the first working day of the week.
In the UAE, you also need to get used to the IBM system of management, meaning Inshallah
(In Gods Will), Bukrah (Tomorrow), and Masleeh (Never Mind, Dont Worry). The real
meanings, however, are yes, maybe, and no.
Another challenge was the weather. In a city where 11 months of the year the temperature
is over 30 degrees centigrade (86 degrees Fahrenheit), how do you know when it is summer?
Well the answer is when you start getting cold water from the hot water tap and hot water
from the cold water tap.
Lastly, Dubai is probably the only place in the world where you arent surprised when your
friends tell you that they are planning to go snow skiing when the temperature is +40 degrees
centigrade (104 degrees Fahrenheit).
The Opportunity of a Lifetime

Ipek Baga is a civil engineer
with M.S. degrees in Coastal
Engineering and Construction
Management. Ipek has been
with PB for five years, and
currently serves as the Marine
Specialist for the Coconut Island
Project in Abu Dhabi, UAE.
This issue was produced on

a Power Macintosh G4
using QuarkXPress 6.5,
Illustrator CS3, and
Photoshop CS3 publishing
software. It was output
on a Linotronic L330.
Copies were printed via
offset lithography.
June 2007
Macintosh File:
Graphics Database T356;
12,000 copies printed by
Howard Press,
Roselle, NJ 07203
File: PB Network 65
Printed on recycled paper.
The Palm Jumeirah experience was far more than a technical challenge: it was the experience
of a lifetime. Especially to young engineers, I would highly recommend working abroad. It is
a unique experience that adds many new colours, tastes, and dimensions both to your career
and life. You have the opportunity to encounter different cultures, and along the way pick up
a bit of each such that none of it feels foreign after a while.
PB Network 2007
Parsons Brinckerhoff Inc., One Penn Plaza, New York, NY 10119, 1-212-465-5000. All rights reserved. Articles may be reprinted
only with permission from the Executive Editor. This journal is intended to foster the free flow of ideas and information among
PB staff. The opinions expressed by the writers are their own and are not necessarily those of Parsons Brinckerhoff.
Past issues of PB Network starting from 1995 are available electronically on PB's web site http://www.pbworld.com, under
the button Research Library > PB Publications > PB Network," or go directly to http://www.pbworld.com/news_events/
publications/network/. All recent issues are available in pdf with recent issues available in reader-friendly html format.
Past issues are also available to PB employees via the PB Intranet, http://www.pbworldnet.com. Go to PB News > PB Publications >
PB Network > View All Issues Here.
PB employees can request additional printed copies to use for conferences, seminars and proposals by contacting Janet Rose
in New York (1-212-465-5107, roseJ@pbworld.com).
Executive Editor: John Chow, Office of Professional Practice, New York, New York, chow@pbworld.com
Managing Editor: Eduardo Serafin, Houston, Texas
Editor: Lorraine Anderson, Office of Professional Practice, New York, New York
Associate Editors: Brian Brenner; Gordon Clark, Seattle, Washington; Willa Garnick, Office of Professional Practice,
New York, New York
Assistant Editors: Kathy Leotta, Seattle, Washington
Graphic Designer: Laurie Ludwin, Graphic Services Group, New York, New York
Production Manager: Michael Babin, New York, New York
Web Team: Deena Hamdani, New York, New York; Sara Stein, New York, New York
Column Coordinators: Gordon Clark, Seattle, Washington, The Net View; Jules Loweff, New York, New York, Space Track;
David Trainer, Sydney, Australia, Computer Tutor; Tracy Abbott, New York, New York, R&I; Kathy Leotta, Seattle, Washington,
Globetrotters
Guest Technical Editors for this Issue: Daniel Horgan, Istanbul; Bill Kennedy, New York; Anas Kassem, Kuwait;
Amer Khan, Dubai; Roy Pemberton, Abu Dhabi.
Advisors: Judy Cooper, New York, New York; Paul Gilbert, Seattle, Washington; St. John Herbert, Brisbane, Australia;
Alan Knott, Manchester, U.K.; Catherine Singleton, Brisbane, Australia; Bill Tang, Singapore
PB Network #65
102
Issue 66. 20th Anniversary issue

Well take a look back and forward, as we have done in past anniversary issues. Were collecting your
essays on visions of the next 10 and 20 years, please contribute!
Contact: Lorraine Anderson (andersonL@pbworld.com) and John Chow (chow@pbworld.com).
Issue 67. Public Communication and Community Consultation

Other Future
Topics
Please contact John
Chow or any editor to
discuss new topics. Other
proposed themes are:
Security; CADD;
geotechnical instrumentation; the new Cincinnati
Reds Ballpark; program
management; scheduling;
bridge management,
bridge inspection and
rehabilitation, and
automated inspection
services. What are
Public communication covers a broad range of expertise, including public information/outreach, public
involvement, community consultation, media relations, technology, 3D and 4D modeling to improve public understanding, graphics and animation, managing public comments, customized websites,
feature writing, special event planning and public affairs.
Contact: Dana Newsome (Baton Rouge, newsome@pbworld.com).
Issue 68. Powering the Future

The ability to deliver reliable power and energy is vital for the 21st century, and PB is ready to meet the
challenge. This issue will highlight our projects in power systems analysis, planning, and restructuring;
high voltage transmission and distribution; renewable energy systems, and other power capabilities. To
be co-sponsored by the power-related PANs (#53, 54, 57) and business units.
Deadline: November 2007. Contact guest editor Kath Jackson (Manchester UK,
jacksonK@pbworld.com), Arthur Ekwue (Godalming UK, ekwueA@pbworld.com), or John Douglas
(Newcastle UK, douglasJAK@pbworld.com).
your ideas?
Call
for
Articles
We invite all PB employees to participate in technology transfer and submit articles to PB Network on any
technical subject, especially our featured topics. (See In Future Issues.) We look forward to hearing from you.
Our Goal
The goal of PB Network is to promote

technology transfer by featuring articles that:
Tell readers about innovative developments.
Appeal to a broad range of readers.
Include only essential information in a readable format.
Encourage readers to contact authors for more information.
Guidelines for Articles

Articles should conform to PB Network format (defined below).
Keep your article as short as you caninclude only relevant
details and descriptions.
Papers written for other publications will not be accepted unless
they are modified to conform to PB Network format.
PB Network Format
Length: Articles should be 1,400 words or less.
Byline: Include the name, location, phone number and e-mail
address of each author.
Introduction/Overview: Provide a brief paragraph stating your
topic and how it is significant
Body of text:
Clearly describe the challenge PB faced and how you or the
PB team solved it.
Provide exact name of client and state PBs role and responsibilities.
Tell what innovative technologies or approaches PB developed
or used.
Provide all units of measures in metrics followed by U.S.
Customary in parentheses. For assistance in converting
measures, see http://www.onlineconversion.com/
103
PB Network #65
Conclusion:
What lessons did you learn?
What was the impact of PBs solution on your project?
What does your new technology or technique mean to PB and
the state-of-the-art of the industry?
What is the current status of your project, technique, or technology?
Biographical Information: Tell us about your work experience,
noteworthy professional achievements and contributions to
particular projects in 2-3 sentences at the end of your article.
Related Web Sites: Provide any Web addresses that readers
can go to for related information.
File Formats
Provide electronic files
Text: must be an MS Word file without graphics embedded.
Graphics:
Format must be either bitmap, tiff, eps, jpeg or psd
Resolution must be at least 300 dpi
Printed size must measure at least 165 mm (7 inches) wide
Screen captures are only 72 dpi and not acceptable.
Screening: If any artwork contains a screen (percentage of color)
or some intricate grid, please also submit a copy of the art
without these and we will add them.
To Submit Your Article

E-mail article and graphics files to the contact person named on the In
Future Issues page, which appears in every issue of PB Network, or to:
John Chow, New York, chow@pbworld.com, 1-212-465-5249. All
graphics files and a clear hard copy at least 165 mm (7 inches) wide
must also go to Laurie Ludwin, PB Graphics Services, One Penn Plaza,
New York, NY 10019, 1-212-465-5725, ludwin@pbworld.com. g
Networking
Igloo Stew
By Gordon Clark, Seattle, Washington 1-206-382-5246, clark@pbworld.com
y son Gabe is a Boy Scout. Each winter his troop has a campout in the Olympic
Mountainsabout 60 miles northwest of Seattle, Washington.They hike to a secluded
snow basin high up on Hurricane Ridge, build snow igloos and sleep in them over
night. Its a rite of passage for the younger scouts, who actually survive the ordeal.
Strapping on snow shoes and back-packing 20 kilos of gear in deep snow through
rugged country is a real thrill for the boys.
Its a near death experience for some of the fathers. We
dont look forward to tossing and turning all night in feather
sleeping bags on the hard packed snow floor of an ice hut,
though thats not something we talk about in front of the
boys. Besides, they all sleep like babies. It is always hard to
schedule the campout because, no matter what date is picked,
most of the fathers seem to be going out of town or making
preparations to go out of town or recovering from having
gone out of town, etc. Nevertheless, there are always a few
fathers crazy enough to go along. Having been on this trek
twice before with Gabes older brothers, I agreed to go again
this year. I wasnt looking forward to it. I didnt want to go.
I even started planning a tripbut I knew the boys needed my
help and would be glad if I went. They think the adults are
showing them how to build snow houses when we are really
teaching them survival skills, self confidence, and teamwork.
Cutting a hundred large snow blocks and stacking them is
hard work and takes the better part of a day. Its not terribly
technical, but it has to be done in a certain way or the igloo
wont close at the top and you have no shelter for the night.
As a structural engineer of no small reputation among the
fathers, I am always consulted if they question the dimensional integrity or construction sequence of their igloo.
Basic igloo design calls for a circular base two meters in
diameter at the surfaceany bigger and its hard to close before
it collapses. Blocks are cut from packed snow with long metal
saws and assembled in smaller and smaller rings toward the
center. The top is either capped with several large flat snow
blocks or finished off more elegantly as a true dome. Once
the igloo is complete, a meter-wide and -deep entrance trench
about two meters long is cut. The trench is capped with a
snow arch to create a tunnel that blocks the wind. The floor
of the igloo is lowered one meter to match the level of
the entrance and angled
outward to a final
diameter at the base
of almost three
meters (see sketch).
These dimensions
generally yield a
stable structure.
I have always wanted to try something bigger, and this year

Gabe convinced me that we shouldnt let the basic laws of
Newtonian Physics hamper our creativity. The boys and I drew
a circle in the snow to mark our base at three meters in
diameter. I began cutting blocks and the boys lifted them
into place and packed loose snow around them as mortar.
With the base 50 percent bigger than normal, we needed a
lot more blocks and our upward progress was slower than
anyone elses. This didnt go unnoticed and we heard a few
snickers. I didnt say anything to Gabe, but realized we might
be in trouble when the walls were two meters high and the
opening was still a meter and a half in diameter. The walls
were sloping inward severely and, though we had carefully
closed each horizontal ring, until we closed the last ring, a
good gust of wind could bring it all down. There would be
no igloo stew if we didnt get the roof closed, and it would
be a long, embarrassing hike in the dark through black bear
and cougar country back to where the cars were parked.
I kept telling myself that surely all the predators would be
hibernating and we had nothing to worry about.
In a last ditch effort, I recruited several additional scouts
(who were now done building their igloos) to help us cut
and stack blocks. The boys worked together and while none
of them realized it at the time, they were learning community
service at an early age. As the walls got closer I had the
two tallest scouts hold large snow blocks over their heads
and rest them on each side of the opening while I placed a
block between them to form an arch that bridged between
the sloping sides of the top ring. Then I held my breath and
slowly released the block to see if it would stand.
The snow gods were with us that night, and we quickly filled
in the last gaps as the final bits of light faded. We used
flashlights to build the entrance tunnel and lower the main
floor. When we got done it was a full four meters across at
the base and almost three meters from floor to ceiling. It was
the largest igloo that anyone had ever built on Hurricane
Ridge (at least as far as we knew) and a real credit to the
boys hard work. We were all exhausted. We arranged our
sleeping bags inside the giant cavern and settled in for bowls
of steaming hot igloo stew. There would be no tossing and
turning for me tonightI was going to sleep like a baby.
Gordon Clark is a senior professional associate, senior project manager, and coordinator of the Tunnel and
Underground Engineering practice area network (PAN 37) He currently serves as chief engineer and technical
lead for the Alaskan Way Viaduct and Seawall Replacement Project in Seattle, Washington.
PB Network #65
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Issue No. 65 Volume XXII Number 1

Part 1: Linking Two Continents

Iki Kitanin Baglanmasi: Marmaray Projesi.........3

Part 1: Linking Two Continents

An Exciting and Challenging Project

Contract Strategy (Harrison)...............................12

Immersed Tunnel Construction (Grantz)......20

Progress of Station and Bored Tunnel

Train of Thought: Selection of Rail Car

Guest Editors for this issue:

Part 2: Middle East

Road Improvement Schemes for Kuwait

Developing a Road Network for a

* This article is available at the PB Network Web site, http://www.pbworld.com/news.events/publications/network

Excitement Abounds: Projects,

Linking Two Continents: The Marmaray Project Overview and History

An Exciting and Challenging Project

The authors present an

Figure 1: Alignment and

Figure 2: Approximate alignment of the immersed

The requirement that all the tunnels and

The railway will support massive 10-car transit trains, Intercity

Linking Two Continents: The Marmaray Project Overview and History

Marmaray Project Key Facts

Table 1: PB staff who have worked on

won a long-term contract to provide design, tender preparation and construction

Linking Two Continents: The Marmaray Project Overview and History

Related Web Sites:

A following article entitled

Linking Two Continents: The Marmaray Project Overview and History

The authors present a

Figure 1: Santa Sofia, which was built as a

The Republic of Turkey, secular and modern in outlook, is a member of

The Bosphorus Straits

Winds and barometric pressure differences have the greatest influence on

Linking Two Continents: The Marmaray Project Overview and History

Project Background and History

The hydraulic work conducted

Walter Grantz, an associate

Linking Two Continents: The Marmaray Project Overview and History

The Bosphorus Crossing: Is It PBs Longest

The interesting answer

The Start of the Tunnel

Linking Two Continents: The Marmaray Project Contracts and Organization

Linking Two Continents: The Marmaray Project Contracts and Organization

The author outlines the

Debating the Multi-Contract Approach

The General Directorate of

Linking Two Continents: The Marmaray Project Contracts and Organization

Linking Two Continents: The Marmaray Project Contracts and Organization

Analysis and Lesson Learned

The Bosphorus Crossing: Is It PBs Longest Tunnel in the World?

Linking Two Continents: The Marmaray Project Contracts and Organization

Organisation and Management Present

Linking Two Continents: The Marmaray Project Contracts and Organization

Linking Two Continents: The Marmaray Project Contracts and Organization

Project Objectives. The objectives for the project are to: