EC 6501 DIGITAL COMMUNICATION

UNIT 1
1. Define Nyquist rate.
Let the signal be bandlimited to W Hz. Then Nyquist rate is given as,
Nyquist rate = 2W samples/sec
Aliasing will not take place if sampling rate is greater than Nyquist rate.
2. What is meant by aliasing effect?
Aliasing effect takes place when sampling frequency is less than Nyquist rate. Under such
condition, the spectrum of the sampled signal overlaps with itself. Hence higher frequencies take
the form of lower frequencies. This interference of the frequency components is called as
aliasing effect.
3. Define PWM.
PWM is basically pulse width modulation. Width of the pulse changes according to amplitude of
the modulating signal. It also referred as pulse duration modulation or PDM.
4. State Sampling theorem.
A bandlimited signal of finite energy, which has no frequency components higher than W Hz,
may be completely recovered from the knowledge of its samples taken at the rate of 2W samples
per second.
5. Mention the merits of DPCM.
1. Bandwidth requirement of DPCM is less compared to PCM.
2. Quantization error is reduced because of prediction filter
3. Numbers of bits used to represent one sample value are also reduced compared to PCM.
6. What is the main difference in DPCM and DM?
DM encodes the input sample by one bit. It sends the information about + or -, ie step rise or
fall. DPCM can have more than one bit of encoding the sample. It sends the information about
difference between actual sample value and the predicted sample value.
7. How the message can be recovered from PAM?
The message can be recovered from PAM by passing the PAM signal through reconstruction
filter integrates amplitude of PAM pulses. Amplitude reconstruction signal is done to remove
amplitude discontinuities due to pulses.

8. Write an expression for bandwidth of binary PCM with N messages each with a
maximum frequency of fm Hz.
If v number of bits are used to code each input sample, then bandwidth of PCM is given as, BT
N.v.fm
Here v. fm is the bandwidth required by one message.
9. How is PDM wave converted into PPM message?
The PDM is signal is clock signal to monostable multivibrator. The multivibraor triggers on
falling edge. Hence a PPM pulse of fixed width is produced after falling edge of PDM pulse.
PDM represents the input signal amplitude in the form of width of the pulse. A PPM pulse is
produced after the width of PDM pulse. In other words, the position of the PPM pulse depends
upon input signal amplitude.
10. Mention the use of adaptive quantizer in adaptive digital waveform coding schemes.
Adaptive quantizer changes its step size according variance of the input signal. Hence
quantization error is significantly reduced due to the adaptive quantization. ADPCM uses
adaptive quantization. The bit rate of such schemes is reduced due to adaptive quantization.
11. What do u understand from adaptive coding?
In adaptive coding, the quantization step size and prediction filter coefficients are changed as per
properties of input signal. This reduces the quantization error and number of bits to represent the
sample value. Adaptive coding is used for speech coding at low bits rates.
12. What is meant by quantization?
While converting the signal value from analog to digital, quantization is performed. The analog
value is assigned to nearest digital value. This is called quantization. The quantized value is then
converted into equivalent binary value. The quantization levels are fixed depending upon the
number of bits. Quantization is performed in every Analog to Digital Conversion.
13. The signal to quantization noise ratio in a PCM system depends on what criteria?
The signal to quantisation noise ratio in PCM is given as,
(S/N)db (4.8+6v)dB
Here v is the number of bits used to represent samples in PCM. Hence signal to quantization
noise ratio in PCM depends upon the number of bits or quantization levels.

14. What is meant by adaptive delta modulation?

In adaptive delta modulation, the step size is adjusted as per the slope of the input signal. Step
size is made high if slope of the input signal is high. This avoids slope overload distortion.
15. What is the advantage of delta modulation over pulse modulation schemes?
Delta modulation encodes one bit per samples. Hence signalling rate is reduced in DM.
16. What should be the minimum bandwidth required to transmit a PCM channel?
The minimum transmission bandwidth in PCM is given as,
BT = vW
Here v is the number of bits used to represent one pulse.
W is the maximum signal frequency.
17. What is the advantage of delta modulation over PCM?
Delta modulation uses one bit to encode on sample. Hence bit rate of delta modulation is low
compared to PCM.
18. What are the two limitations of delta modulation?
1. Slope of overload distortion.
2. Granular noise.
19. How does Granular noise occurs?
It occurs due to large step size and very small amplitude variation in the input signal.
20. What are the advantages of the Delta modulation?
1. Delta modulation transmits only one bit for one sample. Thus the signalling rate and
transmission channel bandwidth is quite small for delta modulation.
2. The transmitter and receiver implementation is very much simple for delta modulation. There
is no analog to digital converter involved in delta modulation.

UNIT II
1. What is intersymbol interference in baseband binary PAM systems?

In baseband binary PAM, symbols are transmitted one after another. These symbols are
separated by sufficient time durations. The transmitter, channel and receiver acts as a filter to this
baseband data. Because of the filtering characteristics, transmitted PAM pulses are spread in
time.
2. What is correlative coding?

Correlative level coding is used to transmit a baseband signal with the signalling rate of 2Bo over
the channel of bandwidth Bo. This is made physically possible by allowing ISI in the transmitted
in controlled manner. This ISI is known to receiver. The correlative coding is implemented by
duobinary signalling and modified duobinary signalling.
3. Define Duobinary baseband PAM system.
Duobinary encoding reduces the maximum frequency of the baseband signal. The word duo
means to double the transmission capacity of the binary system. Let the PAM signal ak
represents kth bit. Then the encoder the new waveform as
Ck =ak + ak-1
Thus two successive bits are added to get encoded value of the kth bit. Hence Ck becomes a
correlated signal even though ak is not correlated. This introduces intersymbol interference in the
controlled manner to reduce the bandwidth.
4. What are eye pattern?

Eye pattern is used to study the effect of ISI in baseband transmission.

1.) Width of eye opening defines the interval over which the received wave can be sampled
without error from ISI.
2.) The sensitivity of the system to timing error is determined by the rate of closure of the eye as
the sampling time is varied.
3.) Height of the eye opening at sampling time is called margin over noise.

5. How is eye pattern obtained on the CRO?

Eye pattern can be obtained on CRO by applying the signal to one of the input channels and
given an external trigger of 1/Tb Hz. This makes one sweep of beam equal to Tb seconds.
6. Why do you need adaptive equalization in a switched telephone network.

In switched telephone network the distortion depends upon

1) Transmission characteristics of individual links.
2) Number of links in connection.

Hence fixed pair of transmit and receive filters will not serve the equalization problem. The
transmission characteristics keep on changing. Therefore adaptive equalization is used.
7.What are the necessity of adaptive equalization?
Ans. Most of the channels are made up of individual links in switched telephone network,the
distortion induced depends upon
1) transmission characteristics of individual links
2) number of links in connection

8. Define the principle of adaptive equalization?

Ans. The filters adapt themselves to the dispersive effects of the channel that is the cofficients of
the filters are changed contineously according to the received data. The filter cofficients are
changed in such a way that the distortion in the data is reduced
9. Define duobinary encoding?
Ans. Duobinary encoding reduces the maximum frequency of the base band signal the word
duo means to the double transmission capacity of the binary system
10. Write a note on correlative level coding?
Correlative level coding allows the signal scaling rate of 2Bo in the channel of bandwidth Bo this
is made physically possible by allowing ISI in the transmitted signal in controlled manner this
ISI IS KNOWN TO THE RECEIVER

11. Define the term ISI?

Ans. The presence of outputs due to other bits interference with the output of required bit . this
effect is called inter symbol interference (ISI)
12. Write the performance of data transmission system using eye pattern technique?
Ans. The width of the eye opening defines the interval over which the received wave can can be
sampled without error from inter symbol interference .
The sensitivity of the system to timing error is determined by the rate of closure of the eye as the
sampling time is varied
13. What is the necessity of equalization?
Ans. When the signal is passed through the channel distortion is introduced in terms of 1)
amplitude 2) delay this distortion creates problem of ISI. The detection of the signal also become
difficult this distraction can be compensated with the help of equalizer.
14. What is raised cosine spectrum?
In the raised cosine spectrum, the frequency response P(f) decreases towards zero gradually That
is there is no abrupt transition).
15. What is nyquist Bandwidth?
The B0 is called nyquist bandwidth. The nyquist bandwidth is the minimum transmission
bandwidth for zero ISI.

UNIT III
1. Mention the need of optimum transmitting and receiving filter in baseband data
transmission.

When binary data is transmitted over the baseband channel, noise interfaces with it. Because of
this noise interference, errors are introduced in signal detection. Optimum filter performs two
functions while receiving the noisy signal:
1) Optimum filter integrates the signal during the bit interval and checks the output at the time
instant where signal to noise ratio is maximum
2) Transfer function of the optimum filter is selected so as to maximise signal to noise ratio.
3) Optimum filter minimizes the probability of error.

2. Define ASK.

In ASK, carrier is switched on when binary 1 is to be transmitted and it is switched off when
binary D is to be transmitted ASK is also called on-off keying.
3. What is meant by DPSK?

In DPSK, the input sequence is modified. Let input sequence be d(t) and output sequence be b(t).
Sequence b(t) changes level at the beginning of each interval in which d(t)=1 and it does not
changes level when d(t)=0.
When b(t) changes level, phase of the carrier is changed. And as stated above, b(t) changes t=its
level only when d(t) =1. This means phase of the carrier is changed only if d(t)=1. Hence the
technique is called Differential PSK.
4. Explain coherent detection?

In coherent detection, the local carrier generated at the receiver is phase locked with the carrier at
the transmitter. The detection is done by correlating received noisy signal and locally generated
carrier. The coherent detection is a synchronous detection.

5. What is the difference between PSK and FSK?

In PSK, phase of the carrier is switched according to input bit sequence. In FSK frequency of the
carrier is switched according to input bit sequence. FSK needs double of the bandwidth of PSK.
6. What is meant by coherent ASK?

In coherent ASK, correlation receiver is used to detect the signal. Locally generated carrier is
correlated with incoming ASK signal. The locally generated carrier is in exact phase with the
transmitted carrier. Coherent ASK is also called as synchronous ASK.
7. What is the major advantage of coherent PSK over coherent ASK?
ASK is on-off signalling, where as the modulated carrier is continuously transmitted in PSK.
Hence peak power requirement is more ASK, whereas it is reduced in case of PSK.
8. Explain the model of bandpass digital data transmission system?
The bandpass digital data transmission system consists of source, encoder and modulator in the
transmitter. Similarly receiver, decoder and destination form the transmitter.
9. What is baseband signal receiver?
A baseband signal receiver increases the signal to noise ratio at the instant of sampling. This
reduces the probability of error. The baseband signal receiver is also called optimum receiver.
10. What is matched filter?
The matched filter is a baseband signal receiver, which works in presence of white Gaussian
noise. The impulse response of the matched response of the matched filter is matched to the
shape pf the input signal.
11. What is the value of maximum signal to noise ratio of the matched filter? When it
becomes maximum?
Maximum signal to noise ratio is the ratio of energy to psd of white noise. i.e.,
max = E/ (N0/2)
This maximum value occurs at the end of bit duration i.e. Tb.
12. What is correlator ?
Correlator is the coherent receiver. It correlates the received noisy signal f(t) with the locally
generated replica of the unknown signal x(t). Its output is denoted as r(t).

13. On what factor, the error probability of matched filter depends.

Error probability is given as
Pe = 1/2erfcE/No
This equation shows that error probability depends only on energy but not on shape of the signal.
14. Bring out the difference between coherent & non coherent binary modulation scheme.
a. Coherent detection:
In this method the local carrier generated at the receiver is phase locked with the carrier at the
transmitter. Hence it is called synchronous detection
b. Non coherent detection:
In this method, the receiver carrier need not be phase locked with transmitter carrier. Hence it is
called envelope detection.
15. Write the expression for bit error rate for coherent binary FSK.
Bit error rate for coherent binary FSK is given as,
Pe = 1/2erfc0.6E/No
16. Highlight the major difference between a QPSK & MSK signal.
MSK signal have continuous phase in all the cases, where as QPSK has phase shift of /2 or .
17. What is the error probability of MSK & DPSK?
Error probability of MSK: Pe = 1/2erfcE/No
Error probability of DPSK: Pe = 1/2e-Eb/No
18. In minimum shift keying what is the relation between the signal frequencies & bit rate.
Let the bit rate be fb and the frequency of carrier be f0. The higher and lower MSK signal
frequencies are given as,
fH = f0 + fb/4
fL = f0 - fb/4
19. List the advantages of Passband transmission.
a. Long distance.
b. Analog channels can be used for transmission.
c. Multiplexing techniques can be used for bandwidth conservation.
d. Transmission can be done by using wireless channel also.

UNIT IV
1.What is hamming distance?
The hamming distance between two code vectors is equal to the number of elements in which
they differ. For example, let the two code words be,
X = (101) and Y= (110)
These two code words differ in second and third bits. Therefore the hamming distance between
X and Y is two.
2. Define code efficiency.
The code efficiency is the ratio of message bits in a block to the transmitted bits for that block by
the encoder i.e.,
Code efficiency= (k/n)
k=message bits
n=transmitted bits.
3. What is meant by systematic and non-systematic codes?
In a Systematic block code, message bits appear first and then check bits. In the non-systematic
code, message and check bits cannot be identified in the code vector.
4. What is meant by linear code?
A code is linear if modulo-2 sum of any two code vectors produces another code vector. This
means any code vector can be expressed as linear combination of other code vectors.
5. What are the error detection and correction capabilities of hamming codes?
The minimum distance (dmin) of hamming codes is 3. Hence it can be used to detect double
errors or correct single errors. Hamming codes are basically linear block codes with dmin =3.
6. What is meant by cyclic codes?
Cyclic codes are the subclasses of linear block codes. They have the property that a cyclic shift
of one codeword produces another code word.
7. How syndrome is calculated in Hamming codes and cyclic codes?
In hamming codes the syndrome is calculated as,
S=YHT
Here Y is the received and HT is the transpose of parity check matrix.

8. What is BCH code?

BCH codes are most extensive and powerful error correcting cyclic codes. The decoding of BCH
codes is comparatively simpler. For any positive integer m and t (where t<2 m-1)there exists
a BCH code with following parameters Block length: n= 2m-1
Number of parity check bits : n-k<=mt
Minimum distance: dmin>=2t+1
9. What is RS code?
These are non binary BCH codes. The encoder for RS code operates on multiple bits
simultaneously. The (n, k) RS code takes the groups of m- bit symbols of incoming binary data
stream. It takes such k number of symbols in one block. Then the encoder acts (n k)
redundant symbols to form the code word of n symbols
RS code has:
Block Length : n=2m-1 symbols
Message size: K symbols
Parity check size: n-k= 2t symbols
Minimum distance: dmin=2t+a symbols
10. What is difference between block codes and convolutional codes?
Block codes takesk number of bits simultaneously form n-bit code vector. This code vector
is also called block. Convolutional code takes one message bits at a time and generates two or
more encoded bits. Thus convolutional codes generate a string of encoded bits for input message
string.
11. Define constraint length in convolutional code?
Constraint length is the number of shift over which the single message bit can influence the
encoder output. It is expressed in terms of message bits.
12. Define free distance and coding gain.
Free distance is the minimum distance between code vectors. It is also equal to minimum weight
of the code vectors.
Coding gain is used as a basis of comparison for different coding methods. To achieve the same
bit error rate the coding gain is defined as,
A= (Eb/No) encoded
(Eb/No) coded

For convolutional coding, the coding gain is given as,

A = rdf /2
Here r is the code rate
And df is the free distance.
13. What is convolution code?
Fixed number of input bits is stored in the shift register & they are combined with the help of
mod 2 adders. This operation is equivalent to binary convolution coding.
14. What is meant by syndrome of linear block code?
The non zero output of the produce YHT is called syndrome & it is used to detect errors in y.
Syndrome is denoted by S & given as,
S=YHT
15. What are the advantages of convolutional codes?
Advantages:
1. The decoding delay is small in convolutional codes since they operate o smaller blocks of
data.
2. The storage hardware required by convolutional decoder is less since the block sizes are
smaller.

Disadvantages:
1. Convolutional codes are difficult to analyze since their analysis is complex.
2. Convolutional codes are not developed much as compared to block codes.

16. Define sates of encoder?

The constraint length of the given convolutional encoder is K=2. Its rate is means for single
message bit input, two bits x1 and x2 are encoded at the output. S1 represents the input
message bit and S2 stores the previous message bit. Since only one previous message bit is
stored, this encoder can have states depending upon this stored message bit. Lets represent,
S2 = 0 state a
and S2 = 1 state b

UNIT V
1.. Define pseudo-noise (PN) sequence.

A pseudo-noise sequence is defined as a coded sequence of 1s and Os with certain autocorrelation

properties. It is used in spread Spectrum communications. It is periodic in that a sequence of
1s and 0s repeats itself exactly with a known period.
2. What does the term catastrophic cyclic code represent ?
000 is not a state of the shift register sequence in PN sequence generator, since this results in a
catastrophic cyclic code i.e once the 000 state is entered, the shift register sequence cannot leave
this state.
3. Define a random binary sequence.
A random binary sequence is a sequence in which the presence of a binary symbol 1 or 0 is equally
probable.
4. State the balance property of random binary sequence.
In each period of a maximum length sequence, the number of 1s is always one more than the
number of 0s. This property is called the balance property.
5. Mention about the run property.
Among the runs of 1s and 0s in each period of a maximum length sequence, one half the runs of
each kind are of length one, one fourth are of length two, one eighth are of length three, and so or as
long as these function represent meaningful numbers of runs. This property is called the run
property.

6. Give the correlation property of random binary sequence.

The autocorrelation function of a maximum length sequence is periodic and binary valued.
This property is called the correlation property.
7. Mention the significance of spread spectrum modulation.
An important attribute of spread-spectrum modulation is that it can provide protection against
externally generated interfering (jamming) signals with finite power. The jamming signal may
consist of a fairly powerful broadband noise or multitone waveform that is directed at the
receiver for the purpose of disrupting communications.

8. What is called processing gain ?

Processing Gain (PG) is defined as the ratio of the bandwidth of spread message
signal to the bandwidth of unspreaded data signal ie).
Processing Gain = BW (spreaded signal)
9. What is called jamming effect ?
In the frequency band of the interest, somebody else transmits the signals intentionally
since these signals the in the frequency band of transmission, they interface the required signal.
Hence it becomes difficult to detect the required signals. This is called jamming effect.
10. What is Anti jamming ?

With the help of spread spectrum method, the transmitted signals are spread over
the mid frequency band. Hence these signals appear as noise. Then it becomes difficult for the
jammers to send jamming signals. This is called antijamming.
11. What are the three codes used for the anti jamming application ?
1.

Golay code (24, 12)

2.

Expurgated Golay (24, 11)

3.

Maximum length shift register code.

12. What is called frequency hop spread spectrum ?

In frequency hop spread spectrum, the frequency of the carrier hops randomly
from one frequency to another frequency.
13. What is slow frequency hopping?
If the symbol rate of MFSK is an integer multiple of hop rate (multiple symbols per
hop) then it is called slow frequency hopping
14. What is fast frequency hopping?
If the hop rate is an integer multiple of symbol rate (multiple hops per symbol) then
it is called fast frequency hopping.

15. What are the two function of fast frequency hopping?

1.

Spread Jammer over the entire measure of the spectrum of Txed signal.

2.

Retuning the Jamming signal over the frequency band of Txed signal.

16. What are the features of code Division multiple Accesses?

1.

It does not require external synchronization networks.

2.

CDMA offers gradual degradation in performance when the no. of users is

increased But it is easy to add new user to the system.

3.

If offers an external interference rejection capability.

17. What is called multipath Interference?

The interference caused by the interfacing of the signal form the indirect path
with the signal of direct path is called multipath interference.
18. What is the advantage of a spread spectrum technique?
The main advantage of spread spectrum technique is its ability to reject interference
whether it be the unintentional interference of another user simultaneously attempting to
transmit through the channel (or) the intentional interference of a hostile transmitter to jam the
transmission.
19. What is called frequency hop spread spectrum ?
In frequency hop spread spectrum, the frequency of the carrier hops randomly from one
frequency to another frequency.
20 .What is slow frequency hopping?
If the symbol rate of MFSK is an integer multiple of hop rate (multiple symbols per hop)
then it is called slow frequency hopping