1. What are the disadvantages of Analog communication?

Its not reliable, Noise effect is more on the signals, Power required for signal transmission also more, Circuit
complexity is more and costly.

2. What are the Advantages of Digital Communication?

Reliable, Noise effect is very less, power consumption is very less, various Digital ICs are available so
circuits not complex , cheap, Error detection and correction is also possible.

3. What are different types of digital modulation?

ASK, FSK, PSK, PCM, DPCM,Delta modulation, Adaptive Delta modulation etc..

4. How to convert an analog signal into digital signal?

Blocks: Anti aliasing filter, Sampler, Quantizer, encoder.

5. Define the functionality of Sampler, Quantizer?

Sampler: converts a continuous time signal into discrete time signal.
Quantizer: converts continuous in amplitude signal into discrete in amplitude signal.

6. What are some Coding techniques?

Pulse code modulation, Differential pulse code modulation, Delta modulation, Adaptive delta modulation.

7. What is Sampling?
Converting a continuous time signal into discrete in time signal is called as Sampling (similar to cutting a
bread into slices)

8. Define Sampling theorem?

To reconstruct the Continuous time signal from discrete time signal ,the sampling frequency should be more
than equal to twice of Continuous time signal frequency(max).

9. What is Nyquist Rate?

If the sampling frequency is twice of Continuous time signal frequency(max), then that is called as Nyquist
rate.

10. How many types of samplings are their? Explain briefly?

Impulse Sampling, Natural sampling, Flat top sampling.

11. What is aliasing effect? How to overcome it?

Due to imperfect sampling the signals will be interfered in frequency domain i.e called aliasing effect in
sampling. if sampling theorem satisfied in sampling or first by passing signal from anti aliasing filter before
sampling then aliasing effect will be reduced

12. What are the Analog pulse modulation methods?

Pulse amplitude modulation, pulse width modulation and pulse position modulation..

13. Define Pulse amplitude modulation?

The carrier pulse height (amplitude) proportional to amplitude of messege signal.
14. Define Pulse width modulation?
The carrier pulse width proportional to amplitude of message signal.

15. Define Pulse position modulation?

The carrier pulse position proportional to amplitude of message signal.

16. Compare PAM, PWM, PPM?

17. What is Amplitude shift Keying (ASK) ?

It represent the digital data as variations in amplitudes in carrier wave. i.e '1' represented by transmitting a
fixed amplitude carrier wave for the bit duration with constant frequency.

18. What is Phase shift keying ( PSK)?

It represent the digital data as variations in phase shift in carrier wave. i.e '1' represented by 0 phase shift
carrier wave , where '0' represented as 180 phase shift incarrier wave for the bit duration with constant
frequency

19. What is Frequency shift keying (FSK) ?

It represent the digital data as variation in frequency in carrier wave, i.e for '1' more than carrier frequency ,
for '0' less than carrier frequency.

20. What is Binary Phase shift Keying (BPSK) ?

for each one bit of binary data (0 & 1) carrier phase will be changed (two different shifts: 0, 180)

21. What is Quadrature Phase shift Keying (QPSK) ?

for each two bits of binary data (00,01,10 & 11) carrier phase will be changed (four different shifts : 45, 135,
-45, -135)

22. What is the difference between Bit Rate and Baud Rate?
Bit rate represents Bits per sec,Baud rate represents no. of symbols per second i.e. in communications the
no. of bits transmitted per sec is called as Bit Rate (units bps) and The no. of times a signal (here carrier)
changes its state (change in freq, phase, amplitude) per sec is called as Baud rate.

23. What is bandwidth of BPSK signal?

2Fc, if Fc represents carrier frequency

24. Compare ASK, PSK and FSK.?

Bandwidth: ASK< PSK < FSK
Power: ASK <PSK = FSK
Probability of error: ASK > PSK > FSK
Signal to Noise Ratio: ASK < PSK < FSK
25. Why is ASK called as ON-OFF keying?
When input data is 1 then output is carrier, if input is 0 out put is zero. so its looks like a switch which will
switch on when input is 1 and off when input is zero

26. Define Pulse code modulation?

Each and every quantized samples will be encoded with sequence of zeros and ones with 'n' bits within
sampling interval (Ts), So the bit duration will be Ts/n. as no. of bits (n) increases error decreases but
bandwidth increases.
27. How bits are needed to encode N different levels?
Log2 N

28. Define step size?

It is the difference between two successive no.s (levels), i.e. voltage difference between one digital level
and the next digital level. (Ex: 000 & 001, 1011 & 1100)

29. How to calculate Step size in PCM?

step size(Δ) = (VFS-Vmin)/L
where L =2n, n = no. of bits, VFS = full scale voltage

30. Define Quantization error?

It is the difference between sampled signal and Quantized signal.

31. What is the max value of Quantization error?

Half of the Step size.

32. What are the applications of PCM?

computer Disk, Digital Telephony, Digital Audio Applications, etc.

33. What are the disadvantages of Pulse code modulation?

To get less Quantization Noise no. of bits should be increased, then bandwidth will be increased. So we have
to compromise with either Quantization error or bandwidth.

34. Define Differential pulse code modulation?

In DPCM, The difference between the consequent samples will be encoded with sequence of zeros and ones.

35. Why DPCM is better than PCM?

Instead of encoding each sample, Its better to encode the difference between samples then Quantization error
will be minimized with less no. of bits, then bandwidth also get decreased.

36. Define Delta modulation? Why it is better?

It is same as DPCM with no. of bits to encode is one bit only (either 0 or 1). by this bandwidth will be
decreased.

37. What is granular noise? Define slope overload?

The Delta modulation is efficient when and only when signal is varying continuously with less variations. if
signal varies suddenly then we get two different Noises. those are slope overload and granular noise
38. When granular noise and slope overload occur in Delta modulation?
Granular Noise: Δ / Ts > slope of signal

Slope Overload Noise: Δ / Ts < slope of signal

39. What is Adaptive Delta Modulation and what are the advantages?

If the step size varies according to the slope of the signal then that is called as Adaptive Delta modulation.
granular and slope over load noise will be desuced.

40. Compare all Digital pulse modulation techniques (PCM, DPCM, DM, ADM)?

41. What is multiplexing? How many types of multiplexing possible in communication?

Combining two or more signals to pass through a channel is called as multiplexing.

The different Multiplexing techniques are:1) Frequency division Multiplexing, 2) Time division
Multiplexing, 3) Wavelength division multiplexing, 4) Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing.

42. Define ISI (Inter symbol Interference)?

It is a Distortion in digital signal that one symbol interferes with other symbol.

43. What is Matched filter?

It is an optimal linear filter for maximizing the SNR (Signal to Noise Ratio) in the presence of additive
random noise.

44. What is the cause of inter symbol Interference (ISI) and it can be reduced?
ISI caused by multipath propagation and inherent non linear frequency response of channel. It can be
reduced by pulse shaping.

45.What is multipath Interference?

When a signal reaches to transmitter in various paths then delays exist in each path so at receiver all delayed
signals will be received, then original signal will be interfered by its delayed versions. That is called
multipath interference.
46. What is frequency synthesizer?
it is an oscillator which can generate any range of frequencies.

47. What are the features of Code Division Multiple Access?

The CDMA technique is more secure communication over all, this is used in military, If we know the code
which is used to encode the data, then only we can receive the data. But No. of users are limited (depends on
code length)

48. Explain about Frequency Division Multiple Access?

In FDMA Spectrum is divided into segments and each segment is permanently assigned to each transmitter.
so to get more efficiency in using spectrum, each signal bandwidth should be less and perfect modulation
technique should be used.

49. Explain about Time division Multiple Access?

In this a fraction of time slot will be assigned to each transmitter, so as no. of transmitters increases
complexity increases. for this perfect synchronization is required.

Q1 Explain PAM?
A1Pulse-amplitude modulation, acronym PAM.PAM, is a form of signal modulation where the message
information is encoded in the amplitude of a series of signal pulses.

Q2 Give example PAM?

A2Example: A two bit modulator (PAM-4) will take two bits at a time and will map the signal amplitude to
one of four possible levels, for example −3 volts, −1 volt, 1 volt, and 3 volts.

Q3Where PAM is used?

A3Pulse-amplitude modulation is widely used in baseband transmission of digital data, with non-baseband
applications having been largely superseded by pulse-code modulation, and, more recently, by pulse-
position modulation.

Q4What is PPM?
A4.Pulse-position modulation (PPM) is a form of signal modulation in which M message bits are encoded
by transmitting a single pulse in one of 2 M possible time-shifts. This is repeated every T seconds, such that
the transmitted bit rate is M/T bits per second. It is primarily useful for optical communications systems,
where there tends to be little or no multipath interference.

Q5 Explain PWM?
A5 Pulse-width modulation (PWM) is a commonly used technique for controlling power to inertial electrical
devices, made practical by modern electronic power switches.

Q6 define Duty cycle?

A6The term duty cycle describes the proportion of 'on' time to the regular interval or 'period' of time; a low
duty cycle corresponds to low power, because the power is off for most of the time. Duty cycle is expressed
in percent, 100% being fully on.

Q7Explain principal of PWM?

A7Pulse-width modulation uses a rectangular pulse wave whose pulse width is modulated resulting in the
variation of the average value of the waveform.
Q8 what is the use of Delta modulation for PWM control?
A8 the use of delta modulation for PWM control, the output signal is integrated, and the result is compared
with limits, which correspond to a reference signal offset by a constant. Every time the integral of the output
signal reaches one of the limits, the PWM signal changes state.

Q9 what is the use of Delta sigma modulation for PWM control?

A9 In delta-sigma modulation as a PWM control method, the output signal is subtracted from a reference
signal to form an error signal. This error is integrated, and when the integral of the error exceeds the limits,
the output changes state.

Q10 Compare PPM and M-FSK?

A10 PPM and M-FSK systems with the same bandwidth, average power, and transmission rate of M/T bits
per second have identical performance in an AWGN (Additive White Gaussian Noise) channel. However,
their performance differs greatly when comparing frequency-selective and frequency-flat fading channels.
Whereas frequency-selective fading produces echoes that are highly disruptive for any of the M time-shifts
used to encode PPM data, it selectively disrupts only some of the M possible frequency-shifts used to
encode data for M-FSK. Conversely, frequency-flat fading is more disruptive for M-FSK than PPM, as all
M of the possible frequency-shifts are impaired by fading, while the short duration of the PPM pulse means
that only a few of the M time-shifts are heavily impaired by fading.

Q11 What is the main advantage of PWM?

A11 The main advantage of PWM is that power loss in the switching devices is very low. When a switch is
off there is practically no current, and when it is on, there is almost no voltage drop across the switch. Power
loss, being the product of voltage and current, is thus in both cases close to zero.

Q12. What is Sampling? What is Sampling Theorem?

Ans: Sampling is defined as the process in which an analog signals are converted into digital signals. It
means that a continuous time signal is converted into a discrete time signal.

Sampling Theorem is defined as : ’The continuous time signal that can be represented in its samples and
recovered back if the sampling frequency (fs) is greater than the maximum frequency of the signal (fm) that
is fs >2fm’.

Q13. Define PAM and write down its drawbacks?

Ans: Pulse Amplitude Modulation is the process by which the amplitude of the regularly spaced pulses
varies according to the the amplitude of the modulating signal.
The drawbacks are:
a. Since the amplitude of the pulses varies therefore the peak power of the modulating s/g is much greater.
b. The bandwidth required for transmitting is greater since the amplitude varies.
Q14. What is Modulation? What happens in over modulation?
Ans: Modulation is defined as the process in which some characteristics of the signal called carrier is varied
according to the modulating or baseband signal. For example – Amplitude Modulation, Phase Modulation,
Frequency Modulation.
In case of over modulation, the modulation index is greater than one and envelope distortion occurs.

Q15. What do you mean by Nyquist rate?

Ans: In case of Nyquist rate, the sampling frequency is equal to the maximum frequency of the signal and
therefore the successive cycles of the spectrum does not overlap.

Q16. What do you mean by FM and classify FM?

Ans: Frequency Modulation can be defined as the frequency of the carrier (wc) is varied acc. to the
modulating signal about an unmodulated frequency.
FM are of 2 types:
a. Narrowband FM
b. Wideband FM

Q17. What is under sampling?

Ans: Under sampling is also known as aliasing effect in which the the sampling frequency is less than the
maximum frequency of the signal and therefore the successive cycles of the spectrum overlap.

Q18. State the advantages of superheterodyning?

Ans: The advantages are:
a. High selectivity and sensitivity.
b. No change in Bandwidth that is bandwidth remains same all over the operating range.
c. High adjacent channel rejection.

Q19. What is multiplexing? Name the types of multiplexing?

Ans: Multiplexing is defined as the process in which a number of message signals are combined together to
form composite signals so that they can be transmitted through the common channel.
The two types of multiplexing are:
a. Frequency Division Multiplexing: In this technique, fixed frequency bands are allotted to every user in the
complete channel bandwidth. Such frequency is allotted to user on a continuous basis.
b. Time Division Multiplexing: When the pulse is present for the short time duration and most of the time
their is no signal present in-between them than this free space between the two pulses can occupied by the
pulses from other channels. This is known as Time Division Multiplexing.

Q20. What is Amplitude Modulation?

Ans: Amplitude Modulation is defined as the process in which the instantaneous value of the amplitude of
the carrier is varied according to the amplitude of the modulating or base band signal.

Q21. How can be aliasing be avoided?

Ans: Aliasing can be avoided if:
a. Sampling frequency must be greater than the frequency of the modulating signal.
b. The frequency should be band limited to maximum frequency of the signal(fm) Htz.
c. If pre-alias filter is used.