In yet another approach to Paleozoic platforms, this

study takes a restricted time slice and compares the cycle

patterns in two different platforms: the Middle Appalachians of Eastern North America, and the Great Basin
on the Western side.
Shoal-water emergence cycles and ramp cycles are differentiated, and time-subsidence plots provide a way of
comparing the histories. Forward computer-modelling can
be designed to produce somewhat similar sequences. The
facies patterns and cycle patterns of these platforms differ
markedly from those of the Early Carboniferous and those
o f the Triassic.

The periodicities have not been established owing to

the great uncertainties of stage durations. In addition,
frequency ratios, so helpful in the Mesozoic, are not readily applicable to these early Paleozoic times inasmuch as
the precessional and obliquity frequencies were probably
considerably higher than those prevailing now, whereas
the eccentricity frequencies have probably not changed.
Such differences might in the future allow a better approach to the problem of deceleration of the earth's spin
rate, but this will require cleaner cyclicity data than are
now available.

RELATION OF EUSTASY TO STACKING PATTERNS OF

METER-SCALE CARBONATE CYCLES, LATE CAMBRIAN, U.S.A.
DAVID OSLEGER

Department of Earth Sciences

University of Cahfornia
Riverside, California 92521
AND
J. F R E D R E A D

Department of Geological Sciences

Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University
Blacksburg, Virginia 24061
A ~ r R n c r : An interbasinal study of Late Cambrian cyclic carbonate successions in the Appalachian and Cordilleran passive margins
suggests that superimposed orders ofeustasy controlled the development of large-scale depositional sequences and the component
peritidal to subtidal meter-scale cycles that comprise them. The focus of this paper is on the small-scale cyclicity, its probable control
by Milankovitch-forced sea-level oscillations, and how stacking patterns of meter-scale cycles can be used to define internal components of larger-scale sequences and estimate variations in relative sea level.
Fining-upward peritidal cycles showing evidence of episodic emergence grade seaward into coarsening-upward subtidal cycles
which lack evidence of emergence and form a continuum across the Cambrian carbonate platforms. Eustasy appears to exert the
dominant control on the simultaneous development o f peritidal and subtidal cycles on Late Cambrian carbonate platforms. Evidence
for Milankovitch forcing of glacio-eustatic sea-level oscillations is provided by a 4:1 bundling of fifth-order meter-scale cycles (~
96 ky) within fourth-order cycles spanning tens of meters (~ 440 ky) within the Big Horse Member of the Orr Formation in the
House Range of Utah. The 4:1 bundling may manifest the short eccentricity to long eccentricity ratio ofthe Milankovitch astronomical
rhythms.
Systematic changes in the stacking patterns o f meter-scale cycles can be used in conjunction with Fischer plots to define longterm sea-level cycles. On Fischer plots ofperitidal cyclic successions, long-term relative sea-level rises are characterized by thick,
subtidal-dominated cycles with thin laminite caps. Long-term relative sea-level falls are defined by stacks of thin, laminite-dominated
cycles that show brecciated cycle caps and quartz sands toward the relative sea level lowstand. On Fischer plots of dominantly
subtidal cyclic successions, long-term sea-level rise is characterized by storm-dominated, open marine carbonate cycles or thick,
deep ramp, shale-based cycles. Falling segments of the Fischer plot are characterized by thin, shallow subtidal cycles composed of
restricted lithofacies. Cycle stacking patterns (parasequence sets) provide the crucial link between the meter-scale cycles (parasequences) and the larger scale sequences and their component systems tracts.
One- and two-dimensional models of pedtidal and subtidal cycle development indicate that, whereas peritidal cycle thickness is
primarily controlled by accommodation space, deeper subtidal cycle thickness is primarily controlled by sedimentation rate. Lithofaties within peritidal cycles reflect the sedimentologic response to fluctuations in sea level; lithofacies within subtidal cycles m a y be
related to fluctuations in the zones of fairweather and storm-wave reworking that oscillated in harmony with sea-level fluctuations
and m a y have acted as a subtidal limit to upward aggradation. The 2-D modelling illustrates how stacked peritidal to deep subtidal
carbonate cycles with thicknesses, compositions and stacking patterns similar to the Late Cambrian of North America can be
generated by Milankovitch-driven composite eustasy.

INTRODUCTION

Hierarchies of stratigraphic cyclicity have long been

recognized throughout the geologic record (e.g., Barrell
1917; Fischer 1964; Koersehner and Read 1989; Gold-

h a m m e r et al. 1990; Borer and Harris 1991) and appear

to be related to the combined effects of several orders of
relative sea-level oscillations. Shallowing-upward, meterscale carbonate cycles (parasequences) tend to be systematically arranged within larger-scale successions (parase-

JOURNAL OF SEDIMENTARYPETROLOGY,VOL. 6 !, NO. 7, Dec., 199 l, P. 1225-1252

Copyright 1991, SEPM (Society for Sedimentary Geology) 0022-4472/91/0061-1225/$03.00

1226

DA V1D O S L E G E R

H(

LATE CAMBRIAN
SEDIMENTARY FACIES

[ ~ ] Cratonal siliciclaslics
Shallowmarinecarbonates
Basinal sAiciclastics

Fio. ! .--Location map of sections measured in the study. Late Cambrian base map modified from Palmer (1974) to show the inner and
outer detrital belts and the middle carbonate belt.
quence sets). Stacking patterns of the meter-scale cycles
(stratigraphic trends in cycle thickness and composition)
can be used to identify large-scale sequences, their component systems tracts, and long-term relative sea-level
changes. An interbasinal study of Late Cambrian pericratonic cyclic carbonates was conducted by logging meter-scale cycles of time-equivalent cyclic successions on
separate platforms to evaluate various types of cycles,
their stacking patterns, and potential mechanisms that
may have controlled their origin.
The objectives of this this paper are to: 1) describe Late
Cambrian peritidal to deep subtidal cycles and interpret
the environmental conditions under which upward-shallowing occurred; 2) evaluate the controlling mechanisms
o f meter-scale cycle formation (specifically the connection
with Milankovitch orbital variations); 3) illustrate characteristic stacking patterns of cycles that define rising and
falling portions of sea-level curves using Fischer plots;
and 4) use quantitative I - D and 2-D modelling to constrain the probable conditions under which coeval peritidal and subtidal cycles were deposited.
STRATIGRAPHICAND TECTONICSETTINGS
Complete sections of Late Cambrian strata were measured and logged bed-for-bed in the House Range of west
central Utah and in the Appalachian Mountains in Tennessee, Virginia and eastern Pennsylvania (Fig. 1). Biostratigraphic control o f the formations for each of the
localities (Fig. 2) was obtained from published work

A N D J. F R E D R E A D

(Palmer 1965, 1971a, 1971b; Derby 1965; Rassetti 1965;

Hintze 1974; Hintze and Palmer 1976; Hintze et al. 1980;
Eby 1981; Taylor and Miller 1981; Miller et al. 1982;
Orndorff 1988; Sundberg 1990). Primary estimates of
subsidence rate and cycle duration were made using the
D N A G time scale values for the duration of the Late
Cambrian (Palmer 1983). However, considerable controversy exists regarding the total duration of Cambrian time
(Cowie and Harland 1989), with new age dates (Benus
1988) supporting a much shorter time span. Therefore, a
conservative 50% margin of error is incorporated into all
calculations involving total Late Cambrian time.
Field locations were chosen on the basis of: 1) quality
of exposure and absence of structural complications, 2)
availability of biostratigraphic data (especially biomere
boundaries), and 3) platform location along the transition
between shallow-water carbonates and deeper-water finegrained siliciclastics where intertongueing relations best
define excursions in sea level. A total of 2200 m of section
was logged and numerous other sections previously described in the Appalachians (Zadnik 1960; Markello 1979;
Koerschner 1983; Demicco 1981) and in U t a h - N e v a d a
(Palmer 197 la; Kepper 1972; Lohmann 1976; Rees 1986)
were field-checked. Hand samples of individual lithofacies were slabbed and thin sectioned to provide additional
detail for paleoenvironmental interpretations. Details regarding the exact locations of sections and logs of stratigraphic intervals can be found in Osleger (1990).
The Appalachian and Cordilleran passive margins originated in response to breakup of a Late Proterozoic supercontinent around 625 to 555 Ma (Bond et al. 1984).
Both passive margins developed wedge-shaped prisms of
post-rift subtidal to peritidal carbonates and interlayered
siliciclastics during Late Cambrian time (Fig. 3). The Appalachian passive margin contains up to 1.6 km of Middle
to Late Cambrian shallow water carbonates and intrashelf
basin shale and siltstone (Read 1989). The Cordilleran
passive margin of the western United States accumulated
approximately 2.0 km of post-tiff Middle to Late Cambrian carbonates and fine siliciclastics (Stewart and Poole
1974; Levy and Christie-Blick 1989).
SHALLOWING-UPWARDMETER-SCALECYCLES
A spectrum of meter-scale peritidal to deep subtidal
carbonate cycles (1-15 m) can be recognized in Late Cambrian strata of the two passive margins (Figs. 4, 7). Successions of fining-upward peritidal cycles (Wilson 1952;
Chow and James 1987; Demicco 1985; Koerschner and
Read 1989) extend entirely across the broad Late Cambrian passive margin of the Appalachians but are restricted to a narrow zone near the Wasatch hinge line of
the coeval Cordilleran passive margin (Palmer 1971a;
Kepper 1972). Peritidal cycles in the Cordillera of Utah
grade seaward into shallow to deep subtidal cycles showing an upward increase in grain size, bed thickness, and
other indices of higher energy. Subtidal cycles are not
capped by intertidal lithofacies, nor do the subtidal cycles
exhibit exposure features such as microkarsting or vadose
dissolution/cementation. The cycles form a continuum

1227

EUS7"AS Y AND CYCLE STACKING PATTERNS OF LATE CAMBRIAN CARBONATES

I'~0
~

~ ~ i

BIOMERE

TRILOBITE
ZONE
MISSISSIOUOIA

SAUKIA

'RED TOPS

P~CHA.~OtD

z
u
HELLNMARIA

SARA TOGIA

m ~

COPPER
RIDGE I
CONOCOCHEAGUE

TAENICEPHAL US

UJ

EASTERN
PENN.

L A V A DAM

HOUSE
SW
RANGE, VIRGINIA
UTAH
NE TENN.

EL VJNIA

SNEAKOVER

OUNDERBERGIA

CORSET
SPRING

CEPHAUlD

JOHNS
WASH

ALLENTOWN
DOLOMITE

MAYNARD.
VILLE

APHELASPIS

CANDLAND
m
W

CREPICEPHAL US

BIG
HORSE

"523 AM - X

CEDARfA

MARJUMIID

WEEKS FM.

8
ELBROOK

BOLASPIDELLA

FIG. 2.--Biostraligraphicchart of Late Cambrian strata in the Cordilleran and Appalachian passive margins.
across the carbonate platforms and are genetically linked
to one another by shared lithofacies (Fig. 4) (Osleger 1991).
These asymmetric, meter-scale cycles are the parasequences of sequence stratigraphic terminology in that they
are "relatively conformable successions of genetically related beds bounded by marine flooding surfaces" (Van
Wagoner et al. 1987).
The vast majority of meter-scale cycles recognized on
both passive margins are asymmetric with relatively thin
basal lithofacies recording abrupt drowning and relatively
thick upper lithofacies recording gradual shoaling. Toward the outer platform of both passive margins, some
cycles exhibit subequal amounts of deepening and shallowing lithofacies. These symmetric cycles are relatively
rare, however, and are restricted to deeper water positions
on each platform. No deepening-upward cycles were recognized.
Estimations of average cycle duration are complicated
by errors in the absolute time scale, the effects of compaction, and assumptions of constant sedimentation rates.
Acknowledging these potential sources of error, average
cycle durations for non-decompacted Late Cambrian cycles range from roughly 40 to almost 150 ky. Taking a
conservative 50% margin of error into account, this range
of durations may extend from about 20 to 225 ky, the
normal range expected for meter-scale cycles (Algeo and
Wilkinson 1988).

tidal cycles comprise successions of hundreds of stacked

cycles but are difficult to correlate laterally in the Appalachians because of the distance between outcrops, the
lack of marker beds and the lack of precise biostratigraphic control. However, groups of time-equivalent Late
Cambrian cycles with distinct stacking patterns (fourthand third-order scale) can be correlated along the Ap-

LATE CAMBRIAN PLATFORMMORPHOLOGIES

APPALACHIAN REEF - RIMMED PLATFORM
NW

SE

UTAH - NEVADA DISTALLY - STEEPENED RAMP

W

Vertical and Lateral Consistency o f Cycles

Late Cambrian meter-scale cycles of the Appalachians

are extremely rhythmic vertically in outcrop with only
minor variations in the arrangement of component lithofacies (Demicco 198 l; Koersehner and Read 1989). Peri-

FIG. 3.--Late Cambrian platform morphologiesof the Appalachian

and Cordilleran passive margins. Formation and group names superimposed on lithologic symbols.

1228

DA VID OSLEGER AND J. FRED READ

GRADATION OF CYCLE "TYPESACROSS A LATE CAMBRIAN SHALLOW TO DEEP RAMP

SL

FWWB

o -~.~- o
o o o oOnOoOoO/.

--~- l

/,,'t~- cr ^-.

LAMINITE-CAPPED
PERmDAL CYCLE
THROMBOLJTE
BIOHERM,SHALLOW
SUBTIDALCYCLE
~
~ ]

~ I D GRAI~T~E,
SHALLOW SUBTIDAL
CYCLE

"

RYPTALGAL
LAMINITE
THICK
LAMINITE

I ~

SKELETAL'PELLETAL

I~:-~-~-'PACKSTONEWITH
I

'

I STORMBEDS

RIBBON
ROCK

BURROWED
WACKESTONE

[~]

THROMBOUTIC
BOUNDSTONE

PELOIDALWACKESTONE
PACK,STONE

SKELETAL PACKSTONE,
MID-RAMPCYCLE

SPICUUT1CWACKESTONE,
DEEP RAMPCYCLE

700IDJNTRACLAST
GRAIN,STONE

ARGILLACEOUS
NODULARWACKESTONE

FIG. 4.--Arrangement of peritidal to deep subtidal cycle types across a hypothetical Late Cambrian platform. Note the location of the zones
of fairweather and storm-wavereworkingand their relation to cycle types.

palachians from Virginia to Pennsylvania using Fischer

plots (Read 1989; Osleger and Read, unpublished data).
Subtidal cycles of the Utah Cordillera are repetitive
over 15 to 40 successive cycles before gradually changing
to a different cycle type. In the House Range, cycles can
be tracked as subparallel bands for many kilometers along
the mountain flank and meter-scale deep subtidal cycles
can be correlated between outcrops greater than 45 km
apart (Fig. 5), indicating that the subtidal cycles are not
local facies mosaics. No up-dip peritidal cycles exist that
can be directly correlated with down-dip subtidai cycles
in the House Range.

Lithofacies and Depositional Environments

Peritidai Cycles.--Laminite-capped cycles (0.4-7.0 m)

of the Appalachian Late Cambrian are composed of a
basal ooid-intraclast grainstone lag deposit overlain by
either ribbon carbonates or thrombolite boundstones (Table 1; Fig. 4). The cycles are capped by mudcracked thick
laminites and/or cryptalgal laminites; quartz arenites or
carbonate clast breccias may cap some cycles, particularly
during long-term relative sea-level fall. The cycles exhibit
abrupt upper and lower boundaries but have gradational
internal boundaries between iithofacies. Peritidal cycles
extend over much of the Appalachian reef-rimmed shelf
(Zadnik 1960; Reinhardt 1977; Demicco 1981; Read

1985) and are recognized within the Elbrook, Copper

Ridge, Conococheague and Allentown Formations.
The basal ooid-intraclast sandy lag deposit migrated
onto the underlying tidal fiat cap from shallow offshore
wave-agitated shoals during initial rapid transgression.
Hardgrounds developed on the lag deposit as the transgressive rise of sea level outpaced sediment production.
As the rate of relative sea-level rise decreased, thrombolites locally established themselves on marine-cemented grainstone lags and grew to sea level. Ribbon
rocks accumulated adjacent to bioherms in shallow subtidal to lower intertidal conditions. The rippled peloidal
silts/fine sands were laid down during storms with drapes
of lime mud settling out during the waning stages (Demicco 1983).
Progressive shallowing and progradation is reflected in
the upward transition into increasingly mudcracked ribbon rocks, SH and L L H stromatolites and thick laminites.
Centimeter-scale thick laminites are mechanically-deposited couplets of fine pelodial silts and mud drapes laid
down on the intertidal fiats by storm and tidal currents
(Hardie and Ginsburg 1977). This lithofacies often caps
cycles or grades up into cryptalgal laminites. Lack of burrowing, abundant mudcracks, silicified evaporite nodules
and windblown quartz sand within laminite lithofacies
indicate hypersaline and semiarid conditions. Cratonically-derived quartz sands (Wilson 1952; Koerschner and
Read 1989) were probably brought in during long-term

1229

E USTAS Y ,tND CYCLE STACKING PA TTERNS OF LATE CAMBRIAN CARBONATES

falls in relative sea level and were incorporated into cycle

caps during short-term regression or reworked by the succeeding marine transgression into the basal lag deposit of
the succeeding cycle.
Relatively few characteristics of supratidal conditions
have been observed in peritidal cycles of the Appalachians (Hardie and Shinn 1986; Koerschner and Read 1989).
The absence of bedded evaporites (other than isolated
silicified nodules), the relative scarcity of dissolution
breccias and the lack of erosional relief along the sharp
top of laminite caps may indicate erosional removal during the formation of a deflation surface down to paleowatertables. Supratidal evaporites may have been dissolved during the occasional rains that occurred in the
semi-arid climate. Lack of land plants would have not
favored caliche development, and the prevailing desiccating conditions might have inhibited cementation,
making erosional removal of supratidal sediment by eolian action a tenable mechanism for forming the planar
surface at the tops of most laminite caps. However, some
evidence o f exposure, non-deposition and erosion is exhibited. Relatively scarce, irregular veneers of carbonate
clast breccia fill solution-enhanced lows at the top of some
caps and are probably thin regoliths that developed on
the non-vegetated Late Cambrian exposed flats. Fossil
molds and geopetally-filled leach voids in subtidal limestones indicate flushing by undersaturated meteoric waters (Koerschner and Read 1989) during relative sea level
falls.
Shallow Subtidal Cycles.--Shallow subtidal cycles are
defined by the interpreted paleowater depth of the cycle
cap and include cycles capped by thrombolite bioherms,
ooid grainstones and skeletal packstones. Paleowater
depths are based upon m o d e m analogs of the lithofacies
and their sedimentary structures.
Cycles capped by thrombolite bioherms (1.5-12.0 m)
consist of a basal dark gray peloidal packstone overlain
by stacked thrombolite-stromatolte bioherms and laterally equivalent light gray cross-bedded peloidal-oncolitic
grainstone (Table 2; Fig. 4). These cycles record progradation of shallow subtidal bioherms and associated high
energy grainstones over slightly deeper subtidal peloidal
packstones of a restricted shelf. More than thirty of these
cycles are recognized within the upper Hellnmaria Member of the Notch Peak Formation throughout the House
Range of west central Utah.
These cycles were initiated by onlap of peloidal packstones/wackestones onto thrombolite-stromatolite bioherrns. Horizontal to low angle cross-lamination, lack of
recognizable skeletal material, and dark gray bioturbated
textures suggest restricted, quiet water (but not necessarily
deep) deposition. With slowing of the rate of short-term
relative sea-level rise, thrombolitic bioherm complexes
were able to establish themselves on hardgrounds or other
stable substrates. The bioherms are laterally discontinuous, suggesting development as isolated, shallow subtidal "patch reefs" on top of the basal peloidal veneer.
Continued slow rates of relative sea-level rise are indicated by the stacking of individual bioherms up to 12 m
thick without intervening bedded lithofacies. Many of the

STEAMBOAT PASS,
S. HOUSE RANGE

ORR RIDGE,
N. HOUSE RANGE

PTEROCEPHALIID
.

I"
I

I I
I

BIOMERE

--

~-

- "
, - -I
i!~! ~i:ii!ii!iiii~ii,,/

1 "!

,"

" |'l

,J

I
i Vl "

I"

- I |

/
i

"1

J,

! 1 ~ _ _

ii'

.,;I
wP

FIG. 5.--Correlation of deep subtidal cycles within the Sneakover

Pass Member, Orr Formation, across 45 km within the House Range.
Correlation based upon the Orr/Notch Peak and Steamboat Spring/
Sneakover formational boundaries.
thrombolitic bioherms have stromatolitic laminae outlining the outer surface of the mound, and some stromatolitic biohermal layers are interbedded within the
dominantly thrombolitic complex (Fig. 4). This implies
either episodic shallowing to intertidal depths or perhaps
variations in salinity (and associated grazing and boring
epifauna) related to periodically restricted conditions on
the platform (Aitken 1967; Kennard and James 1986).
Shallow subtidal conditions for the thrombolites are
supported by the laterally equivalent light gray, crossbedded peloidal-oncolitic-oolitic-intraclastic grainstones

DA V1D O S L E G E R A N D J. F R E D R E A D

1230

TABLE 1.--Peritidal lithofacies

Intraclast Breccia (5-20 cm)

Bedding Characteristics: Laterally discontinuous veneers of angular to

Ribbon Carbonate (0.5-4.0 m)

Bedding Characteristics: Alternating irregular layers of peloidal lime-

elongate intraclasts in a calcrete matrix within mudcracked laminite

lithofacies; often abundant quartz sand; intraclasts often poorly sorted
with no preferred orientation or grading; irregular upper surface usually overlain by oolitic grainstone.
Internal Composition/Texture: Angular elasts composed of LLH stromatolites and cryptalgal laminites and have corrodcd edges and doiomitic rinds; quartz sand grains are moderately sorted, subrounded
and frosted; vuggy voids common.

stone and dolomitic mud; discrete burrowing; some gutter scours with
cross-laminated peloidal fill; shallow mudcracks become more abundant upward; c o m m o n flat pebble conglomerate beds with internal
scours, hardgrounds, and m u d drapes; often flank and overlie thrombolite bioherms; fine upward into thick laminites.
Internal Composition/Texture: Peloidal packstones grade upward into
argillaceous dolomite caps; peloidal laminae contain minor quartz
silt and skeletal debris and show occasional scoured bases and lowangle cross-lamination; flat pebble beds composed of imbricate discoidal clasts of laminated peloidal packstone or doiomitic mudstone;
matrix between clasts consists of sand-size intmclasts, trilobite and
echinoderm debris, pellets, and minor quartz silt.

Cryptaigal Laminite (0.2-3.0 m)

Bedding Characteristics: Dolomite; mm-scale planar and crinkly laminations; mudcracks, deep prism cracks, tepees and silicified evaporite
nodules common; thin flat pebble conglomerates and m u d chip intraclast layers; occasional 1-3 grain thick quartz sand stringers; grades
upward from ribbon rock or more commonly thick laminite; occasionally capped by irregular cherty breccias but more typically overlain by intraclastic transgressive lag of overlying cycle; some cycles
are reversing with the cryptalgal laminite coarsening upward into less
mudcracked thick laminite.
Internal Composition/Texture: Laminar couplets composed of basal siltsize peloidal packstones grading up into mudstone laminae; some
low-angle cross-lamination and micro-scoured bases in peloidal silts;
some laminoid fenestrae.

Stromatolite Bonndstone (0.5-2.5 m)

Bedding Characteristics: SH and LLH stromatolites typically encrust
tops of thrombolite bioherms or basal grainstone lags; fingers often
coalesce into fan-like forms or crenulated sheets; club shapes c o m m o n
toward the tops of bioherm complexes; commonly surrounded laterally by intraclast-peloidal packstones or ribbon rocks which onlap
and smother the stromatolites.
Internal Composition/Texture: Alternating mm-scale laminae of dolomitic peloidal silts and muds; some irregular and laminoid fenestrae;
some thin quartz silt laminae and coarser laminae of intraclasts.

Thick Laminite (0.2-3.0 m)

Bedding Characteristics: Dolomite; cm-scale laminations of silt and

Thrombolite Boundstone (0.5-2.5 m)

Bedding Characteristics: Globose to upward-widening flat-topped bio-

m u d couplets; laminations planar to wavy to discontinuous; c o m m o n

cross-laminated scour fills and current ripples; some short mudcracks
and silicified evaporite nodules; commonly overlie ribbon rocks; usually grade up into cryptalgal laminite but sometimes will cap incomplete cycles.
Internal Composition/Texture: Couplets consist of peloid-quartz silt
packstone that grades up into dolomitic mudstone; some well-rounded quartz sand laminae 1 or 2 grains thick; some laminoid fenestrae.

herms to coalescent biostromes; individual bioherrns often stacked

on top of one another (up to 12 m thick) without intervening continuous bedded lithologies; digitate fingers (1--6 cm high x 1-2 cm wide)
have erosional edges, are grouped in clusters and often overlie massive
cores of thrombolites; lime sand interhead fill flank and locally onlap
and blanket bioherms; bi-directional and high-angle cross-bedding,
scours and multiple hardgrounds c o m m o n in interhead fill; lime sands
fine upward into ribbon carbonates; thrombolites typically nucleate
on underlying intraclastic grainstone lag.
Internal Composition/Texture: Clotted micritic textures; commonly
grain-rich reflecting the composition o f the interhead fill; small intraclasts, skeletal debris, ooids and pellets are dominant components;
fingers show traces of Girvanella, thin stringers of micfite and microspar cements; Renalcis recognized toward the base of many of the
bioherrns; c o m m o n irregular fenestrae with geopetal fillings.

which resemble modem, high energy, non-skeletal grainstones enveloping growing stromatolitic bioherms in tidal channels in the Bahamas (Dill et al. 1986). Irregularly
laminated oncolites, coated peloids, and high-angle tabular

Burrowed wackestone/packstones are subtidal facies

deposited below fairweather wave base under normal marine conditions. Pervasive bioturbation (ichnofabric index 3-5; Droser and Bottjer 1986), bioclastic debris, and
clusters of pellets suggest an active infauna. Laterally discontinuous skeletal packstone lenses with erosional bases
and burrowed tops are rapidly deposited storm beds that
escaped homogenization by burrowers. The abundant
quartz silt may have been transported from the craton
across the inner detrital belt (Palmer 197 la) and onto the
carbonate platform through a west-trending subtidal
channel that debouched near the House Range (Lohmann
1977).
With shoaling, skeletal sand sheets migrated across the
burrowed wackestones and were reworked by storm and
wave currents. Megarippled units suggest emplacement
as sand waves and shallow bars. The upward transition
from open marine skeletal packstones to oncolitic-peloidal grainstones indicates increasingly shallow, restricted
conditions (Enos 1983), perhaps peripheral to active ooid
shoals (Hine 1977).

erossbedded

grainstones

that alternate with horizontally

bedded packstones reflect variable energy conditions. The

lack of open marine fauna within the inter-bioherm grainstones may reflect either elevated salinities on the restricted platform or intermittent high wave or tidal energies on mobile sandy substrates that precluded the
establishment o f grazing organisms. Only the robust mollusks Mathevia and Matherella are found associated with
the bioherms, supporting the case for high energy conditions.
Cycles capped by ooid grainstone (0.5-4.2 m) consist
of burrowed wackestone/packstone grading up into oncolite-skeletal packstone/grainstone capped by oolitic
grainstone (Table 2; Fig. 4). The succession of lithofacies
record progradation of oolitic shoals over deeper ramp
lithofacies and occur in the Big Horse Member, Orr Formation of the House Range of Utah (Lohmann 1976).

I:'US7;1SY AND ('YCLE ST.4C'KING P.4TTERNS OF LATE CAMBRIAN CARBONATES

Ooid Grainstone (0.1 -1.5 m)

Bedding Characteristics: Thin to medium bedded, common high angle
crossbedding; random stacked hardgrounds; gradationally overlie
skeletal-oncoliticgrainstones; abruptly overlain by burrowed (ii3-ii5)
wackestone/packstone lithofacies.
Internal Composition/Texture: 90-95% well-sorted ooids; common oolitic intraclasts and random subangular quartz sand grains; ooids are
concentrically laminated and have echinoderm-trilobite-quartz silt
nuclei; isopachous marine cement rims and fine to medium equant
spar cements; some dolomitized ooids.
Peloidal Grainstone (1.0-4.0 m)
Bedding Characteristics: Thin to medium-bedded dolomite; light to
medium gray cross-bedded grainstones; laterally equivalent to (and
gradationally onlap) thrombolitic-stromatolitic biohenns; abruptly
overlain by either thin-bedded, evenly-laminated dark gray peloidal
dolomites or thrombolitic bioherms.
Internal CompositioniTexture: Fine to medium crystalline dolomite;
dominantly peloidal grainstones with variable numbers of large oncolites, ooids and intraclasts (all seen as ghosts); flat pebble conglomerates in lenses and scours; robust Mathevia and Matherella mollusk
shells; some internal mm-scale gentle cross-lamination of peloids.

The crossbedded oolitic grainstone cap resulted from

progradation of ooid shoal complexes as migrating spillover lobes that formed in response to storm or tidal currents (Hine 1977; Harris 1979). Rounded oolitic intraclasts indicate early marine cementation and the lack of
leached ooids or other vadose features suggests continual
submergence.
Cycles capped by skeletal packstone (1.0-7.5 m) are
composed of basal nodular argillaceous wackestone overlain by burrowed, storm-deposited wackestone/packstone coarsening upward into a skeletal packstone cap.
(Table 2; Fig. 4). They occur in the lower Big Horse Member (Orr Formation) of the House Range. These cycles
developed on the mid-ramp at intermediate water depths
above the zone of storm wave reworking seaward of ooid
grainstone shoals. The succession of lithofacies record
gradually increasing storm influence as the platform shallowed to skeletal shoal depths.
The basal nodular, argillaceous wackestone is a distal
storm facies deposited on the middle ramp between burrowed wackestones and packstones and deeper water siliciclastic muds (Aigner 1985). The low angle cross-laminated rnicropeloidal and quartz silty layers within the
modular limestones were probably transported seaward
from the shallow ramp during periodic storms. Nodules
may have formed early by submarine lithification under
weak bottom currents (Mullins et al. 1980) or may be the
result of late pressure solution and compaction. Argillaceous muds fell out of suspension during waning storm
activity. The two sediment types were mixed by the burrowing infauna.
As the depositional surface shallowed with aggradation,
the argillaceous content of the sediment decreased, grain
size and skeletal content generally increased, and the
abundance of storm beds with hummocky cross-stratification increased. Storm-deposited skeletal packstones (520 cm) are laterally discontinuous, fine upward and, from

1231

Skeletal-Oncolitic Grainstone (0.5-2.5 m)

Bedding characteristics: Thin to medium bedded; megarippled, high
angle crossbeds; commonly coarsen upward from skeletal packstone
up to interbedded oncolitic and skeletal grainstones; random interbedded lenses of burrowed (ii3-ii5) wackestone low in lithofacies
and occasional interbedded short digitate stromatolite fingers high in
lithofacies; gradationally overlies burrowed wackestone lithofacies
and underlies oolitic grainstone lithofacies.
Internal CompositioniTexture: Cm-size, well-rounded oncolites with
large intraclast cores; some multigenerational oncolites; moderate
sorting; random peloids and muddy intraclasts; micritic and abundant
turbid marine cements. Skeletal packstone/grainstones composed of
abundant trilobite and echinoderm debris and common pellets and
rounded elongate muddy intraclasts; some alignment and imbrication
of allochems; some crystal silt-filled geopetal voids and shelter porosity.

base to top, consist of: 1) sharp, scoured bases, 2) skeletal

debris with peloids and mud perched above shells with
pendant bladed marine cements extending down into nowoccluded shelter pores, 3) hummocky cross-stratified peloidal packstones and 4) bioturbated calcisiltite caps. This
allochthonous debris was transported by storm-generated
currents and then reworked by oscillatory shear currents
(Aigner 1985). Upward within individual cycles, skeletal
material becomes more abundant and storm deposits appear amalgamated with numerous wavy beds of subtly
graded skeletal debris. Common platy ginanellid crusts
are imbricated and suggest that the packstone cycle cap
may have formed within the photic zone (Pfeil and Read
1980).
Deep Ramp/Intrashelf Basin Cycles.-Deep subtidal
cycles are characterized by sedimentary structures within
the cycle cap indicative of deposition below the zone of
storm wave reworking. These cycles are commonly shaly
and may be capped by spiculiticwackestone, skeletal storm
beds or flat-pebble conglomerates.
Cycles capped by spiculitic wackestone (0.7-3.1 m) are
composed of basal nodular argillaceous mudstone overlain by burrowed spiculitic wackestone with upward-increasing skeletal packstone lenses (Table 3; Figs. 4-6).
These cycles occur in the Sneakover Member (Orr Formation) and in the Hellnmaria and Lava Dam Members
(Notch Peak Formation) of the House Range. Very similar deep ramp cycles have been described in the Upper
Muschelkalk of the South-German Basin (Aigner 1985)
and the Catalan Basin of Spain (Calvet and Tucker 1988).
Spiculitic wackestone-capped cycles of the House Range
developed on the deep ramp very near the base of storm
wave reworking seaward of the skeletal-packstone capped
cycles. The abundant bioturbation (ii3-ii5) and trilobite
and echinoderm debris within storm beds attest to welloxygenated, normal marine conditions.
Shaly cycles capped by skeletal storm beds (2.5-1 5.0 m)

1232

DA VID OSLEGER AND J. FRED READ

TABLE3.--Deep subtidal lithofacies

Thin-bedded Peioidal Packstones (1.0-4.0 m)

Bedding Characteristics: Dolomitized, dark gray, thin to medium-bed-

Burrowed Wackestone/Packstone (0.5-4.0 m)

Bedding Characteristics: Nodular to wavy thin beds ofdoiomitic, mot-

ded peloidal packstones; random cm-scale horizontally laminated

horizons; abruptly overlie light gray cross-bedded peloidal facies and
thrombolite bioherms; occasionallydifferentiallycompacted beneath
biohermal mounds.
Internal CompositionFFexture:Consist internally of dolomitized dark
gray peloids and patchy micrite; evenly laminated; probable burrowing traces; lack any of the sedimentary features and grain types exhibited in the distinct cross-bedded peloidal grainstone lithofacies.

tled limestone;thin quartz siltstone lensesabundant; occasionalskeletal packstone lenses; pervasively bioturbated (ii4-iiS); gradational
contact with overlying oncolitic-skeletal packstones; abrupt lower
contact with ooid grainstones of underlyingcycle.
Internal Com0osition/Textare:Silt-sizefinelycomminuted grains dominant with floating, randomly oriented echinoderm-trilobite debris
common; clusters of peloids; abundant subangular quartz silt to fine
sand; discrete burrows commonly dolomitized (ferroan); medium
equant dolomite/calcite void-fillingcements.

Nodular Argillaceous Waekestone (1.0-8.0 m)

Bedding Characteristics: Discontinuous, nodular, wavy and thin-bed-

ded; recessive weathering;argillaceousseams with concentrations of

ferroandolomiteseparate platymudstone/wackestoae;quartz siltlenses
common; random very low-anglecross-laminatedlensesand nodules;
some ram-scale horizontal laminations;common horizontal burrows
on tops of bedding planes.
Internal Comoosifion/Texture:Variable intermixed textures from mudstone through packstone with wackestone dominant; micropeioids
and quartz silt dominant alongwith finelycomminuted skeletaldebris
includingsponge spicules;patchy lime mud; occasionalfloatingelongate trilobite fragments;peloids and quartz silt alternate in low angle
mm-scale cross-laminations with divergent dip angles (hummocky
cross-stratification?)

consist o f a thick basal shale abruptly overlain by upwardcoarsening skeletal wackestone/packstones (Table 4; Fig.
7). These cycles occur in the C a n d l a n d Shale, Corset Spring
Shale a n d Steamboat Pass M e m b e r s of the Orr F o r m a t i o n
of Utah. These cycles c o m m o n l y characterize long-term
rises in relative sea level that cause onlap of deep outer
ramp siliciclastic facies onto shallow r a m p carbonate facies.
The thick basal shale formed below the zone o f storm
wave reworking. Siliciclastic clays accumulated in a dysaerobic e n v i r o n m e n t , as indicated by the olive green to
dark gray color, mildly bioturbated laminae, a n d sparse
trilobite and phosphatic brachiopod fauna. The clays were
probably derived from the craton a n d were transported
across the carbonate belt (perhaps through the House
Range E m b a y m e n t trough) and onto the deep r a m p as
dilute clouds or bottom-hugging nepheloid layers (Boardm a n a n d N e u m a n n 1984).
The uppermost carbonate beds o f these shale-dominated cycles reflect rapid shallowing from shale to bioturbated wackestones up into skeletal packstones. A few
o f these cycles shallow up to large (1.5 x 1.5 m) t h r o m bolitic bioherms that nucleated on flat-pebble conglomerate storm beds. The abrupt transition in paleowaterdepths between the deep, quiet water shales (perhaps water
depths of > 40 to 60 m) and the shallow, clear water
carbonates (perhaps water depths between 5 to 20 m)
suggests that these cycles probably did n o t form by simple
aggradation, which would provide a m a x i m u m o f only
15 m o f shallowing, but rather experienced a relative sea
level rise (shales) followed by relative sea level fall (car-

Spiculitic Wackcstone (0.7-2.5 m)

Bedding Characteristics: Ledge-forming,medium to thick-bedded;mot-

tled medium to dark gray; black chert in discontinuous lenses and

nodules; thoroughly bioturbated (ii5-ii6) with ferroan dolomitized
horizontal burrows; skeletal packstone lenses become more common
toward top of lithofacies;gradual lower contact with underlyingnodular mudstones and abrupt upper contact with overlying nodular
mudstones.
Internal Composition/Textare:Alternatingcm-scale mudstones/wackestones and subordinate lenses and wavy beds of skeletal packstones;
wackestones are stronglyburrow-homogenized(ii5-ii6); spongespicules dominate with common trilobite and echinoderm debris; pellets
associated with burrows; some admixed quartz silt; packstone lenses
have erosive scoured bases and are composed of unbroken elongate
skeletal debris and muddy intraclasts with occluded shelter porosity
and perched peloidal muds; some grading is evident with lenses with
mud drapes at the top; some gentlemicro-cross-laminationsofpeloids
with bidirectional orientations.

bonates) (Osleger 1991). No evidence of subaerial exposure o f the skeletal carbonates or the bioherms is recognized, indicating that sea level n e v e r fell below the
platform. With renewed relative short-term sea level rise,
carbonate s e d i m e n t a t i o n ceased and the skeletal sands or
bioherms were abruptly covered with clays deposited below the zone o f storm wave reworking.
Shaly cycles capped by flat-pebble conglomerates (0.85.5 m) consist o f a basal calcareous green-brown shale
grading upward into cross-laminated peloidal grainstones
a n d quartz siltstones. T h e cycles are capped by amalgamated flat-pebble conglomerate beds (Table 4; Fig. 7).
They occur in the Nolichucky F o r m a t i o n , Virginia a n d
Tennessee (Markello a n d Read 1982), a n d in Late C a m brian strata o f central Texas (Osleger 1990), M o n t a n a
(Sepkoski 1982), a n d the southern C a n a d i a n Rockies
(Aitken 1978).
The Nolichucky cycles record deposition above a n d
below a fluctuating zone of storm wave reworking in a
shallow intrashelf basin. The Conasauga basin was adj a c e n t to the craton a n d derived its siliciclastic s e d i m e n t
from distant deltas (Hasson and Haase 1988; Read 1989).
The base o f storm wave reworking m a y have been shallow
due to the barrier effect of the peritidal Elbrook platform
to seaward (Markello and Read 1982). Progressive shallowing within i n d i v i d u a l cycles is indicated by a n increase
in grain size and in storm-generated sedimentary structures. The peloidal grainstone/quartz siltstone lithofacies
was deposited u n d e r the influence of oscillatory shear
currents as indicated by parallel l a m i n a t i o n a n d microh u m m o c k y cross-stratification.

1233

E U S T A S Y AND C Y C L E S T A C K I N G PA T T E R N S O F L A T E C A M B R I A N C A R B O N A T E S

The flat-pebble conglomerate caps o f the cycles were

d e p o s i t e d during severe storms that e r o d e d the underlying
semi-lithified peloidal grainstone a n d redeposited the
rounded, elongate clasts within tabular to lenticular beds
(Sepkoski 1982). Multi-generational clasts a n d thin m u d
drapes that separate conglomerate beds within amalgam a t e d units were f o r m e d by m u l t i p l e storm events. Diverse skeletal debris within the m a t r i x between clasts reflects n o r m a l m a r i n e conditions.
MECHANISMS CONTROLLING METER-SCALE
CYCLE DEVELOPMENT
M e c h a n i s m s p r o p o s e d to explain the genesis o f meterscale carbonate cycles have focused on peritidal cycles
c o m m o n throughout the rock record. T h e recognition o f
shallow to deep subtidal cycles that formed simultaneously with peritidal cycles requires s o m e modification o f the
m e c h a n i s m s p r o p o s e d for the peritidal cycles. Three
m o d e l s have been suggested to explain the origin o f shallowing-upward, meter-scale cycles: 1) autocyclicity, 2) episodic subsidence, and 3) high-frequency oscillations in
eustatic sea level. Each o f the p r o p o s e d m e c h a n i s m s m u s t
explain the upward shallowing o f i n d i v i d u a l cycles, the
repetitive stacking o f similar cycles t h r o u g h o u t a vertical
sequence, a n d the s i m u l t a n e o u s d e v e l o p m e n t o f tidal flatc a p p e d cycles a n d subtidal cycles across a carbonate platform.
A utocyclicity

FIo. 6.-- Deep ramp cycleswith spiculitic wackestone caps, Sneakover

Member, Orr Formation, House Range. Basal lithofacies is composed
of argillaceous nodular wackestones and exhibits a recessive weathering
pattern. Overlying ledge-forming cap consists of spiculitic wackestone
with upward-increasing storm-deposited packstone lenses composed of
open marine skeletal debris.

The autocyclic m o d e l (Ginsburg 1971; Wilkinson 1982;

H a r d i e et al. 1991) d e p e n d s u p o n the periodic prograd a t i o n o f tidal flats o v e r the subtidal carbonate factory
to restrict the size o f the carbonate source area, effectively

SHALE-BASED CYCLES
INTRASHELF BASIN

DEEP SHALY

RAMP
SL B

i3WB/
i i !i i i SWB!i!i!i

FIAT-PEBBLE
CONGLOMERATE
SHALY CYCLE
KEY
'~-~

TOLITI'-IOLOGIES

,SKELETN.
PACK.STONE

FLATPEBBLE
CONGLOMERATE

l ~

PELOIDAL
PACK/GRNNSTONE
BURROWED
WACKESTONE

SKELETAL PACKSTONE
SHALY CYCLE

GREEN-BROWN
SHALE

FIG. 7. Late Cambrian shaly cyclesof the Conasauga intrashelfbasin of the Appalachians and of the Cordilleran deep ramp of Utah. Siliciclastic
-

shales are abruptly overlain by "clear-water carbonates" with storm-deposited caps. Note the possible shallower position of storm-wave base in

the protected intrashelf basin.

1234

DA bTD O S L E G E R A N D J. F R E D R E A D
TABLE 4.--Shaly deep ramp/intrashe~'basin lithofacies

Flat Pebble Conglomerate (0.1-0.6 m)

Bedding Characteristics: Amalgamated irregular thin beds and lenses
cap coarsening-upward cycles; scoured bases common into underlying
peloidal grainstones and quartz siltstones; elongate clasts imbricated
to edgewise to random orientations; mud drapes separate individual
beds within amalgamated units; matrix includes skeletal debris and
glauconite; abruptly overlain by shale (Noliehueky) or peloidal siltstone (Point Peak) lithofacies.
Internal Composition/Texture: Elongate rounded clasts typically composed of laminated peloidal grainstone and quartz siltstone of underlying lithofacies; clasts less commonly composed of skeletal packstone (Nolichucky) or micritic-spiculitic (Point Peak); many clasts
have iron-stained rinds and are often bored; matrix between clasts
consists of peloids and skeletal debris (abundant brachiopod-trilobiteechinoderm in Point Peak); quartz silt common; some occluded shelter porosity and perched peloidal muds.

Peloid Grainstone/Quartz Siltstone (0.4-2.0 m)

Bedding Characteristics: Interlaminated calcareous siltstones and silty
peloidal grainstones in thin irregular beds; internal parallel and hummocky cross-lamination; typically grades from quartz silty toward the
base to dominantly peloidal grainstones at the top of the lithofacies;
lower contact with shale lithofacies (Nolichucky Fm only) begins with
very thin siltstone beds intercalated within the shale eventually becoming pure calcareous peloidal siltstone; this facies forms the base
of the cycles in the Point Peak where they are platy bedded and. less
well-cemented but otherwise identical to the Nolichucky laminated
peloidal quartz siltstones; Cruziana trace fossils; coarsens upward into
amalgamated flat pebble conglomerates or, less commonly, skeletalooid packstones.
Internal Composition/Texture: Peloids and quartz silt are dominant
grain types with subordinate finely-comminuted skeletal debris; some
laminae show very fine normal grading; fine skeletal debris--dominantly echinoderms and trilobites.

Calcareous Shale (0.5-10.0 m)

Bedding Characteristics: Olive green to dark gray fissile shale; breaks into small chips upon separation suggesting bioturbation; random, very
thin lime mudstone beds increase in frequency upward in the lithofacies; overlain by calcareous quartz siltstone lithofacies (Nolichucky) or
thin nodular wackestone (Candland and Corset Springs); abruptly overlie flat pebble eonglomerate/skeletal-ooid grainstone lithofacies or
thrombolitic bioherms.
Internal Composition/Texture: Composed of clay-sized micas and associated clay minerals as well as calcareous micropeloids; occasionally fine
trilobite and phosphatic brachiopod fragments.

shutting down carbonate production until tectonic subsidence recreates broad shoal-water areas. Implicit in the
model are the assumptions of static sea level over tens
to hundreds of thousands of years and complete shoaling
to tidal levels. Weaknesses in this model are the inordinately long lag times (> 20 ky) necessary for the creation
of water depth sufficient to resume carbonate production
and the assumption of complete non-deposition over tens
of thousands of years (Grotzinger 1986b; Koerschner and
Read 1989; Read et al. 1991). Perhaps the biggest drawback to autocyclic control is the simultaneous development of purely subtidal cycles that, by definition, have
no progradational tidal fiat cap that could influence the
shrinking of the carbonate factory (Grotzinger 1986b).
The inability of the autocyclic model to explain incomplete shallowing of subtidal cycles that develop seaward
of peritidal cycles precludes it as a potential controlling
process on Late Cambrian cycle development.
Other autocyclic models invoke 1) the lateral migration
of tidal channels to produce shallowing-upward peritidal
cycles (Cloyd et al. 1990) and 2) autocyclic responses to
"sediment production, tidal variations, and wave and
storm activity" to explain the lack of lateral correlatability
of Cambro-Ordovician pefitidal cycles in eastern Tennessee (Kozar et al. 1990). As with the progradational
model (Ginsburg 1971), variations in sediment accumulation and redistribution cannot explain the origin of
regional subtidal cycles, but may contribute to variability
in the internal composition o f individual cycles (Osleger
1991). Autocyclic mechanisms may only be viable as an
explanation of stratigraphic "noise" within individual cycles but probably do not control the development of repetitive stacks of cycles or the synchronous development
of pefitidal and subtidal cycles on Late Cambrian platforms.

Episodic Subsidence
Repeated pulses of downfaulting have been proposed
(Hardie et al. 1986; Cisne 1986) to generate abruptly the
accommodation potential for asymmetric cycle development. If the stress limits between faulting episodes were
rhythmic based on some threshold value, then this model
could conceivably explain the coexistence ofpefitidal and
subtidal cycles. However, the lateral extent of such events
would be limited and could not explain the widespread
nature of carbonate cycles across entire platforms (e.g.,
Demicco 1985; Grotzinger 1986a; Hardie and Shinn
1986). Additionally, modern examples of tectonic pulsing
(Yeats 1978; Bull and Cooper 1986; Atwater 1987) are
restricted to tectonically active settings, poor analogs for
ancient mature passive margins such as existed during
Late Cambrian time. Other tectonic mechanisms such as
intraplate stress (Cloetingh 1986; Karner 1986) are too
slow (0.01-0.1 m/ky) and non-periodic to produce highfrequency meter-scale cycles. It seems hard to conceive
of repeated tectonic pulses (each 20 to 200 ky duration)
over millions of years to produce repetitive cycles (all
within a fairly narrow range of thicknesses) on mature
passive margins.

Eustatic Oscillations
High-frequency oscillations in sea level, probably controlled by fluctuations in glacial ice volume, provide the
simplest explanation for the origin of meter-scale peritidal
and subtidal cycles (Fischer 1964; Matthews 1984; Goodwin and Anderson 1985; G o l d h a m m e r et al. 1987;
Koerschner and Read 1989; numerous others). Considering the evidence for eustatic control on third-order sequence development (Vail et al. 1977; Haq et al. 1987;

EUSTAS Y AND CYCLE $724CKING PATTERNS OF LATE CAMBRIAN CARBONATES

Ross and Ross 1988; Osleger and Read, unpublished data),

it seems likely that higher frequency sea-level fluctuations
were superimposed on the longer-term sea level events
and, by association, were also eustatic in origin. Superimposed orders of eustatic sea-level oscillations (composite eustasy, G o l d h a m m e r et al. 1990) provide the best
explanation for the upward shallowing of individual cycles, stacking patterns with cyclic successions, and the
simultaneous development of peritidal cycles and subtidal cycles across carbonate platforms.
Although it seems clear that sea level fluctuated eustatically to generate individual meter-scale cycles as well as
stacked cyclic successions, the forcing mechanism behind
high-frequency sea level oscillations is far from certain.
It has been proven that Plio-Pleistocene sea levels fluctuated in response to variations in global ice volume as
a function of changes in solar insolation forced by Milankovitch astronomical rhythms (e.g., Hays et al. 1976;
Berger 1977). Temporal association with continental glaciations has made glacio-eustasy and Milankovitch orbital forcing probable as a cause of the Permo-Carboniferous cyclothems (Wanless and Shepard 1936; Heckel
1986). It has been more difficult to make a case for Milankovitch control on stratigraphic cyclicity in ancient rock
sequences deposited during times of more equable climates and no known major glaciations. Van Houten
(1964), Olsen (1986) and Anderson (1986) used varvecalibrated sedimentation rates to show Milankovitch periodicities for rocks of Triassic and Permian age. Schwarzacher and Fischer (1982), Schwarzacher and Haas (1986),
and G o l d h a m m e r et al. (1987) used a 5: ! recurrence ratio
of meter-scale cycles within megacycles, representing the
precession signal modulated by the short eccentricity signal, as evidence for Milankovitch control of Mesozoic
cycles. Borer and Harris ( 1991) recognized a 4:1 ratio for
Permian cycles and suggested that the bundling manifested 100 ky short eccentricity cycles superimposed within the 400 ky long eccentricity cycle.
Other attempts at showing a Milankovitch influence
on ancient cyclic sequences have depended upon the average periodicities of cycles that roughly coincide with
the range of Milankovitch periods of 19-23 ky, 41 ky,
95-123 ky, or 413 ky. It has been recognized that the
periods o f precession and obliquity signals have changed
through geologic time due to changing earth-moon relationships, whereas the long and short eccentricity cycles
probably have remained constant through time since they
are based on interplanetary gravitational forces (Walker
and Zahnle 1986; Berger et al. 1989). The ranges of variance (the 21 ky precession signal may have approached
17 ky and the 41 ky obliquity signal may have approached
28 ky during the Early Paleozoic) are insignificant when
compared to the large errors associated with absolute age
dates for Early Paleozoic rocks. As cautioned by Hardie
and Shinn (1986) and Algeo and Wilkinson (1988), calculations of average cycle period within the Milankovitch
band are to be expected for meter-scale cycles and are
insufficient evidence for orbital control on cycle formation.
An objective way of determining cycle periods is by

1235

spectral analysis of cyclic successions where dominant

periodicities can be extracted and ratios between the periods can be used to establish Milankovitch control (e.g.,
Schwarzacher and Fischer 1982; Herbert and Fischer
1986; Kominz and Bond 1990). However, spectral analysis is particularly difficult for shallow platform carbonates of Early Paleozoic age for the following reasons. 1)
Peaks on the power spectra are difficult to calibrate since
long-term accumulation rates used to convert thickness
per cycle to time per cycle are dependent upon the radiometric time scale with its large uncertainties (Fig. 2).
2) The assumption of constant sediment accumulation
throughout the duration of the cyclic succession is unlikely due to differential sedimentation rates for different
lithofacies (Kominz and Bond 1990) and the effects of
long-term changes in sea level. 3) "'Missed beats" are a
c o m m o n phenomenon of shallow platform carbonates
(Hardie and Shinn 1986; Koerschner and Read 1989;
G o l d h a m m e r et al. 1990), resulting in a noisy spectrum.
4) Peritidal cyclic successions are a poor proxy for time,
because much of the cycle period is taken up by nondeposition (Read et al. 1986; Read et al. 1991). Spectral
analysis o f Early Paleozoic shallow platform carbonates
may only be viable in conjunction with techniques for
deriving better time series such as g a m m a analysis (Kominz and Bond 1990), a method that deserves further
testing.
Late Cambrian Eustasy and Milankovitch R h y t h m s

Evidence from the Cordilleran passive margin suggests

that Milankovitch orbital variations may have controlled
low-amplitude glacio-eustatic fluctuations during the Late
Cambrian. In the Big Horse Member o f the Orr Formation of the House Range, meter-scale fifth-order cycles
are stacked into shallowing-upward successions at the
fourth-order scale as well as at the third-order scale (Fig.
8). The Big Horse Member comprises the upper portion
of one long-term third-order shallowing-upward sequence
(220 m thick; approximately 4.8 m.y. duration). The longterm sequence is composed of stacked deep ramp cycles
in the lower portion gradually shoaling up to stacked
shallow ramp cycles with large thrombolite bioherrns
marking the top of the sequence. This third-order sequence has superimposed within it 11 fourth-order depositional cycles (l 5-45 m thick; average of ~ 440 ky)
that are typically composed of three to four fifth-order
cycles (0.5-8.0 m thick; average of ~ 96 ky). The lowermost fifth-order cycle within each fourth-order bundle
is typically the thickest and is dominated by deeper water
lithofacies. The fifth-order cycles gradually thin upward
and shallow upward within each fourth-order bundle.
The 4:1 bundling is illustrated in a mirror plot o f deviations from average cycle thickness within the Big Horse
Member (Fig. 9). The mirror plot is simply a tracing of
a Fischer plot of the Big Horse Member (discussed below)
and was created to accentuate the bundled nature of the
cycles. Assuming that the estimate of long-term accumulation rate (0.046 m/ky) derived from the D N A G time
scale is reasonable, the 4:1 bundling may manifest the

1236

DA VID O S L E G E R A N D J. F R E D R E A D

Big Horse Member

House Range, Utah

B I G HORSE MEMBER
ORR FORMATION

250

I,~']
I

o.j

180

o OoO . ~

--

,o~oo- ~j

~o,

~1! A!
~o*O=O

170-, '~" [ ,

_' 2 . "

?~"~

-_~
On"

M,

3O

Fio. 8.--Hierarchy of cycles within the Big Horse Member, Orr Formation, House Range, Utah. Column on the left shows long-term thirdorder shallowing evident from the storm-influenced deep ramp cycles
with open marine faunas in the lower Big Horse progressively giving
way to shallow subtidal cycles characterized by restricted lithofacies
upward in the Big Horse Member. Dashes to the right of the left column
denote generalized fourth-order cycles that are shown in derail in the
columns on the right. Composition of the fourth-order cycles suggests
rapid deepening in the basal cycle followed by progressively shallower
conditions toward the upper cycles. Note the 4:1 bundling of fifth-order
cycles within fourth-order sets.

short eccentrically (95-123 ky) to long eccentricity (413

ky) ratio. T h e bundles exhibiting a 3:1 ratio m a y s i m p l y
h a v e missed a cycle beat, p e r h a p s as a low a m p l i t u d e sealevel event oscillated a b o v e the platform with no a p p a r e n t
sedimentologic response.
N o evidence can be recognized within the fifth-order
eccentricity cycles for s u p e r i m p o s e d cyclicity that m a y
represent the precession o r obliquity signals. Because the
Cordilleran passive margin e x t e n d e d essentially E - W at
a b o u t 10 to 15*N d u r i n g the Late C a m b r i a n (Scotese a n d
M c K e r r o w 1990), the lack o f a 41 ky obliquity cycle is
to be expected because the effect o f changing axial tilt is

Fie. 9.--Mirror plot of deviations from average cycle thickness in the

Big Horse Member, Orr Formation, House Range. The plot is simply
a tracing of the Fischer plot shown in Figure 13 and oriented vertically.
Fourth-order bundles are marked by the abrupt appearance of thick
basal cycles over thinner cycles below.

m i n i m a l t o w a r d low latitudes (Berger 1978). T h e a p p a r ent lack o f a precession signal m a y be due to a n u m b e r

o f interrelated factors. 1) T h e relative a m p l i t u d e s o f the
precession-generated sea level signals m a y have been low
c o m p a r e d to those o f the d o m i n a n t eccentricity cycle. 2)
P e r h a p s the d e p o s i t i o n a l setting o f the Cordilleran shallow to deep r a m p was n o t a sensitive enough recorder o f
each i n d i v i d u a l sea level event. O n l y the higher-amplitude ~ 100 ky sea-level event m a y h a v e caused a sedimentologic response on the c a r b o n a t e p l a t f o r m in the
vicinity o f the H o u s e Range. 3) Phase relations o f the
interacting M i l a n k o v i t c h frequencies m a y have suppressed the precession signal due to destructive interference. It seems likely that at certain times in the geologic
past, constructive interference has acted to enhance the
i n d i v i d u a l M i l a n k o v i t c h frequencies and, conversely, destructive interference has acted to m a s k the M i l a n k o v i t c h
frequencies. Phase relations m a y p r o v i d e a partial explanation o f cyclic successions with no evidence o f b u n d l i n g

1237

EUSTASY AND CYCLE ST.4CKING PATTERNS OF LATE CAMBRIAN CARBONATES

or for weakly cyclic intervals within an overall strongly

cyclic section.
Glacio-Eustasy During the "Non-Glacial"
Late Cambrian

The connection between Milankovitch orbital variations, the shrinkage and growth of continental ice sheets
and eustasy has been well-documented (e.g., Berger et al.
1984). However, a direct link between changes in solar
insolation related to Milankovitch astronomical rhythms
and changes in sea level and sedimentation during globally warm periods of Earth history has yet to be found
(Barron et al. 1985). To account for the low to moderate
amplitude (perhaps 15-25 m based on 2-D modelling)
sea-level oscillations proposed to simultaneously generate
Late Cambrian peritidal and subtidal cycles, a sink for
the storage and release of moderate volumes of seawater
needs to be identified.
Paleogeographic reconstructions for the Late Cambrian
place most continental land masses between 60N and S
latitudes (Scotese and McKerrow 1990). Only Baltica and
the southern margin of Gondwana extend into higher
southern latitudes where climates may have been significantly cooler than the generally warm global climate.
Ziegler et al. (1981) have suggested that the paleogeographic configuration of the continents during the Cambrian facilitated a latitudinal zonation of prevailing winds
and ocean currents within the high latitudes that may
have reduced the absorbtion of solar radiation, enhancing
the possibility of cooler Cambrian climates than previously believed. Additionally, climate modelling of presumably warm periods of Earth history suggest that the
interiors of mid- to high latitude continents may have
had subfreezing temperatures and that no global climate
is truly "equable" (Sloan and Barton 1990). Even though
no major large-scale continental glaciers existed during
the Late Cambrian, diamictites and striated cobbles have
been reported in lower Tremadocian strata of Argentina
and Bolivia (Erdtmann and Miller 1981) which were located in a part of Gondwana believed to have experienced
cool climates during the Late Cambrian-Early Ordovician
(Scotese and McKerrow 1990). Alpine glaciers may have
been present in ancestral mountain belts of continental
interiors of major land masses and provide a possible
sink for small portions of the 20 (_+5)-meter sea-level
oscillations estimated for the Late Cambrian meter-scale
cycles. However, the apparent absence of a reservoir large
enough for the rapid storage and release of moderate volumes of seawater remains a major weakness in the connection between Milankovitch orbital variations and Late
Cambrian meter-scale cyclicity.
STACKING PATTERNS OF METER-SCALE CYCLES

Characteristic meter-scale fifth-order cycles systematically change upward within third- and fourth-order
sequences and define distinct stacking patterns. Cycle
stacking patterns provide the crucial link between the

20

Average Cycle
Duration
I ,

Path of Relative
.

C,hange in Sea

og

lo

._>

Subsidence

100

200

300

~0

T~e (ky)
FiG. 10.--Explanatory diagram of the Fischer plot technique. The

horizontal scale of the plot represents time and the vertical scale is the
cumulative cycle thickness in meters. For each cycle the amount of
accommodationspace providedby linear subsidenceis plotted over the
duration ofthe averagecycleperiod. Cyclethickness is plotted vertically.
The net difference can be interpreted to define the change in accommodation space through time.

meter-scale cycles and the larger scale sequences and their

component systems tracts. Stacks of genetically related
cycles are the parasequence sets of sequence stratigraphic
terminology.
Fischer plots (Fig. 10) illustrate deviations from average cycle thickness throughout a stratigraphic interval.
They can be interpreted as graphic displays of relative
changes in accommodation space through time (Fischer
1964; Goldhammer et al. 1987, 1990; Read and Goldhammer 1988; Read 1989). Each fifth-order cycle is assigned an average cycle duration by dividing the total
estimated duration of the cyclic succession by the number
of meter-scale cycles. This average cycle duration is merely a device for assigning time per cycle and does not imply
that each cycle was actually deposited over the same duration. The horizontal axis could just as easily be divided
into equivalent units that equal "cycle number". If the
plot was constructed so that cycle thickness equaled time,
the resulting plot would define a horizontal line. Thus it
is necessary to assign a constant time of deposition to
each cycle to generate relative rises and falls on the plot.
Interpretation of individual Fischer plots should only
be made in unison with temporally equivalent Fischer
plots that show similar patterns of rises and falls
(Koerschner and Read 1989; Read et al. 1991). Fischer
plots of Late Cambrian cyclic strata have been correlated
between the Cordilleran and Appalachian sections and
provide excellent evidence for eustatic control on thirdorder sequence development (Osleger 1990; Osleger and
Read, unpublished data). The correlated plots suggest that
stacks of thick cycles plot as positive slopes and are presumed to have formed under conditions of increased accommodation space provided by relative sea-level rise.
Stacks of thin cycles plot as negative slopes and are presumed to reflect reduced accommodation space during

1238

DA I,'ID OSLEGER AND J. FRED READ

CONOCOCHEAGUE FORMATION

KEYTO LITHOFACIES
~----CRYPTALGAL
LAMINITE
M,N,T

WYT.EWt.LE. VIRG,NIA
14.
>1

II

~'X

,~I

I""

~ 7 RIBBONROCK

l~7.~"~,~q

THROMBOLITEBOUNDSTONE

W
-J

Ut
W
>
5
OL_J

15

---W'--w-m

--7---

10

oJQ=

,X~,:o,',.

Om

t'~

,,O,1

-:2

I ~

A) SUBTIDAL-DOMINATED
PERITIDAL CYCLES

~s~'l--

0 m- ~ . ~ . . ~ . . ~ _ ~ j

0m

B) LAMINITE-DOMINATED
PERITIDAL CYCLES

__

C) PERITIDAL CYCLES
WITH QUARTZ SAND

F]G. 11.--Fischer plot of the ConococheagueFormation constructed from the Wytheville, Virginia section (from data in Koerschner and Read
1989). Cyclescontaining quartz sand are black. Stacking patterns of representative cyclesare shown pulled out from their position on the Fischer
plot. Note the difference in scales between the three columns of cycles and how the subtidal-dominated cycles are considerably thicker than the
peritidal-dominated cycles.
relative sea level fall. The method seems to be best suited
for peritidal cycles or subtidal cycles that shallow to near
sea level.
Fischer Plots and Peritidal Successions

The relationship between cyclic peritidal carbonates o f

the Conococheague Formation o f southwestern Virginia
and long-term relative sea-level events defined by its Fischer plot (Koerschner and Read 1989) is shown in Figure
11. The Conococheague Formation is composed of hundreds o f stacked peritidal cycles that record periodic, highfrequency fluctuations in relative sea level (Demicco 1985;
Koerschner and Read 1989). The Fischer plot defines a
major relative sea-level rise and fall within this portion
o f the Conococheague Formation. Stacking of thick, subtidal-dominated cycles with thin laminite caps occurs
during the rising portions o f the plot (Fig. 11, column A).

Stacking o f thin, laminite-dominated cycles occur during

falling portions (Fig. 1 1, column B). Brecciated cycle caps
and quartz sands become c o m m o n toward the troughs
on the plot (Fig. l 1, column C).
Similar cycle stacking patterns are exhibited in the peritidal Allentown Formation o f eastern Pennsylvania (Fig.
12). During long-term rises on the plot, cycles are thick
with oolitic bases and thin stromatolitic caps (Fig. 12,
column B). Ooids have dropped cores and cycle caps are
brecciated indicating meteoric diagenesis during episodic
short-term emergence. During long-term falls on the plot,
cycles show thin oolitic transgressive lags overlain by
thrombolites that grade up into L L H stromatolites and
cryptalgal laminites (Fig. 12, columns A and C). The caps
o f m a n y cycles are marked by regolithic breccias developed on the emergent tidal flat. Toward the troughs on
the plot (Fig. 12, column C), erosionally-capped cycles
contain quartz sand.

E I~S'TAS Y A N D ( ' Y C L E S T A C K I N G PA T T E R N S O F L A T E C A M B R L 4 N C A R B O N A T E S

1239

KEYTOLITHOFAGIES
o-

ALLENTOWN

FORMATION

R ~ . ~ X ~ e^P

I" " - ' " ; " "I

>
<

OOMOG~SrONE

/~I

lo-

<

20-

"

""s

3- "T:~
~ ~" . ~
. . . .

Om

A) TIDAL FLAT-DOMiNATED
PERmDAL CYCLES

"

" ' ' ' ' "

". :4:.I

C) PERmDAL CYCLES
WITH QUARTZ SAND
'_...

B) SUBTIDAL-DOMINATED
PERmDAL CYCLES
FIG. 12.--Fischer plot of the lower Allentown Formation constructed from the Easton, Pennsylvania section with cycle slacking patterns
expanded from their position on the plot. Small dots below individual cycles on Fischer plot denote regolithic cycle caps. Note the variation in
scales between the three intervals and the relative thicknesses of the component cycles. Oolitic grainstone bases of cycles on the rising portions
of the Fischer plot are considerably thicker than those on the falling portions. Tidal flat caps are considerably thinner on cycles that formed during
the relative sea-level rise but dominate in the cycles that formed on the relative sea level fall.

The Conococheague and Allentown Fischer plots illustrate the significant difference in cycle thickness and
lithofacies composition between stacks of cycles generated during rising and falling relative sea level. Peritidal
cycle thickness is controlled by the total amount o f accommodation space provided by subsidence and eustasy.
For these peritidal cycles, stacks of thicker cycles were
formed during relative sea level rise that generated accommodation space beyond that provided by subsidence.
Stacks of thinner cycles were formed during relative sea
level fall that reduced accommodation space provided by
subsidence. Quartz sands were brought in and brecciated
laminite caps were developed during relative sea-level
lowstands that exposed craton interiors and the inner
platform. Assuming relatively constant tectonic subsidence, the control on the long-term changes in relative

sea level is believed to be eustasy, on the basis of correlation of the Fischer plots above with equivalent sections in the Appalachians and Utah (Osleger and Read,
unpublished data).

Fischer Plots and Subtidal Successions

Stacking patterns of dominantly subtidal cyclic successions and their relationship to Fischer plots are shown
on Figure 13. The Fischer plot of the upper Big Horse
and Candland Shale Members of the Late Cambrian Orr
Formation of the House Range shows stacks of deeper
subtidal cycles on the rising segments of the plot. These
stacks of genetically-related cycles are characterized by
storm-dominated carbonate cycles (Column A) or thick,
deep ramp, shale-based cycles (Column C). Falling por-

1240

DAVID OSLEGER AND J. FRED READ

KEY TO LffHOFACIES
,~)OOID-ONCOLITEGRST
I ~
~ / SKELETALPKST
. ~
BURROWEDWKST
Lil~mlml/
ARGILLACEOUSWKST
~ O L I V E
GREENSHALE

ORR FORMATION,
HOUSE RANGE, UTAH

* * ~ '

20.J

uJ

>

lO-

w
W

TIME

>

0-

~
-10
W
-20

tO

e.~..__..~.."J

o
10

O'--

0m

o o~

B) SHALLOW SUBTIDALCYCLES
WITH OOID GRAINSTONE
CAPS (BIG HORSE)
Om

A) STORM-DOMINATED
DEEP RAMP CYCLES
(BIG HORSE)

C) SHALYCYCLES WITH
SKELETALSTORM BED
CAPS (CANDLANDSHALE)

Fxo. 13.--Fischer plot of the upper Big Horse and Candland Shale Members of the Orr Formation, House Range, Utah. The scale is the same
for all three stacksof cycles;note the thin shallowsubtidal restrictedcyclesversusthe substantiallythicker, deeper subtidal, open marine carbonate
and shaly cycles.
tions of the Fischer plot are characterized by thin, oolite
grainstone-capped cycles (Column B). C o m m o n lithofacies within these shallow ramp cycles are oncolitic packstones-grainstones, ooid grainstones, thrombolite bioherms and SH and LLH stromatolites, all indicative of
shallow, restricted conditions.
Fourth-order cycles on the Fischer plot of the Big Horse
Member occur as bundles of one thick cycle followed by
two to three thinner cycles (Figs. 8, 9 and 13). The mirror
plot of Figure 9 was created from the Fischer plot of Figure
13 and better illustrates the 4:1 bundling of meter-scale
cycles within the Big Horse Member. Thicknesses for
these fourth-order cycles range from 15 to 45 m and their
average duration is ~ 440 ky. Cycles on the fourth-order
rises are consistently composed of thick cycles dominated
by deep subtidal lithofacies whereas fourth-order falls are
consistently composed of thin cycles dominated by shallow subtidal lithofacies (Fig. 8). This is essentially the
same stacking pattern recognized within the third-order
sequence only repeated over shorter time increments.
The systematic arrangement of similar subtidal cycles
on rising and falling limbs of Fischer plots suggests that,

like the peritidal cycles, they record changes in accommodation space generated by third-order relative sea-level fluctuations. This suggests that time-equivalent successions of meter-scale peritidal or shallow subtidal cycles
may be correlated using Fischer plots and combined to
define third-order, and perhaps fourth-order, sea-level
events. I f a good degree ofcorrelatibility can be attained
between geographically distinct sections, then the longterm fluctuations may be considered to have been eustatic
in origin (Osleger and Read, unpublished data).
Effect o f Sedimentation R a t e on the
F o r m o f Fischer Plots

Some deeper subtidal successions of cyclic carbonates

show Fischer plots whose trend is opposite to that expected from the above examples. Within the Notch Peak
Formation of Utah, a thick succession of shallow subtidal
cycles capped by thrombolite bioherms shallows to tidal
depths before grading up into a series of deeper water
cycles capped by spiculitic wackestone (Fig. 14). Using
stacking patterns established from other similar cycle

E U S T A S Y AND C Y C L E S T A C K I N G PA T T E R N S O F LA T E C A M B R I A N C A R B O N A T E S

DEEP
SUBTIDAL

DEEPRAMP,
m SPICULITIC
-- WACKESTONE
-- CYCLES

TIDAL
FLAT

:t

--

1241

PERITIDAL
CYCLES

-\
WJ

\
\

\\

,<
W
Q.

O
z

-_
i

~ - ~ C ~

- -

THROMBOLITESTROMATOLITE
BOUNDSTONE
CYCLES

"3

_
45

30

\
15

0'm

CUMULATIVE CYCLE THICKNESS

RELATIVE "~
WATER
/
DEPTH

FIG. 14.--Vertically-oriented Fischer plot of the upper Notch Peak Formation, House Range, Utah. Dashes to right of strat column indicate
cycle tops. Groups of like cycles are noted with arrows. Key horizons are connected to the Fischer plots by the dashed lines; they are not perfectly
horizontal because the stratigraphic column is in thickness and the Fischer plot is in time. Interpreted paleowater depth curve to the fight is
shown for comparison.

1242

DAVID OSLEGER

A)

MODEL SEA LEVEL CURVE \

'r
m
Q
I.~

100

WATER
DEPTHS
AGGRADING

200

EMERGENT
SUPRATIDAL
SURFACE
/
I

EO,MENT

,.SEA EVE

A N D J. F R E D R E A D

that the base of storm reworking may have precluded any

further vertical aggradation. Consequently, the resulting
cycles are thin and define an anomalous negative slope
on the Fischer plot of Figure 14.
This example illustrates that Fischer plots of mixed
cycle types must not be interpreted alone but should be
used in conjunction with time-equivalent plots to determine their value. Caution must be exercised when interpreting the form of individual Fischer plots of subtidal
cycles without looking at the internal composition of the
cyclic succession as well as at other plots of coeval intervals.

MODELLING OF CYCLE STACKING PATTERNS

~ ' ~ , ~ \ \ ' ~ "
~ S H A L L O W SUBTIDAL
" ~ ' ~ . . . ~ "
'TIDAL FLATI:ACiES. . . . FACIES
One- and two-dimensional computer modelling are
~"
-SUBSIDENCE
valuable
techniques for assessing the effects o f controlling
I
I

1 O0

TIME (KY)

200

FIG. 15A.--Explanatory diagram of the 1-D modeling. The sea level

curve is composed of in-phase symmetrical 20 and 40 ky periods and
asymmetrical 100 ky periods superimposed on a long-term sea-level
rise/fall. Any combination of amplitudes of sea level cycles can be input
and define the vertical axis. Sloping lines to lower right represent linear
subsidence of deposited sediments through time. The lines sloping to
the upper right represent the aggrading sedment surface and changes in
slope reflect differing sedimentation rates of water depth-dependent
lithofacies. The period of non-deposition following drowning is a predetermined lag time.

types, one would expect the Fischer plot of the restricted

thrombolitic cycles to be associated with a long-term fall
in sea level, whereas the plot of the deep water cycles
would be expected to form a long-term rise in sea level.
However, the thick thrombolitic cycles plot as a positive
slope on the Fischer plot, whereas the thin spiculitic
wackestone cycles plot as a negative slope.
One reason for this counterintuitive result may be that
the relative thicknesses of subfidal cycles are controlled
by sedimentation rate rather than by sea-level-determined
accommodation space. Thick thrombolitic cycles may
have accumulated rapidly within the zone of optimal carbonate productivity, rapidly filling to near sea level. In
contrast, the thinner, argillaceous, deeper water cycles
may simply have accumulated slowly. The resulting trend
on the Fischer plot is an apparent long-term rise and fall
in sea level generated by water-depth-dependent sedimentation rates of the cycles rather than by sea-levelcontrolled accommodation space.
A second possible interpretation is that the thickness
o f subtidal cycles may indeed be controlled by accommodation space but that the upper limit to vertical aggradation may be the base of normal fairweather or stormwave reworking rather than tidal level (Osleger 1991).
Subtidal cycle thickness could be limited by reworking
and redistribution of sediment when the depositional surface intersects an energy barrier associated with a zone
of active wave or storm-current winnowing. The deep
ramp cycles o f the upper Notch Peak are capped by thin
lenses of skeletal packstone storm beds, which suggests

variables on the generation of cyclic sequences and for

testing the feasibility of models related to the origin of
meter-scale cycles. One-dimensional models (Read el al.
1986) graphically track the simultaneous interaction of
eustatic sea level, the sediment surface, and long-term
subsidence to generate synthetic stratigraphic columns.
Two-dimensional models (Koerschner and Read 1989;
Read et al. 1992) integrate a more sophisticated set of
parameters to produce synthetic geologic cross-sections
that simulate the vertical and lateral facies distribution
of cycles and the internal geometry of longer-term depositional sequences. The model types can be used to
complement one another by showing the simpler concepts
with the one-dimensional modelling and then reproducing a more detailed, more realistic simulation of actual
stratigraphic data using the two-dimensional modelling.
The one-dimensional models (Read et al. 1986) incorporate linear long-term subsidence, simplified sea-level
curves composed of high-frequency in-phase oscillations
superimposed on a longer-term rise/fall, water-depth-dependent sedimentation rates of lithofacies, and lag time
after flooding to produce synthetic stratigraphic columns
(Fig. 15). The two-dimensional models (Read et al. 1992)
(Fig. 16) incorporate many of the same variables as the
one-dimensional models but with significant refinements.
Antecedent topography and platform slope is digitized
before the program runs and is constrained by modern
analogs of carbonate platform morphologies. The model
divides the platform into 200 localities whose increment
width varies with the pre-determined length of the platform. Tectonic subsidence is separated into regional and
rotational components, and isostatic subsidence is calculated for each time slice to account for sediment and
water loading. The synthetic cross-sections produced are
truly two-dimensional because the isostatic response to
sediment and water loading at single localities affects adjacent localities along the elastic beam 200 km on either
side (Read et al. 1991).
The form of the eustatic sea-level curve can be generated by any combination of high-frequency, asymmetric or symmetric sine waves superimposed on a long-term
sine wave or digitized curve. The input values for the
sea-level curve allow for any combination of cycle periods

1243

E U S T A S Y A N D C Y C L E S T A C K I N G PA T T E R N S O F L 4 TE C A M B R I A N C 4 R B O N A T E S

~. 40E
J
UJ
>

30-

LU
.2

20-

10"

03

~!

PERITIDAL CYCLES

'-~--L.......... ',--

'~"..........
I ...........

<1

L..........

TIME (100 k.y.)

4t
30

LU
.2

20

UJ
<
03

10

c ) SUBTIDAL CYCLES

I_-

,t..........
L
L""'" ...........

, __

3
4
TIME (100 k.y.)

~t
TIDAL FLAT (0-2 m):
I
I SHALLOW SUBTIDAL (2-20 m):
I
I DEEP SUBTIDAL (20-30 m):

I~1

0.25 m/ky
0.15
0.07

SHALY DEEP SUBTIDAL (>30 m): 0.06

FiG. 15B. -- I-D model of peritidal cycles with same initial starting parameters as those for the synthetic subtidal cycles of the two-dimensional
model (Fig. 16B) except for a 0.04 m/ky linear subsidence rate and a starting water depth of zero. To the light is the stratigraphic column of the
synthetic peritidal cycles. C) I-D model of subtidal cycles with a 0.05 m/ky subsidence rate and an 18 meter starting water depth. To the right
is the stratigraphic column of the synthetic subtidal cycles.

and a m p l i t u d e s that interfere to p r o d u c e a c o m p l e x sealevel signal. W a t e r depths o f lithofacies a n d their respective s e d i m e n t a t i o n rates are constrained by m o d e r n analogs and vertical stratigraphic relations. Lag times are
used in the m o d e l to simulate n o n - d e p o s i t i o n following
flooding o f a previously emergent carbonate platform.
The p r o g r a m executes the calculations in user-specified
(usually 100 to 1000 yr) time slices. A d d i t i o n a l details
a b o u t the sequence o f steps per t i m e slice, as well as the
specifics o f p a r a m e t e r d e t e r m i n a t i o n , can be found in
R e a d et al. (1992).
In the following sections, 1-D a n d 2 - D m o d e l l i n g is
used to 1) constrain s o m e o f the likely p a r a m e t e r s (e.g.,
p e r i o d s a n d a m p l i t u d e s o f sea-level oscillations) under
which Late C a m b r i a n cycles m a y have formed, 2) illus-

trate the c o n d i t i o n s necessary for the s i m u l t a n e o u s dev e l o p m e n t o f p e r i t i d a l a n d subtidal cycles, and 3) p r o v i d e

indirect support for M i l a n k o v i t c h a s t r o n o m i c a l control
on Late C a m b r i a n meter-scale cycle genesis. The p r i m a r y
i n t e n t i o n o f the m o d e l l i n g is to illustrate h o w stacked
peritidal to deep subtidal carbonate cycles with thicknesses, c o m p o s i t i o n s a n d stacking patterns similar to the
Late C a m b r i a n o f N o r t h A m e r i c a can be generated by
M i l a n k o v i t c h - d r i v e n c o m p o s i t e eustasy.
Model Parameters

Cycle P e r i o d s . - - M o d e l l i n g e x p e r i m e n t s with sea-level

curves generated with r a n d o m p e r i o d s created cycles with
p o o r l y defined stacking patterns, even when superim-

DA V1D O S L E G E R

1244

PERITIDAL PLATFORM
A

0rn

SU BTIDAL PLATFORM

B
_

20t
40

A N D d. F R E D R E A D

C
D
I

V.E.=5000

Okra 160

260

E 30

._1

I..U

>

20-

uJ

<

10-

uJ

200

400
600
TIME (k.y.)

800

KEY TO LITHOFACIES
I ~ 1 TIDAL FLAT
I I SHALLOW SUBTIDAL
DEEP SUBTIDAL
DEEPEST SUBTIDAL

FIo. 16A.--2-D model o f a peritidal to subtidal transition across a hypothetical platform. Water depths and sedimentation rates of facies are
the same as in the i-D models of Figure 15. Amplitudes of the sea level oscillations are also the same as in the I-D models but the periods have
been input as 19, 23, 41 and 100 ky and allowed to interfere to produce the complex sea level curve in the inset. Initial slopes on the peritidal
platform are < 0.01 m/kin and are ~ 0.04 m/km on the subtidal platform, comparable to modem carbonate platforms. The apparent abrupt
break in slope around 550 km is an artifact of the vertical exaggeration (5000) and translates to 0.2 m/kin or a fraction of a degree. Rotational
subsidence at the outer edge of the platform is 0.015 m/ky. Duration of the run is 800 ky and time lines are denoted every 200 ky.

posed upon a third-order "driver" (Goldhammer et al.

1990). The lithologic composition of the synthetic cycles
was highly irregular and totally unlike Late Cambrian
cycles observed in the field. Narrowing the range of random periods alleviated the problem to an extent, but
stratigraphic trends of thickening and thinning cycles were
absent. The experiments suggest that periods of Late
Cambrian sea-level oscillations were constrained within
relatively narrow ranges.
Previous discussion of the origin of meter-scale cycles
has shown composite eustasy to be the most likely mechanism controlling cycle development. The 4:1 bundling
of Late Cambrian cycles in the Big Horse Member suggests sea-level control by Milankovitch orbital variations.
On the assumption of Milankovitch-forced glacio-eu-

stasy, sea-level fluctuations with cycle periods of 19, 23,

41 and 100 ky were used in the modelling.
Amplitudes of Relative Sea Level Oscillations. -- A m plitudes of relative sea-level fluctuations that generated

the Late Cambrian meter-scale cycles must account for

the simultaneous development of peritidal cycles as well
as deep ramp shaly cycles that formed on different parts
of the Late Cambrian platforms. For peritidal cycles where
the uppermost datum is known to be tide level, the average cycle thickness may be a m i n i m u m approximation
of the total amount o f accommodation space created by
the combined effects of subsidence and sea level (Grotzinger 1986a; G o l d h a m m e r et al. 1987; Koerschner and
Read 1989).
Stratigraphic thickness of subtidal cycles cannot be used

FiG. 16B.--Columns of stacked synthetic cycles generated in the 2-D model of Figure 16A. Column A is from the inner peritidal platform;
column B is from the outer peritidal platform; column C is from the inner subtidal platform; column D is from the outer subtidal platform.
Actual stacked cycles of Late Cambrian cyclic successions are aligned below the synthetic cycles for comparison. Key to lithofacies is the same
as in Figures 15 and 16A.

F.U,S'TASY A N D C Y C L E S T A U K 1 N G P A T T E R N S O F L A T E C A M B R I A N C A R B O N A T E S

A) INNER
PERITIDAL
PLATFORM

B) OUTER
PERITIDAL
PLATFORM

C) INNER
SUBTIDAL
PLATFORM

48-

D) OUTER
SUBTIDAL
PLATFORM

52

'-

II
II

25-

25

0mSNEAKOVER MBR.
ALLENTOWN FORMATION ORR FORMATION
SUBTIDAL CYCLES
PERITIDAL CYCLES

0m
CANDLAND SHALE MBR.
ORR FORMATION
DEEP RAMP SHALY CYCLES

1245

1246

DA V1D OSLEGER AND J. FRED READ

to approximate the amplitudes of relative sea level oscillations. The only way to estimate the amplitudes of the
high-frequency relative sea-level oscillations that generated subtidal cycles is to use the difference in water depths
between estimated storm-deposited and fairweather-reworked lithofacies. The base of storm wave reworking
may be defined geologically by the first appearance of
hummocky cross-stratified carbonate packstones and
grainstones with interbedded wackestones above suspension-settled carbonate mudstones and siliciclastic shales.
The base of fairweather wave reworking may be defined
geologically by the transition from storm-influenced sandy
muds upward into winnowed carbonate sands. Geological
estimates o f fairweather- and storm-wave base are speculative and must be based on oceanographically-defined
modern analogs.
Fairweather wave base has been estimated at 10 to 20
m on the Yucatan shelf(Logan et al. 1969) and 8 to 20
m in the Persian Gulf(Purser and Evans 1973). The Cordilleran passive margin may have fronted a semi-enclosed
ocean basin (Stewart and Suczek 1977) where storm wave
base may have been approximately 60 m minimum, based
upon the semi-enclosed Yucatan platform (Logan et al.
1969).
Potential amplitudes of short-term sea-level oscillations can be estimated using the ranges between fairweather and storm wave base. Estimating the m a x i m u m
range to be about 50 m (60 m storm wave base minus
10 m fairweather wave base) and the minimum range to
be about 10 m (30 m storm wave base minus 20 m fairweather wave base), a reasonable mid-range might be
about 30 m. Several reasons exist for even this mid-range
value of about 30 m to be too high. One constraint on
the total amplitude of the high-frequency sea level oscillations is provided by the composition of Appalachian
peritidal cycles. The extent of exposure ofperitidal cycles
is dependent on the amplitude, and therefore the rate of
fall, of the sea-level fluctuation. Rapid sea-level falls would
preclude the development of thick tidal flat caps (Koerschner and Read 1989) and result in dominantly subtidal,
disconformity-capped cycles similar to the Plio-Pleistocene of the Bahama platform (Beach and Ginsburg 1980)
and the Quaternary of south Florida (Perkins 1977). Sealevel fall rates had to have been reasonably slow to allow
for the accumulation of tidal fiat caps that average between 1 to 2 m in thickness. Koerschner and Read (1989)
suggested total amplitudes of 10 m for the high-frequency
sea-level oscillations that formed Late Cambrian peritidal
cycles of the Appalachians. However, this value is too
low to simultaneously generate subtidal cycles where the
range between storm and fairweather wave base is probably greater than l 0 m. Perhaps the best estimate for the
amplitudes of the high-frequency relative sea-level oscillations that formed both the peritidal and equivalent subtidal cycles is around 20 _+ 5 m. The key is to use the
computer modelling to find the right combination of sealevel fall rate and sedimentation rates that allow for deposition of tidal flat facies and periodic exposure of the
peritidal platform but also maintain submergence of the

subtidal platform and allow for the generation of subtidal

cycles.
Modelling Results: One-Dimensional Modelling

The 1-D models show how peritidal (Fig. 15B) and

subtidal (Fig. 15C) synthetic cycles develop under identical conditions of oscillating sea level, linear subsidence
and carbonate sedimentation rates. These simplified 1-D
modelling experiments are useful in that they provide
insight into the more complexly interacting parameters
of the 2-D models. The sea level curve for both runs is
composed of in-phase 20, 40 and 100 ky periods with
amplitudes of 4, 6 and 8 m, respectively, superimposed
on a 0.02 m/ky long-term rise/fall. Only the subsidence
rates and the starting water depths vary between the two
runs.
Synthetic Peritidal Cycles. Starting the run (Fig. 15B)
within the shallow subtidal zone of optimal carbonate
productivity (< 10 m) allows for the rapid aggradation
of lithofacies into peritidal water depths. When shortterm pulses of sea level generate water depths between 2
to 10 m, sediment is deposited at input shallow subtidal
sedimentation rates (0.15 m/ky). When short-term sea
level fall brings water depths into the tidal zone (0---2 m),
sediment is deposited at input tidal flat sedimentation
rates (0.25 m/ky). If sea level falls below the depositional
surface, sediment is exposed until a later sea-level pulse
rises high enough to re-drown the sediment surface. Following initial submergence, a specified 3 ky lag time passes before sedimentation can resume and a new depositional cycle is generated.
The stacking patterns of synthetic peritidal cycles produced in the I - D model are similar to stacking patterns
of peritidal cycles seen in typical Appalachian cyclic successions (compare Figs. 11 and 12 with Fig. 15B). During
long-term sea-level rise, the 1-D model generates stacks
of thicker cycles dominated by shallow subtidal lithofacies with thin tidal flat caps, similar to the Conococheague
and Allentown Formations. During long-term sea-level
fall, thinner cycles develop and consist of subequal thicknesses of subtidal and tidal flat lithofacies. Durations of
exposure at the tops of cycles are longer during the longterm fall versus the long-term rise, reflecting reduced accommodation space associated with failing long-term sea
level.
The model run shows the significant number of 20 ky
"missed beats" of sea level that oscillate below the depositional surface. If the depositional surface felt each 20
ky signal, then it would be reflected in significantly thinner
cycles and approximately 20 ky periods. Missed beats
account for the ~ 42 ky average cycle duration of the
interval. Synthetic peritidal cycles varying in thickness
from 0.7 to 4.5 m were deposited during the 800 ky run.
The thicknesses of the synthetic cycles and the gross lithologies are roughly correlatable with cycle lithofacies,
thicknesses, and durations of typical Late Cambrian peritidal cycles of the Appalachians (0.4-7.0 m and ~ 20150 ky) (Koerschner and Read 1989).

EUSTASY AND CYCLE STACKING PATTERNS OF LATE CAMBRIAN CARBONATES

Synthetic Subtidal Cycles. -- Beginning the run (Fig.

15C) at initial water depths of 18 m allows for the depositional surface to remain submerged throughout the
duration of the run and, given the lower input sedimentation rates at these depths, aggrade at a rate similar to
the long-term sea-level rise. To maintain submergence,
sedimentation rates used in the modelling must be lower
than most rates measured for Holocene subtidal depositional environments (typically 0.1 to 1.0 m/ky). I f slightly higher rates are used in the modelling, the sediment
surface rapidly aggrades into the zone of optimal carbonate productivity (< 10 m) and remains there, producing
stacks of peritidal cycles. Sedimentation rates have to be
suppressed to values approximating long-term accumulation rates (0.01 to 0.1 m/ky) in order to produce stacks
ofsubtidal cycles. Processes intrinsic to the platform such
as storm- and wave reworking may have acted to inhibit
aggradation into the zone of optimal carbonate production (Osleger 1991).
As sea level rises and falls above the sediment surface
throughout the duration of the model run, storm-wave
base fluctuates in unison 30 m below (estimated storm
wave base for this model run). When the sediment surface
is below 30 m, sediments are deposited at rates approximating suspension-settling. With falling sea level, the
sediment surface rises above storm wave base and storminfluenced sediment is deposited. If sea level falls far
enough so that the sediment surface rises above 20 m
water depths, sediment is deposited representing lithofacies such as skeletal packstone storm beds.
The synthetic subtidal cycles range in thickness from
1 to 4 m and are composed of alternating lithofacies with
estimated water depths ranging from 30 to 10 m.
These cycles grossly simulate typical spiculitic wackestone subtidal cycles of the Utah Cordillera (Figs. 4-6) in
that they remain submergent throughout their depositional history and have similar ranges of thicknesses. Subtidal cycles produced during the long-term sea-level rise
are dominated by slightly deeper subtidal lithofacies, with
the thickest cycles being generated during the most rapid
rate of long-term sea level rise (between 250 and 450 ky
on Fig. 15C). During the long-term stillstand and subsequent fall, cycles become thinner overall but develop
thicker shallow subtidal caps reflecting the progressively
shallower water depths associated with reduced accommodation space during falling sea level. However, in contrast to the stacks of peritidal cycles whose thickness is
controlled by the amount of accommodation space deterrnined by fluctuating sea level, subtidal cycle thickness
appears to be controlled by reduced deeper subtidal sedimentation rates as well as long-term sea-level rise and
fall. Alternations of lithofacies within deeper subtidal cycles may be produced in response to a fluctuating storm
wave base moving in harmony with sea level. Similarly,
shallow subtidal cycles composed of lithofacies that reflect alternations ofwave-reworked and storm-dominated
lithofacies may reflect fluctuations of fairweather wave
base.
Even though these I-D models are simplified and do

1247

not reproduce accurate simulations of cyclic successions

due to the simplified sea-level curve and lack of isostatic
adjustment for sediment and water loading, they provide
a good introduction to the more sophisticated 2-D modelling. They help to constrain some of the basic parameters of the cycle formation such as likely sedimentation
rates and sea level amplitudes. The amplitudes of the
high-frequency sea-level oscillations (18 m total) and the
range of sedimentation rates (0.25 to 0.05 m/ky) appear
to grossly simulate typical Late Cambrian peritidal and
subtidal cycles and were used in the 2-D modelling.

Modelling Results: Two-Dimensional Modelling

The 2-D model (Fig. 16) uses essentially the same parameters as used in the 1-D modelling above but with
certain refinements. Sea-level oscillations were input with
19, 23, 41 and 100 ky periods and allowed to interfere
to produce a complex sea level curve. The same amplitudes of sea level used in the 1-D models were input in
the 2-D run (4, 4, 6, and 8 m, respectively) but act on
variable initial water depths on the antecedent depositional topography. Much of the accommodation potential
for the buildup of the cyclic sequence is provided by the
high-frequency oscillations making it unnecessary to use
a large third-order rise/fall.
The greater slope near 550 km was created to separate
the peritidal portion of the hypothetical platform from
the simultaneously developing subtidal portion of the
platform. The extreme vertical exaggeration (5000) makes
the slope appear much steeper than actual (<< 10). The
synthetic cross-section (Fig. 16A) and the columns of
synthetic cycles expanded from the plot (Fig. 16B) allow
for a visual comparison of the different characteristics of
the various cycle types that form synchronously across a
carbonate platform. The synthetic stratigraphic columns
and cross-sections do not provide unique solutions but
help to clarify the interacting effects ofeustasy, subsidence
and sedimentation.
On the inner peritidal platform (Fig. 16B, column A),
a stack of thin pefitidal cycles is generated that reflects
the numerous "'missed beats" of sea level that oscillate
below the surface of the inner platform. Cycles are composed of thin subtidal bases with thicker tidal flat facies
and significant disconformable caps reflecting long episodes of exposure on the slowly subsiding (0.020 m/ky)
inner platform. These cycles are analogous to the "condensed'" cycles of G o l d h a m m e r et al. (1990). Thickness
of these highly-disconformable cycles is controlled by the
amount of accommodation space made available by the
high-frequency sea-level oscillations coupled with the low
subsidence rates of the inner platform. During long-term
sea-level rise, only the occasional pulse of sea level rose
high enough to drown the inner platform and allow for
sediment accumulation. During the short-term falls superimposed on the long-term rise, the inner platform was
exposed for as long as 80 to 100 ky, forming the disconformable caps to the cycles. During long-term sea-level

1248

DA VID OSLEGER AND J. FRED READ

fall, even fewer sea-level events flooded the inner platform, generating significant disconformable caps as the
inner platform became progressively more emergent.
The outer peritidal platform (Fig. 16B, column B) is in
the optimum location to feel the effects of most major
sea-level oscillations. The range of synthetic cycle thicknesses (1.5 to 7.0 m), number of cycles deposited (17)
and the total thickness of the synthetic succession (47 m)
generally simulate peritidal cycles in equivalent thicknesses of the Allentown Formation of eastern Pennsylvania (Fig. 16B). Stacking patterns of the synthetic peritidal cycles show subtidal-dominated cycles forming on
the long-term sea level rise and tidal fiat-dominated cycles
forming on the long-term fall. The time of m a x i m u m
deepening on the sea level curve (~ 400-500 ky) is marked
by the development of thick, subtidal-dominated cycles.
A problem with the synthetic peritidal cycles developed
on the 2-D model is that the thickness of the tidal fiat
caps are too thin (1.2 m average) compared to actual
laminite caps (1.5 to 2 m) of outer platform peritidal
cycles seen throughout the Appalachian passive margin.
It is difficult to aggrade thick tidal fiat caps using the
moderately high amplitudes (~ 18 m) necessary for simultaneously generating the subtidal cycles since the rate
of sea level fall is too rapid for tidal flat facies to accumulate to any substantial thickness (Koerschner and Read
1989). Lowering the high-frequency amplitudes would
allow for slower fall rates and therefore more time for the
tidal flats to aggrade but would require an unreasonably
short distance between estimated storm and fairweather
wave base ( ~ l0 m) to generate the subtidal cycles. Perhaps factors not recognizable in the rocks may have been
interacting to influence depositional environments. One
possibility is that the storm-wave base may have shallowed toward the inner platform by frictional dissipation
along the depositional slope, narrowing the distance between fairweather- and storm-wave base. This may have
had the effect of simultaneously creating deep subtidal
cycles toward the outer platform that appear to reflect
high amplitudes of sea-level fluctuations and shallow subtidal and peritidal cycles toward the inner platform that
appear to reflect lower amplitudes of sea-level fluctuations.
The inner subtidalplatform (Fig. 16B, column C) shows
good development of subtidal cycles that are composed
of thin, very deep subtidal bases (> 30 m water depths)
shallowing up into thicker subtidal caps deposited in intermediate water depth ranges (20-30 m). The range of
cycle thicknesses (1.4 to 5.0 m), number of cycles deposited (19), average cycle durations (42 ky/cycle) and the
total thickness of the synthetic succession (50 m) generally
simulate subtidal cycles in the Sneakover Member of the
Orr Formation of the House Range (Fig. 16B).
No apparent thickening or thinning trends can be recognized in the stacking pattern of the synthetic subtidal
cycles of column C. Their thickness appears to be controlled by the relatively low sedimentation rates of the
deeper water lithofacies that comprise the cycles. This is
in contrast to the synchronously developed peritidal cy-

cles (Fig. 16B, column B) whose disconformable cycle

caps suggest that their thickness is controlled by accommodation space made available by oscillating sea level
coupled with subsidence. Maximum flooding of the inner
subtidal platform is marked by two thick cycles dominated by the deepest subtidal lithofacies that were generated by high-frequency pulses of sea level superimposed
on the highest rates of long-term sea-level rise (occurring
at ~ 400-500 ky). A few of the uppermost synthetic cycles
show shallow lithofacies capping the cycles reflecting progradation during long-term falling sea level.
The outer deep subtidalplatform (Fig. 16B, column D)
is composed o f deep subtidal cycles that are substantially
thicker than those to landward. The cycles are dominated
by the deepest water lithofacies overlain by very thin
tongues of slightly shallower water facies. As sea level
oscillated above the platform, storm wave base (> 30 m
in the model) oscillated in phase but only fell below the
sediment surface during major sea-level lows, allowing
for the deposition of storm-influenced lithofacies (20-30
m water depth range). Fewer cycles are developed and
the thickness of the cycles (up to 17 m) reflect the significant number of higher-frequency sea-level beats evident in the sea level curve that were "missed" on the deep
ramp. These cycles are analogous to the "amalgamated"
cycles of G o l d h a m m e r et al. (1990).
The synthetic cycles generated on the outer subtidal
ramp generally simulate deep water cycles of the Candland Shale Member of the Orr Formation o f the House
Range where thick laminated shales are periodically
capped by storm-deposited carbonates (Fig. 16B). Cycle
thickness on the deep outer ramp appears to be a function
of sediment accumulation at slow but relatively constant
rates below storm wave base, episodically interrupted by
sea-level falls that force storm-wave below the sediment
surface, depositing storm-influenced cycle caps.
The synthetic cross-section generated by 2-D modelling
illustrates how peritidal and subtidal cycles similar to Late
Cambrian cycles may simultaneously be generated by the
same input sea-level composed of Milankovitch periodicities with low to moderate amplitudes (compared to
the high amplitude Pleistocene signal). The peritidal portion of the hypothetical platform may be a good representation of the Appalachian flat-topped, aggraded platform, whereas the subtidal portion of the hypothetical
platform may reflect generalized conditions across the
Cordilleran distally steepened ramp of Utah-Nevada.
Disconformably-capped peritidal cycles are generated as
a function o f a c c o m m o d a t o n space provided by the highfrequency sea-level oscillations superimposed on longterm sea-level rise and fall in conjunction with slow rates
of subsidence. Conformably-capped subtidal cycles that
remain submergent throughout their depositional history
are generated as a function of slower, deeper water sedimentation rates in conjunction with slightly higher rates
of tectonic subsidence. The successions o f subtidal cycles
may occur as a response to fluctuating zones of storm or
fairweather wave reworking that oscillate in phase with
Milankovitch composite eustasy.

E L ~ T . 4 S Y A N D C Y C L E S T A C K I N G PA T T E R N S O F L A T E C A M B R I A N C A R B O N A T E S

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS

1) A spectrum of peritidal to deep subtidal cycle types

can be recognized in Late Cambrian carbonate platform sequences of the Appalachian and Cordilleran
passive margins. Cycle types, defined on the basis of
the capping lithofacies, extend from shallow to deep
as follows: a) peritidal cycles capped by tidal fiat laminites, b) shallow subtidal cycles capped by thrombolite bioherms, c) shallow subtidal cycles capped
by ooid grainstone, d) intermediate subtidal cycles
capped by skeletal packstone, e) deep subtidal cycles
capped by spiculitic wackestone, 0 intrashelf basin
shaly cycles capped by flat-pebble conglomerate, and
g) deep ramp shaly cycles caped by skeletal storm beds.
2) Asymmetric meter-scale Late Cambrian cycles record
abrupt deepening o f relative sea level followed by
gradual upward shallowing over periods of 20 to 200
ky. Subtidal cycles that remain submergent throughout their deposition provide evidence against autocyclic controls on meter-scale cycle development. The
simultaneous development of peritidal and subtidal
cycles on different carbonate platforms supports a eustatic control on the origin of the meter-scale cyclicity.
High-frequency eustatic oscillations may be controlled
by Milankovitch astronomical rhythms based on a 4: l
bundling of cycles that may reflect the short eccentricity to long eccentricity ratio.
3) Within cyclic successions of Late Cambrian strata (and
presumably for other ancient cyclic successions as well),
systematic stacking patterns of meter-scale cycles may
be used in conjunction with Fischer plots to predict
third-order, and perhaps fourth-order, eustatic sealevel events. The Fischer plot technique is based upon
changes in accommodation space and seems to be best
suited forperilidal cycles whose thicknesses are largely
controlled by sea level. However, stacking patterns of
subtidal carbonates and their resultant Fischer plots
need to be further tested because they can give inconsistent trends of apparent rise and fall of relative sea
level as a function of sedimentation rate rather than
accommodation space.
4) Stacking patterns of synthetic meter-scale cycles generated by one- and two-dimensional computer modelling can be compared to actual cyclic successions to
assess the possible combination of sea-level amplitudes and periods that may have generated the longterm depositional sequence. The 2-D modelling illustrates how stacked peritidal to deep subtidal carbonate
cycles with thicknesses, compositions and stacking
patterns similar to the Late Cambrian of North America can be generated by Milankovitch-driven composite eustasy.
Two-dimensional models of peritidal to subtidal
transitions across a hypothetical platform indicate that,
whereas peritidal cycle thickness is primarily controlled by accommodation space, deeper subtidal cycle
thickness is primarily controlled by sedimentation rate.
Subtidal cycle development may be related to flue-

1249

tuations in the zones of fairweather and storm wave

reworking that oscillate in harmony with sea level fluctuations.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Field assistance and insight into the Cambrian was

kindly provided by Jim Miller, Pete Palmer, Lehi
Hintze, and Dick Faas. The text was improved considerably by A1 Fischer and Dave Bottjer. Vincent
Miranda refined the two-dimensional computer program. Isabel Montanez and Maya Elrick contributed
ideas about the nature of stratigraphic cyclicity. Billy
Newcomb and Steve van Aken provided able field
assistance. Financial assistance was provided by NSF
grants EAR 88-16664 and 87-07737 to J. F. Read; by
a grant from the American Chemical Society (PRF
grant 21282-AC2); by Texaco, Chevron, Marathon
and Mobil Oil Companies; and by grants-in-aid from
the Geological Society of America, Sigma Xi and the
Appalachian Basin Industrial Associates.

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