AUTOPSY TECHNIQUE

DEFENITIONS
A complete evaluation of an individuals
death and the circumstances surrounding
that death.
A full examination of the body, and the
autopsy has been called "the ultimate
physical examination."

This examination includes:

A complete evaluation of the medical history and the
events leading to death
The collection and documentation of trace evidence on
and around the body
The photographing and cataloging of injuries
A detailed external examination from head to toe
An internal examination, including the dissection of
organs and tissues
A microscopic examination of organs and tissues
Laboratory and toxicological examinations of body
tissues and fluids
A written report detailing the pertinent findings,
negative findings, and conclusions, including the cause
and manner of death

TYPES OF AUTOPSIES:
- HOSPITAL AND
- MEDICAL - LEGAL

HOSPITAL AUTOPSY
Autopsies are performed on inpatients of hospitals,
upon the requests of families.
Physicians cannot order these autopsies without
permits signed by the next of kin.
Autopsy permits often grant physicians permission
to study only those body parts that might help
answer a specific medical question or determine the
mechanism of death.
Autopsies are done in teaching hospitals, where the
examinations are often quite detailed and are
performed for institutional research and the
education of medical residents.

MEDICOLEGAL AUTOPSY
In the broadest sense, a medico legal autopsy
generates an evidentiary document that forms a
basis for opinions rendered in a criminal trial,
wrongful death civil suit, medical malpractice, civil
suit, or administrative hearing.
In most states a board-certified pathologist must
perform these autopsies.
The aim is to obtain the cause and manner of
death
Because medical-legal autopsies are
comprehensive exams. , include a study of the
CNS, they exceed hospital autopsies in scope.

CASE
The different aims of hospital and medicallegal autopsies are illustrated in the
following example.
A 92-year-old woman with significant
cardiac disease falls down her steps
and suffers a hip fracture. While
convalescing in the hospital, she dies
suddenly, 3 days after her accident and
admission.

A hospital autopsy would focus on

answering these medical questions:
Did she suffer a myocardial infarction or a
pulmonary embolus (mechanism of death) ?
If her hospital care had been different (e.g., if
anticoagulants had been given more aggressively),
could her death have been prevented?
If she was given a new anticoagulant under a
research protocol, was this new drug effective ?
(This involves evaluating new drug protocols.)

The medical-legal investigation and autopsy

would focus on:
The injury (cause of death).
The hip fracture.
How the injury occurred (manner of death): Did
she trip (accident), or did she have a myocardial
infarction before falling down the steps (natural)?
If she were pushed down the steps, the manner
of death would be homicide.

 If it was shown that this woman slipped

and fell down the steps, sustained a hip
fracture, and developed blood clots that
embolized to the lung after 3 days of
hospitalization, the death certificate would
read as follows
Cause of Death: pulmonary embolus
due to fracture of the hip;
Manner of Death: accident.

WHAT IS THE PURPOSE OF

THE AUTOPSY?
The fundamental function of the jurisdictional authority
investigating the death is also the basic purpose of the
autopsy: to establish the cause and manner of death.
An autopsy is done mainly to complete a death certificate
and to register the vital statistics.
The cause of death is the disease or injury that sets into
motion the chain of events leading to the death.
The manner of death is a classification system for deaths
(natural, homicide, suicide, accident, and undetermined).

CASES THAT USUALLY

REQUIRE AN AUTOPSY
Homicides
Suicides
Accidents that occur on the
job
Drivers in single-car
accidents (could be a suicide)
Sudden, unexpected deaths
of children
Deaths of pilots in aircraft
crashes
Natural diseases that might
impact the community (e.g.,
meningitis)
Fire deaths
Accidents caused by the
negligence or reckless
behavior of others

Deaths of persons in custody of

the State or other agency
Accidents that occur without a
witness
Accidents in which natural
disease is a factor
Sudden, unexpected deaths of
apparently healthy persons
(usually younger than 15 years)
Deaths in which the manner of
death is not readily apparent
Deaths in which litigation is
reasonably expected
Hospital deaths in which the
quality of care is an issue
All suspicious deaths

 The essence of the autopsy involves working

backward from one undeniable fact: a death has
occurred.
Forensic pathologists look back in time to the point
when a disease or injury set into motion a chain of
events that were ultimately, and tragically, fatal.
Forensic pathologists do not work in a vacuum,
however.
While collecting information from various sources,
they interact with crime scene investigators and
law enforcement, review statements of witnesses,
examine the scene, and follow leads that the
scene provides.
Analysis of this information sets the foundation for
the autopsy procedure and the final opinions of the
pathologist including the cause and manner of
death.

A comprehensive medicallegal autopsy

has three phases:
Premorgue analysis
Morgue analysis, or the autopsy per se
Postmorgue analysis

Premorgue analysis involves

assessing the facts of the death
scene (including environmental
conditions), withness statements,
and the known circumstances
surrounding the death.
Morgue analysis includes
examination of the body and the
associated trace evidence.

 Postmorgue analysis occurs over the

ensuing weeks to months and includes
analysis of microscopic slides of tissues
sampled during the autopsy procedure.
Toxicologic, microbiologic culture, chemical,
and other laboratory results are also
reviewed in this phase and special forensic
tests such as DNA identification are
performed.

Through the investigation and the subsequent

autopsy, the goal is always to answer the
numerous other questions that arise, including
the following:

What was the date and time of death?

What was the location of death?
When and where was the deceased last seen alive?
When and where was the deceased injured?
What was the location and position of the body at
death?
How was the deceased injured and killed?
What killed the deceased?
Who killed the deceased?
At times, the questions are only partially answered

REQUEST LETTER

BODY TAG

AUTOPSY REPORT

UNIVERSAL
PRECAUTION
Proper
protection of the
pathologist and
all assistants
from infectious
diseases is
essential.

IDENTIFICATION OF THE BODY

Direct Identification by Family
Members
Personal Features
Objects in the Body
Fingerprints
Dental Identification
Deoxyribonucleic Acid

Colour Atlas of Autopsy, Wagner SA, 2007

External Examination:
CLOTHING AND VALUABLES

The clothing of the deceased is also evidence and

may contain additional trace evidence.
To protect all evidence from contamination or loss,
and for practical reasons, the clothing is not
removed in the uncontrolled environment of the
scene. An exception to this rule is made in rare
cases when moisture could alter a substance on the
clothing; for example, condensation may form in the
body bag when the body is placed in a cooler.
The clothing can be quite helpful in a death investi
gation, since it is intimately associated with the body.

External Examination:
CLOTHING AND VALUABLES
For example, the range of fire in a gunshot wound is
often determined from a shirt the victim was wearing
when shot.
Unburned particles from the weapon will tattoo the
bare skin. If clothing intervenes between the weapon
and the skin, the majority of the unburned particles
form a pattern on the clothing, with very few particles
going through the clothing to the skin.
This clothing can be analyzed by a forensic scientist,
who can estimate the range of fire of the weapon and
the width and configuration of the pattern correlated
to the distance of the shirt from the weapon.

TRACE EVIDENCE

 Common objects collected at the scene

include hair, small fibers, or paint flakes
that could easily be lost.
Since scene lighting is often poor and the
setting inappropriate, trace evidence is
best taken at the autopsy suite.
One method of preparing the body for
transport is to drape a clean sheet over
the body and then place it in a clean body
bag.

FOUR SIGNS OF DEATH

Rigor Mortis
Algor Mortis
Livor Mortis
Decomposition

 The external examination of the deceased

is a focused head-to-toe examination of
the body.
This exam is similar to a physical exam
one might get from a physician.
All parts of the body are examined, from
the hair on top of the head to the toenails.
Most pathologists use a systematic
examination process to make a detailed
survey of all systems, being careful not to
overlook any area of the body

When examining an organ, a tissue,

or a region of the body, the
pathologist looks for:
Traumatic injuries, both old and new
Natural disease processes, such as tumors or
atherosclerosis
Congenital defects or deformities
Toxicologic, thermal (burns), and chemical
injuries
Trace evidence
Infectious disease processes
Anything abnormal, unusual, or unexpected

When examining an organ, a

tissue, or a region of the body,
the pathologist looks for:
Documenting Traumatic Injuries:
Diagrams And Descriptions
Radiology And Imaging
Photography And Video As
Documentation Tools

Specific Injuries
Blunt Force Injuries
Laceration
A laceration is the tearing or splitting of
skin by a blunt force object carrying
force. Lacerations show at least three
characteristics:
Undermined margins
Tissue bridging
Abraded margins

Laceration of the scalp with marginal abrasion. Blunt force striking the
skin with sufficient force tears the skin, resultingintissue bridging,
undermined margins, and a marginal abrasion.

Abrasion
An abrasion is the denuding of skin or tissue caused by a
blunt or rough object. An abrasion is commonly known
as a "scrape." There are four major types of abrasions:
A usual abrasion or scrape is due to an object
contacting skin or tissue parallel to its surface
A sliding abrasion is more linear than a usual
abrasion and is caused when movement or sliding is
involved. The abrasion lines show the direction of
sliding
A pressure abrasion is due to a heavy or forcefully
projected blunt object contacting or compressing skin
or soft tissue in a perpendicular fashion
A pattern abrasion is the combination of usual and
pressure-type abrasions, usually forming a pattern
reminiscent of the blunt object that
forcefully contacted the skin

Contusion
A contusion,
commonly known
as a bruise, is a
hemorrhage into
skin or tissues
caused by a blunt
force tearing
blood vessels.

Avulsion

An avulsion is the tearing away of skin and/

or tissue, usually as a result of blunt force.
An avulsion can have characteristics of
contusions, lacerations, and even sharp
force injuries if the avulsing object has a
sharp edge.

Sharp Force Injuries

Stab Wounds:
Stab wounds are generally deeper than they are
long
Incised Wounds:
Incised wounds are generally longer than they are
deep.
Defense Wounds:
Defense wounds (cuts) are special types of
incised wounds received when victims attempt to
defend themselves from knife attacks
Puncture Wounds:
Puncture wounds are special sharp force wounds
that are much deeper than they are wide.

 Chopping Wounds:
Chopping wounds are caused by objects with a
sharp edge and substantial weight, such as an
axe or a machete
Gunshot Wounds:
Gunshot wounds are usually produced from four
main types of weapons in North America:
revolver, pistol, rifle, and shotgun. The revolver,
pistol, and rifle produce a single entrance wound
under normal circumstances. The shotgun can
produce a single entrance wound if a slug is the
type of round used or multiple entrance wounds if
buckshot is fired

Incised Wounds

Stab Wounds:

Puncture Wounds

Defense Wounds

Chopping Wounds

Gunshot Wounds

Internal Examination
During the internal exam, these leads are
investigated. As with any investigation, some
findings are completely unexpected.
This means that the pathologist must examine all
tissues carefully and objectively.
Going into an autopsy with preconceived notions
about potential findings can cause the pathologist
to overlook the unexpected.

Internal Examination
Each internal exam includes, at minimum, an examination
of the following:
Heart, including coronary
glands
arteries and heart
Bladder
valves
Prostate
Chest cavity and mediastinum
Uterus and ovaries
Lungs and lung hilum
Neck organs, including
Liver and gallbladder
larynx and thyroid
Spleen
gland
Stomach and esophagus
Vertebral column
Small and large intestines
Skull
Bowel mesentery
Brain and its coverings
Peritoneal cavity
Body walls
Aorta and its branches
Kidneys and adrenal

Organ and Tissue Removal

CLASSIC AUTOPSY
TECHNIQUES
TECHNIQUE OF R. VIRCHOW
Organs are removed one by one.
This method has been used most
widely, often with some
modifications. Originally, the first
step was to expose the cranial cavity
and, from the back, the spinal cord,
followed by the thoracic, cervical,
and abdominal organs, in that order.

CLASSIC AUTOPSY
TECHNIQUES
TECHNIQUE OF C. ROKITANSKY This
technique is characterized by in situ dissection,
in part combined with the removal of organ
blocks.
TECHNIQUE OF A. GHON Thoracic and
cervical organs, abdominal organs, and the
urogenital system are removed as organs blocks
(en bloc removal). Modifications of this
technique are now widely used.

CLASSIC AUTOPSY
TECHNIQUES
TECHNIQUE OF M. LETULLE Thoracic,
cervical, abdominal, and pelvic organs are
removed as one organ block (en masse
removal) and subsequently dissected into organ
blocks. This technique requires more experience
than the other methods but has the great
advantage that the body can be made available
to the undertaker in less that 30 min without
having to rush the dissection. Unfortunately, the
organ mass is awkward to handle.

Dissection of chest skin and soft tissue. The skin and subcuta-neous tissue are dissected back to expose the
underlying muscle and bone. The natural yellow color of the subcutaneous fat can be seen here.

COLLECTING BLOOD, URINE, BILE, AND VITREOUS SPECIMENS FOR TOXICOLOGY

Examination of the Head, Skull,

Brain, and Spinal Cord
All medical-legal examinations require the
examination of the head, skull, and brain.
This includes careful examination of the
scalp, skull, and dura mater, the fibrous
membrane that tethers the brain in place.
Since the brain is the supreme organ
system, giving orders to the rest of the
body, no examination is complete without
assessment of the brain and its coverings.

Incising the scalp. The scalp skin, subcutaneous tissue, and galea
aponeurotica (thick fibrous layer) are cut down to the bone. The cut is
started behind the ear, extended around the vertex (top of the head), and
completed behind the other ear.

Examination of the dura. The top

portion of theskull (calvarium) is
examined here. The grey membrane is
the dura mater. The dura mater has
been partially stripped away . from the
skull. The tip of the scissors is in the
epidural ("above the dura") region The
subdural space is the region below the
dura.

Removing the brain. The brainstem is cut and the brain is removed

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