The Euler Line

Proofs, properties, and

applications

Dominik Teiml
Author
Bruce Gahir,
Supervisor

000821-055,
The English College in
Prague

Extended Essay in
Mathematics,
IB May 2013

Abstract
The Euler line, first discovered in 1763 by the great Swiss mathematician Leonhard Euler
[Oiler], is a line that goes through the orthocenter, the centroid, and the circumcenter, in
that order, in every triangle in the plane. Moreover, the distance between the orthocenter
and the centroid is always double the distance between the centroid and the circumcenter.
The theorem is little known among the public and generally not taught at school, but even
professional mathematicians rarely know how to apply it to solve geometrical problems.
This paper thus aims to shed light on its properties and applications, as well as its
elementary proofs. First, four different proofs of the Euler line are given, one of which,
as the authors discovery, is a completely new one. This is followed by a list of problems,
with full solutions and diagrams, that exemplify the many uses of the Euler line. The
problems are of various sorts, ranging from the present authors inventions to problems
from international mathematical competitions from around the world.

Contents
1 Introduction
2 Proofs
2.1 Proof
2.2 Proof
2.3 Proof
2.4 Proof

by
by
by
by

similar triangles
construction . .
transformation .
circumcircle . . .

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3 Problems and solutions

8
3.1 Easy problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
3.2 Intermediate problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
3.3 Difficult problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4 Conclusion

22

5 Sources

23

6 Appendix

25

Section 1

Introduction
ubi euidens eft, effe EH = 32 EF et F H = 12 EF ,
from which we can see that HO = 23 HG and GO = 12 HG
Leonhard Euler, 1763; second line translation
The orthocenter, centroid and circumcenter of any triangle lie, in that order,
on a single line called the Euler line. The centroid lies two-thirds of the
distance between the orthocenter and the circumcenter.
Modern statement of the theorem
Every 6th grader knows that triangles have a number of points which are called
centers, among them the intersections of: the side bisectors (circumcenter), the medians
(centroid) and the altitudes (orthocenter). But rarely does even their teacher know that
precisely these three points lie on a single straight line and in a constant ratio, in every
single triangle. This is a pity because triangles are the most fundamental units (the
building blocks) of plane geometry, and its centers the most fundamental parts of them.
The fact that such as relationship exists is surprising, spectacular and beautiful, usually
in that order. It is also easily comprehensible: the statement is a lot simpler than other
triangle theorems the law of sines/cosines, Cevas or Menelaus theorem etc., not even
talking about Stewarts theorem or Herons formula. Heck, it is even simpler than the
deified Pythagorean theorem!
The relationship was first discovered by Leonhard Euler [Oiler] in 1763. Leonhard
Euler (17071783) was born in Switzerland in 1707, but already at the age of 20 years,
he moved to the newly established Saint Petersburg to work and teach at the Imperial
Russian Academy of Sciences, established just three years earlier by Peter the Great.
Political turmoil in Russia led him in 1741 to accept an invitation by Frederick the Great
of Prussia to the Berlin Academy. In 1766, at the age of 59, he in turn accepted Catherine
the Greats offer and moved back to St. Petersburg, where he lived another 17 years until
his death. Euler had eye problems throughout his whole life, and in 1766 became totally
blind. After that, his productivity didnt lessen, but on average actually increased.
1 of 26

Introduction

Leonhard Euler is widely regarded as one of the greatest mathematicians of all time,
if not the greatest. His collected works fill 6080 volumes. He contributed to a large
number of topics in mathematics from discrete math and geometry to complex analysis,
and was the sole founder of graph theory. He was the first to use the concept of a function
f (x), the first to use for summation and i as the imaginary unit. He was the person
to popularize the use of the letters and e (named after himself) for two of the most
important mathematical constants. Some of his well-known contributions are Eulers
formula (eix = cos x + i sin x), Eulers theorem in number theory (a(n) 1 (mod n) with
(n) the Eulers totient function), Eulers formula of a planar graph (v e + f = 2),
Eulers theorem in geometry (d2 = R(R 2r)) and, of course, the Euler line.
The Euler line is first mentioned in the work Solutio facilis problematum quorundam
geometricorum difficillimorum (An easy solution to a very difficult problem in geometry), which he wrote and presented in 1763 (and published 1767). The paper, at 21
pages, in Latin and typeset, dealt with the construction of a triangle from its four main
centers (the fourth being the incenter). Euler does this algebraically his paper is filled
with long equations. As part of his paper, he computes the distances between the various
centers, and observes that HO = 32 HG and GO = 12 HG. While this clearly implies
that HG + GO = HO and so the three points are collinear, Euler does not explicitly
say this! The problem he was solving was the construction of the original triangle, so
he most likely simply didnt find the relationship important. Little did he know that it
would later become one of the most important triangle theorems!
After that, things got even more interesting. In 1765, Euler proved that the midpoint
of HO is the center of a circle which passes through the three altitude feet and three
side midpoints of the triangle. Olry Terquem (17821886) added that the circle also
passes through the three midpoints of HA, HB and HC. Karl Fuerbach (18001834)
and others proved many other noteworthy properties of this so-called nine-point circle.
Other points were found to lie on the Euler line for example, the Schiffler point and
the Exeter point. In Clark Kimberlings Encyclopedia of Triangle Centers (comprising
5389 of them), over 200 points lie on the Euler line.
While the Euler line is so significant and so interesting, surprisingly few problems
require it or even allow it to be used. Searching through the entire IMO Compendium,
which holds about 850 of suggested and selected problems International Mathematical
Olympiad (IMO) between 1959 and 2004, results in just one problem based on the Euler
line (problem 11 on page 15 of this paper). Several professional geometricians and a
number of highly skilled students (IMO participants and the like) each know, if anything,
of only one or two problems. Google doesnt find any paper on the uses of the Euler line,
and even book chapters on it severely lack in the number and quality of problems. This
paper thus aims to fill in this empty spot to provide a comprehensive treatment of the
proofs and applications of the Euler line, and to illustrate a few of its many properties.
However, the nine-point circle will not be discussed or used, simply because the that is a
huge topic on its own, and I want to focus this paper just on the Euler line.
I will assume an intermediate knowledge of plane geometry, slightly higher than a
high school curriculum. If need be, Section 6: Appendix on page 25 should serve to

2 of 26

Introduction

remind or familiarize the reader with well-known facts and definitions in plane geometry.
If the reader is still struggling, the Geometry section of the International Baccalaureate
(IB) Further Mathematics course should provide sufficient understanding. I will use only
synthetic (Euclidean) methods, and will not reference any advanced theorems.
Unless said otherwise, I will use the following notation: A, B, C for the vertices of
a triangle; , , respectively for the sizes of angles BAC, CBA, ACB; MA , MB , MC
for the midpoints of sides BC, CA, AB; A1 , B1 , C1 for the feet of the altitudes from
A, B, C; and H, N, G, O, I for the orthocenter, center of the nine-point circle, centroid,
circumcenter and incenter. r and R will be respectively the inradius and the circumradius.
In the case of a string of equations (for example, a1 = a2 = a3 = a4 ), what is important
is only the equality of the first and last expression (a1 = a4 ), the other expressions are
working steps. Also, XY will normally be represent line XY , but if a midpoint or a length
is being considered, it will represent line segment XY . Unless stated to the contrary, all
proofs are in full generality (for example, for both acute and obtuse triangles), even if a
diagram of only one case is provided. If the cases differ, they be discussed separately. It
is worthwhile keeping in mind that what is important is the written proof the diagram
is an illustration of how the triangle might look like. Furthermore, I will sometimes
use the term Eulers theorem as a shorthand for the proposition that H, G and O are
collinear with HG = 2GO.

3 of 26

Introduction

Figure 1.1: Euler line HGO of an acute-angled triangle ABC. Included are also Schiffler
point S, Exeter point Ex , de Longchamps point L, circumcenter of tangential triangle
O1 and nine-point circle with center N .

Figure 1.2: Euler line HGO of an obtuse-angled triangle ABC. De Longchchamps point
L and Exeter point Ex lie on ray HO.
4 of 26

Section 2

Proofs
In this chapter I present the various proofs of Eulers theorem. Sources of proofs are
given in Section 5: Sources on page 23. Eulers original proof was algebraic (see Section
1: Introduction) but for this purpose unnecessarily complex, so I will not include it. If
the reader is interested, he/she can find Eulers original paper in Latin at:
http://www.math.dartmouth.edu/~euler/docs/originals/E325.pdf.

Figure 2.1: Proof by similar triangles and proof by construction

2.1

Proof by similar triangles

This is the most common proof. We observe that CH MC O and CG = 2GMC . If

we could show that CH = 2MC O, triangles HGC and OGMC would be similar with a
ratio of 2 : 1, so G would lie on HO is a ratio of 2 : 1. There are several ways of obtaining
this.
First way. We have OMA MC HAC with a 1:2 ratio, so CH = 2OMC .

5 of 26

Proofs
OMA
AC1
AC1
= cos =
. Also
= cos(90 ) =
R
AC
AH
1
AC
R AC1
1
sin = 2
. Working out gives OMA =
= AH.
R
AC
2
Second way. BOC = 2, so

Third way. Outline. Let H be the intersection of HC1 with the circumcircle
other than C, and let X and Y be the intersections of OMC with the circumcircle. We
can label the distances along chord CH and diameter XY . We can then use Theorem
1 in Section 6: Appendix on page 25 and the fact that there are many rectangles and
parallelograms with sides on CH and OMC to arrive at CH = 2OMC . The complete
proof is left for the interested reader.

2.2

Proof by construction

There are two possibilities.

First way. Construct H on OG with H G = 2GO. Triangles GOMC and GH C
are similar by SAS, so CH OMC , so CH is an altitude. Repeating this process for a
different side (and corresponding median) yields that H is the orthocenter.
Second way. Construct O on HG with O G = HG/2. By the same argument,

C is perpendicular to AB. Thus O is the intersection of three side bisectors, and so

is the circumcenter.
O M

Note that it is not possible to construct G with HG = 2G O and G HO and then

prove that G = G, simply because by letting G float, we lose too much information
to complete the proof.

Figure 2.2: Proof by transformation

6 of 26

Proofs

2.3

Proof by transformation

MB MA AB, so MC O is a height in triangle MC MA MB . Consequently, O is its

orthocenter. But ABC MA MB MC and G is a common centroid, so H is mapped
onto O (in other words, H, G and O are collinear). The ratio of similitude is 2 : 1, so we
get HG = 2GO.

2.4

Proof by circumcircle

This is my own proof.

We reflect H over MC to P , which will land on the circumcircle diametrically
opposite C.1 Thus HO is a median in P HC; let G1 be the centroid of this triangle.
P MC = MC H, so CMC is another median of P HC. Moreover, CG1 = 2G1 MC . But
MC is also the midpoint of AB! Thus G1 is a centroid of ABC, and we are done.

Figure 2.3: Proof by circumcircle

See Theorem 2 in Section 6: Appendix on page 25.

7 of 26

Section 3

Problems and solutions

In this section I provide a number of problems. Some of them mention the Euler line
already in the wording these problems consider the properties of the Euler line. In
other problems, it is not at first sight clear that the Euler line can be used to obtain a
solution; such problems consider in turn the application of the Euler line. All in all, the
problems are ordered roughly by increasing difficulty, ranging from high school geometry
to Olympiad-level material. The source of each problem is indicated in this section, but
the full source of the problem and solution(s) is given in Section 5: Sources on page 23.
A sourced problem doesnt mean it is copied word by word, in fact I have often changed
(improved) the wording, and also changed the notation to make it consistent throughout
the text. Save for a few exceptions (Problems 2, 3, 11), there do not exist easy non-Euler
line solutions. And even in these three cases, the solution by Euler line is the simplest,
and arguably most elegant.

Figure 3.1: Problem 1

8 of 26

Problems and solutions

3.1

Easy problems

Problem 1. Prove that the line joining the centroid of ABC to a point X on the
circumcircle bisects the line segment joining X , the diametric opposite of X, to the
orthocenter. (College Geometry, p. 103)
This is one of the several problems that use the fact that Eulers ratio of 2 : 1 works
well with medians, which divide each other in the same ratio.
Solution. In XX H, HO is a median. But HG = 2GO, so G is its centroid. Thus
XG is a median, and so bisects HX .
Problem 2. Let ABCD be a cyclic quadrilateral and let H1 and H2 be respectively the
orthocenters of triangles ACD and DBC. Prove that H1 H2 AB. (Further Mathematics
for the IB Diploma: Geometry, p. 53)

Figure 3.2: Problem 2

This is the first problem that involves multiple Euler lines. In particular, it makes
use of the fact that two Euler ratios 2 : 1 go well together with parallel lines.
Solution. Let M be the midpoint of DC and G1 and G2 be the centroids of triangles
ACD and DBC. In OH1 H2 , by Eulers theorem, H1 H2 G1 G2 . At the same time,
G1 G2 AB, so H1 H2 AB.
Problem 3. A, B, and C are chosen randomly on a unit circle . Let H be the orthocenter
of triangle ABC, and let region R be the locus of H. Find the area of R. (Mock AIME
2012)
Solution. We first prove that the locus of the centroid is the disk of . Pick any point
G inside the circle. A triangle ABC can be constructed as follows: A is the intersection of
and ray OG. A lies on ray GO and satisfies AG = 2GA . B and C are the intersections
of and the perpendicular to AO through A . ABC is isosceles and G lies in two-thirds
of its height AA , thus G is its centroid. At the same time, the centroid must lie inside
the triangle, and so on the open disk of . Thus the locus of G is determined.
9 of 26

Problems and solutions

Figure 3.3: Problem 3

Now, by Eulers theorem, H lies on ray OG with HG = 2GO. Thus the locus of H is
an open disk of diameter 3 with center O. This means the area of R is 9.
This problem can be solved using other means, for example by trigonometry (after
calculations, we arrive at OH = 1+2 cos , which has a maximum value 3) or by Theorem
1 in Section 6: Appendix on page 25 (the locus of H is an open unit disk tangent to the
original one. If we rotate this disk around the original one, we get a resultant open disk
of radius 3). However, both of these are only outlines of proofs, and, in the end, the
proof by Euler line is the shortest (and most elegant).
Problem 4. Prove that the line joining the circumcenter of triangles A1 B1 C and
MA MB C is parallel to the Euler line of ABC. (Current aurthor)
Solution. CA1 B1 H and CMA M OMB are cyclic with CA1 H = 2 and CMA O = 2 .
Thus CH and CO are the respective diameters, and so the circumcenters of triangles
A1 B1 C and MA MB C are the midpoints of OH and CH, respectively. The line joining
these midpoints is a midline in CHO, so it is parallel to HO, the Euler line.

Figure 3.4: Problem 4

10 of 26

Problems and solutions

3.2

Intermediate problems

Problem 5. Prove that the intersection of lines A1 MB and B1 MA lies on the Euler line.
(Lemma of a solution to Problem 10)
Solution. Applying Pappuss hexagonal theorem1 to the pairs (A, MB , B1 ) and
(B, MA , A1 ) yields that the intersection of A1 MB and B1 MA lies on GH, the Euler
line.
The same applies for the other two intersections of cyclically similar lines, giving a
total of three new points on the Euler line.

Figure 3.5: Problem 5

Problem 6. ABC, let O be the circumcenter of CHB, T be the intersection of this
circumcircle with AB, U be the midpoint of BH and V be the intersection between CU
and AO. Prove that the areas of triangles AC1 V and V T O are equal. (Problem by the
present author)
Solution. A is the orthocenter of CHB, so AO is the Euler line. The centroid of
CHB lies both on AO and on median CU , thus the centroid is V . This implies that
base AV is double the size of base V O. But at the same time, AC1 = C1 T ,2 so the
altitude from T of V OT is double the altitude from C1 of AV C1 , so the two triangles
have equal area.
Problem 7. Let C1 be the foot of the altitude from C to AB and let X be the intersection
of the midline parallel to AB and the perpendicular bisector of AB. Prove that C1 , G
and X are collinear with C1 G = 2GX. (Another problem by the present author)
1

Pappuss theorem states that, given two pairs of three collinear points A, B, C and P, Q, R, then the
the intersection points of line pairs AQ and BP , AR and CP , BR and CQ are collinear. A proof can be
found here: http://www.cut-the-knot.org/pythagoras/Pappus.shtml.
2
See Theorem 1 in Section 6: Appendix on page 25.

11 of 26

Problems and solutions

Figure 3.6: Problem 6

Here I give two of my own solutions that both use the Euler line.
Solution. We will prove that C1 , G, X is, respectively, the orthocenter, the centroid
and the circumcenter of some triangle. Let be the circle with center X and radius XA.
Let B and C be the intersections of and the perpendicular from MA to AB such that
B lies on the minor arc AB. X lies on the perpendicular bisector of AB, so B lies on
and thus AC B = ABB . But ABB = B C1 B since B lies on the perpendicular
bisector of BC1 . Thus C1 B C = 2 AC B , and so B C1 is an altitude in AB C .
But AC1 is also an altitude, which means C1 is the orthocenter of AB C .
Furthermore, AMA is a median with AG = 2GMA , so G is a centroid in AB C .
Lastly, X is the circumcenter, and so C1 , G, X is an Eulerian triple of AB C .

Figure 3.7: Problem 7

Solution. We have CC1 = 2XMC and CH = 2OMC , so C1 H = 2XO. At the same
time, HG = 2GO and C1 HG = XOG, so HF G OXG. This implies C1 , G and
X lie on a single line with C1 G = 2GX.
12 of 26

Problems and solutions

Problem 8. In ABC, A is the reflection of O over BC and B and C are constructed

analogically. Let T be the midpoint of HG. Prove that the line A T bisects both B C
and AH in one point. (Problem due to the present author.)

Figure 3.8: Problem 8 acute-angled triangle

Figure 3.9: Problem 8 obtuse-angled triangle

Solution. MA MC is a midline in C A O, so C A MC MA AC. Thus B O and,
analogically, C O are altitudes in A B C , so O is its orthocenter.
We have AH A O and, since ABC
= A B C , AH = A O (both are distances
from the orthocenter to a corresponding vertex). Thus AOA H is a parallelogram, so
OA = R = HA . Analogically, HB = R and HC = R, so H is the circumcenter of
A B C !
By the definitions of B and C we have AB = AO = R, AC = AO = R, and also

B H = R and C H = R, so AC HB is a parallelogram. This implies that B C and AH

bisect each other. By Eulers theorem, T is the centroid of A B C , so A T is a median,
and so goes through the midpoint of B C and AH.
13 of 26

Problems and solutions

Figure 3.10: Problem 9

Problem 9. ABC is a triangle with circumcenter O and orthocenter H (and O =
H).
Show that one of area AOH, area BOH, area COH is the sum of the other two.
(Asia-Pacific Mathematical Olympiad, 2004)
Solution. Without loss of generality, let BOH have the largest area. Let A0 , B0 , C0
be respectively the feet of the perpendiculars from A, B, C to Euler line OH. The three
triangles have a common base HO, so its enough to show that AA0 + CC0 = BB0 . Let
M be the midpoint of A0 C0 . MB M A0 C0 , so MB M G1 BB0 G1 , where G1 is the
intersection of BMB and HO. But by Eulers theorem, the intersection of the Euler line
and a median is the centroid, so G1 = G. This means BG1 = 2G1 MB , so BB0 = 2MB M ,
so AA0 + CC0 = BB0 .
Problem 10. In ABC, let A1 B1 and MA MB intersect at C . Prove that C C is
perpendicular to the Euler line. (Peru TST (Team selection test for the IMO) 2006)
On the internet, all solutions to this problem are either quite long, or require advanced knowledge of geometry.3 I found an extremely simple solution.
Solution. Let J be the intersection of C C and the circumcircle of ABC and let K
be the midpoint of JC.
CMB K = CAJ = CBJ = CMA K,
hence MB MA CK is cyclic. But MB OMA C is cyclic on the same circle, so OMA CK is
also cyclic. Therefore, OK C C. At the same time, this means HA1 CK is cyclic,
so A1 HK = KCA1 = MA OK. Since HA1 OMA , H lies on OK, and so
OH C C.
3
The problem can be solved using the result of Problem 5 and then either applying Brocards
theorem (see http://www.artofproblemsolving.com/Forum/viewtopic.php?p=2845132) or observing
that CC is a polar with regard to the nine-point circle (see http://www.artofproblemsolving.com/
Forum/viewtopic.php?p=471718). Or by using Monges three lines theorem (see http://jl.ayme.
pagesperso-orange.fr/Docs/Les%20deux%20points%20de%20Schroeter.pdf).

14 of 26

Problems and solutions

Figure 3.11: Problem 10

3.3

Difficult problems

Problem 11. Let triangle ABC have orthocenter H, and let P be a point on its circumcircle, distinct from A, B, C. Let E be the foot of the altitude BH, let P AQB and
P ARC be parallelograms, and let AQ meet HR in X. Prove that EX is parallel to AP .
(Shortlist, IMO 1996)

Figure 3.12: Problem 11

15 of 26

Problems and solutions

Solution. Let G, G , H be respectively the centroid of ABC, the centroid of P BC

and the orthocenter of P BC. AMA and P MA are medians of triangles ABC and
P BC, respectively, so GG = AP/3. Triangles ABC and P BC share a circumcenter,
so HH = 3GG = AP . At the same time, RC = AP and QB = AP , so AQR is
P BC under translation by vector P A. Thus H is the also the orthocenter of AQR,
so RX AQ. This means AXHE is cyclic, so
EXA =

EAH = = AP B = P AQ = XAP.
2

Thus EX AP .
Problem 12. In ABC, let A0 , B0 , C0 be the feet of perpendiculars from A, B, C to
HO and let O1 be the midpoint of A0 C0 . Let k be any circle with center O1 with
radius at least O1 B0 , let Y be the second intersection of k and ray BB0 and let P1 and
P2 be the two intersections of k and l(Y, Y B0 ). Let X and Z be the intersections of
circle k with the perpendicular bisectors of P1 B0 and P2 B0 , respectively. Prove that
MB MY BY, MA MX AX, MC MZ CZ. (Problem by the current author)

Figure 3.13: Problem 12

Solution. In any triangle, the image of the orthocenter over a side lies on the
circumcenter.4 Thus the orthocenter lies on the image of the minor arc determined by
any two vertices of the triangle, over the side joining these two vertices (see Figure 3.14).
4

See Theorem 1 in Section 6: Appendix on page 25.

16 of 26

Problems and solutions

Figure 3.14: Problem 12 H lies on intersection of reflections of minor arcs

In particular, the orthocenter of XY Z lies on the image of minor arcs Y Z and XY over
sides Y Z and XY , respectively. B0 satisfies this, and so is the orthocenter of XY Z.
We will now prove that G is its centroid.
BH = 2MB O and BH OMB and BB0 O1 MB , so O1 MB O B0 HB with
a ratio of 2 : 1, so B0 H = 2OO1 . But HG = 2GO, so B0 G = 2GO1 . Since B0 is the
orthocenter and O1 the circumcenter, by Eulers theorem, G is the centroid of XY Z.
Thus Y G = 2GMY , and since BG = 2GMB , Y GB MY GMB . This means
MB MY BY , and similarly for the other two relations.
There are, in my opinion, several beautiful things about this problem:
B0 is, surprisingly, the orthocenter of XY Z.
The problem is not fully symmetrical about its three vertices. (It is symmetrical
about A and C, but B is special.) Despite that, the pair of parallel lines holds
for each vertex.
The proposition holds for any circle with center O1 (with sufficiently large radius).
As we enlarge this circle (see Figure 3.15 and Figure 3.16 for two possible such
circles), BY and MB MY will be fixed lines in other words, Y and MY travel
along the previous lines BY and MB MY . However, the same is not true for X and
Z, meaning the shape of XY Z changes with k. Nevertheless, the parallel lines,
of course, still hold.
Euler line HO is parallel to XZ!
An Euler line was found on top of an existing Euler line (the only other such
problem is Problem 8).

17 of 26

Problems and solutions

Figure 3.15: Problem 12 One possible circle k

Figure 3.16: Problem 12 Another possible circle k

18 of 26

Problems and solutions

Problem 13. In non-equilateral ABC, let TA , TB , TC be the points where the incircle
touches the sides of the triangle. Prove that the centroid of TA TB TC , the incenter
of ABC and the circumcenter of ABC are collinear. (Hungary-Israel Competition
2000)

Figure 3.17: Problem 13

Solution. The incenter of ABC is the circumcenter of TA TB TC , so it is enough
to prove that O lies on the Euler line of TA TB TC . If we let H be the orthocenter of
TA TB TC and S be the midpoint of HI, then it suffices to show that O lies on HI.
We now denote the midpoints of TA TB and TC H as M and R, respectively. We
also denote the intersection of M I with the circumcircle of ABC as M . We have
M I = RH and M I RH, so M IRH is a parallelogram, so RS goes through M . But
SR ITC , so M S OMC . Also, CM is an angle bisector, so minor arcs AM and BM
are equal, so M OMC , so M S OM . If we show that triangles SM I and OM I are
similar, then SIO would be a straight line.
ITA CTB is a deltoid, so M lies on diagonal CI, hence C lies on line M IM . At the
same time, IM TA TB , so IM RTC is a parallelogram. Thus SM = 2r with r the inradius
+
of ABC. Furthermore, M ITA = /2 ICTA = +
2 , hence M I = r cos 2 . Now,
M IB = ICB + IBC = +
= IBM , so IM = M B = 2R cos +
2
2 , since

ABM = ACM = /2.

In sum, we have SM I = IM O and
r cos +
SM
r/2
MI
2
=
=
=
,

+
OM
R
IM
2R cos 2
so SM I OM I.
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Problems and solutions

Problem 14. In ABC, TA , TB , TC are the intersections between the incircle and the
sides of the triangle. TA is reflected over TB TC to TA and A is the intersection between
ATA and BC. The points B and C are constructed analogically. Prove that A , B and
C are collinear on the Euler line of TA TB TC . (China TST (Team selection test for
the IMO) 2012)

Figure 3.18: Problem 14

All the solutions to this problem on the internet require advanced theory polars,
Mollweides equations or the Emelyanov result.5 This is my own elementary solution.
Solution. Let D be the foot of the altitude from TA to TB TC , let E be the intersection
of TA D and circle TA TB TC , let F be the image of TA reflected over I, let H be the
orthocenter of TA TB TC , let M be the midpoint of TB TC and let P be the intersection
of AI and side BC.
IM TB TC , but at the same time, ITC ATC , so by angle-angle similarity,
ATC I TC M I. Thus
AI
r
2r
=
=
.
(3.1)
r
IM
TA H
The last equation is derived by observing what line segments IM and TA H are in
TA TB TC .
At the same time, TA EF = /2, hence ETA P I, so ETA F = TA IP . Also
TA EF = ITA P , thus EF TA TA P I. Therefore
2r
PI
=
.
ETA
r

(3.2)

5
See http://www.artofproblemsolving.com/Forum/viewtopic.php?p=2628489 and http://www.
artofproblemsolving.com/Forum/viewtopic.php?p=2703241.

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Problems and solutions

Dividing (3.1) by (3.2) finally yields

AI
TA E
=
.
IP
TA H
Now, TA D = TA D and HD = DE,6 so TA E = TA H. Thus
T H
AI
= A
IP
TA H
and, due to AP TA TA , A lies on IH. Analogically, so do B and C , so all three points
lie on the Euler line of TA TB TC .

See Theorem 1 in Section 6: Appendix on page 25

21 of 26

Section 4

Conclusion
We
have discussed the mathematical and historical context of the Euler line, including
the life and work of Leonhard Euler,
have discussed all the elementary proofs of the Euler line, including the common
proofs by similar triangles, by constructing H or O , by using the medial triangle,
or my own proof using the circumcircle,
have seen many problems of various kinds,
have solved problems where the Euler line was already constructed (Problems 4, 8,
9, 10, 12, 13, 14) or where we had to construct the Euler line (1, 2, 3, 7, 11),
proved certain points form the Eulerian triple of some triangle (6, 7, 8, 12),
have solved problems where there was more than one Euler line (2, 7, 8, 11, 12),
found Euler lines on top of existing Euler lines (8, 12),
have discussed the properties (4, 5, 9, 10, 12 13, 14) and applications (1, 2, 3, 6, 7,
8, 11 12) of the Euler line,
have worked with the 2 : 1 ratio of medians (1, 2, 6, 7, 9, 11, 12),
found additional points on the Euler line (5, 13, 14),
found lines parallel (12, 4) and perpendicular (10) to the Euler line,
have solved problems where the centroid was fixed (7, 12) and where the circumcenter
was fixed (2, 3, 11),
have computed areas (3, 6), and
have solved problems ranging from international olympiads (11, 9, 13) or preparation
for them (10, 14) to my own inventions (4, 6, 7, 8, 12).
I sincerely hope the reader now has a much improved understanding of the proofs,
the properties, and the applications of the Euler line than 21 pages earlier, when they
were on page 1. I certainly do.
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Section 5

Sources
In this section I will list, by appropriate subsection, all sources I have used for writing
this paper. All websites were last accessed on November 11, 2012.

Introduction
Biography of Leonhard Euler
Leonhard Euler. J. J. OConnor, E. F. Robertson. School of Mathematics and
Statistics, University of St Andrews, Scotland. http://www-history.mcs.st-and.
ac.uk/Biographies/Euler.html.
Leonhard Euler. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonhard_Euler.
Leonhard Euler a greatest mathematician of all times. Simon Patterson.
The Euler International Mathematical Institute. http://www.pdmi.ras.ru/EIMI/
EulerBio.html.
History of the Euler line
The Euler Archive. Dartmouth University. http://www.math.dartmouth.edu/
~euler/.
Solutio facilis problematum quorundam geometricorum difficillimorum. Leonhard
Euler. http://www.maa.org/editorial/euler/HEDI%2063%20Euler%20line.pdf.
Encyclopedia of Triangle Centers. Clark Kimberling. University of Evansville.
http://faculty.evansville.edu/ck6/encyclopedia/ETC.html.
Nine Point Circle. http://www.mathsisgoodforyou.com/topicsPages/circle/
ninecentrecircle.htm.
Euler line. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euler_line.
Nine-point circle. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nine-point_circle.
Euler line. Clark Kimberling. University of Evansville. http://faculty.
evansville.edu/ck6/tcenters/class/eulerline.html.

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Sources

Proofs
Proof by similar triangles (the first way) and proof by transformation are common
proofs that I knew before beginning work on the essay. The other two ways of proof
by similar triangles and the proof by circumcircle are my own work. The first way of
the proof by construction I got from here Euler line proof. Pedro Sanchez, Chi
Woo. http://planetmath.org/?op=getobj&from=objects&id=156. The second way I
deduced from the first way.

Problems and solutions

Problem 1. Altshiller-Court, Nathan. College Geometry. New York: Dover
Publications, 1952. ISBN 0-486-45805-9. Solution is my own.
Problem 2. Neill, Hugh; Quadling, Douglas. Further Mathematics for the IB
Diploma. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2008. ISBN 978-0-521-71466-2.
Solution is my own.
Problem 3. 2012 MOCK AIME released! (Geometry). http://www.artofproblemsolving.
com/Forum/viewtopic.php?t=484424.
Problem 4. My own problem and solution.
Problem 5. Xvii cono sur - peru tst 2006. http://www.artofproblemsolving.
com/Forum/viewtopic.php?p=471718. Solution is by grobber from ibid.
Problem 6. Problem and solution are my own.
Problem 7. My own problem and solution.
Problem 8. Both problem and solution are my own.
Problem 9. 16th APMO 2004. http://mks.mff.cuni.cz/kalva/apmo/apmo04.
html. Solution is my own.
Problem 10. Xvii cono sur - peru tst 2006. http://www.artofproblemsolving.
com/Forum/viewtopic.php?p=471718. Solution is my own.
Problem 11. Djukic, D; Jankovic, V; Matic, I; Petrovic, N. IMO Compendium:
A Collection of Problems Suggested for the International Mathematical Olympiads:
1959-2004. New York: Springer, 2006. ISBN 978-0387-24299-6. Solution is from ibid.
Problem 12. Problem and solution are my own.
Problem 13. 11-th HungaryIsrael Binational Mathematical Competition 2000.
http://www.imocompendium.com/othercomp/Hi/Himc00.pdf. Solution is due to vslmat
from http://www.artofproblemsolving.com/Forum/viewtopic.php?p=2817530#p2817530.
Problem 14. Collinear. http://www.artofproblemsolving.com/Forum/viewtopic.
php?p=2628489. Solution is my own, but inspired by Marius Staneans solution at http:
//www.artofproblemsolving.com/Forum/viewtopic.php?p=2703512#p2703512.

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Section 6

Appendix
The orthocenter is the intersection of the altitudes (i.e. heights). The centroid is the
intersection of the three medians, it lies two-thirds of the way down each median. The
circumcenter is the center of the circumscribed circle, also the intersection of the three
side bisectors. The incenter is the center of the inscribed circle, also the intersection
of the three angle bisectors. A cyclic quadrilateral is a quadrilateral inscribed in a
circle. A parallelogram is a quadrilateral with parallel opposite sides, its diagonals bisect
each other. A deltoid is a quadrilateral with two pairs of adjacent and equal sides; its
diagonals are perpendicular and one bisects the other. Collinear points lie on a straight
line, concurrent lines intersect at one point.
Theorem 1. The reflection of the orthocenter over a side of a triangle lies on the
circumcircle.
Proof. Let the reflection be H . HBA = 2 and BAH = 2 , so AHB =
+ . AH BH is a deltoid, so BH A = + . But ACB = , so H lies on
circle ABC.
Theorem 2. The reflection of the orthocenter over a midpoint of a side of a triangle
lies on the circumcircle, diametricially opposite the point opposite to the particular side.
Proof. By a very similar argument, BH A = + , so H lies on circle ABC. Also,
CBH = + ACH = + 2 = 2 , so CH is a diameter.

Figure 6.1: Theorems 1 and 2 in an acute triangle.

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3 + 26 pages, 24 diagrams, 3343 words (computed using TeXcount http://app.

uio.no/ifi/texcount/index.html; does not include anything before page 1, Section 5:
Sources, Section 6: Appendix, figure captions, footnotes and mathematical symbols).
Typeset in LATEX using Texmaker 3.3 and MiKTeX 2.9. Packages used: amsmath,
amsthm, amssymb, graphicx, geometry, url, indentfirst, microtype, fancyhdr, hyperref,
fix-cm, microtype. Diagrams drawn in Geogebra 4.0.
Work begun on August 27, 2012, first draft completed November 11, 2012, final draft
completed November 25, 2012.
This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License,
meaning the reader is allowed to share and adapt the work (including for commercial
purposes) as long as he/she attributes the work to the current author.

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