Essential Vector Calculus

A. L. Bruce

1 The Del Operator and Vector Fields

• The symbol ∇ is called del or nabla and is defined as

∂ ∂ ∂
∇= î + ĵ + k̂.
∂x ∂y ∂z

• When a scaler fuction f is multiplied with ∇ the result is the gradient

of f , given by
∂f ∂f ∂f
∇f = î + ĵ + k̂.
∂x ∂y ∂z
The gradient field is always orthogonal (perpendicular) to the contours
(i. e. the level curves) of f at any given point.

• When the dot product (scaler product) between ∇ and a vector field
F is taken, the result is the divergence of F.

∂Fx ∂Fy ∂Fz

∇ · F = divF = + + .
∂x ∂y ∂z

the divergence measures the magnitude by which material within F

proceeds outward from the field’s origin. For example, water flowing
from a pipe might gain speed the farther from the pipe it is, thus the
divergence of the fluid field would be a function which is positive that
interval.

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 • When the cross product (vector product) between ∇ and a vector field
F is taken, the result is the curl of F.
 
 î ĵ k̂ 
 ∂ ∂ ∂

∇ × F = curlF =  ∂x ∂y ∂z 
 F F F 
x y z

You should be able to compute this determinant, but if you can’t (or
are too lazy to), it is
 
 î ĵ k̂       
 ∂ ∂ ∂
 ∂F z ∂F y ∂F z ∂F x ∂F y ∂F x
 ∂x ∂y ∂z  = ∂y − ∂z î− ∂x − ∂z ĵ+ ∂x − ∂y k̂.
 
 F F F 
x y z

The curl measures the rotational component of the motion of material

within F

2 Line Integrals and Surface Integrals

• A work line integral is an integral used to compute the work done by
a force on a particle taken along a path C. It is formally defined as
ˆ
W = F · dr
C

but is typically computed by paramatrizing the field’s components. If

we say F = hFx , Fy , Fz i, then we can also say dr = hdx, dy, dzi. So we
have ˆ ˆ
F · dr = hFx , Fy , Fz i · hdx, dy, dzi
C C
ˆ
= Fx dx + Fy dy + Fz dz.
C

Many times (although not always) this is parametrized with one vari-
able, x, y, z, equal to t and the others as functions of t. Thus, if I
parametrized with x = t, I’d have y = f1 (t), z = f2 (t), and a ≤ t ≤ b
for some a and b. Hence dx = dt, dy = f10 (t)dt, dz = f20 (t)dt, and the
integral would be
ˆ ˆ b
F · dr = t dt + f1 (t)f10 (t) dt + f2 (t)f20 (t) dt
C a

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 The parameter is ultimately decided by the path however, and some-
thing like the example above only works if the path is linear (a line).
If the path is different, one must use a parameter which is suitable to
that specific path. For example, if the path is circular the parameter
x = sin t is more appropriate.
• A flux surface integral is typically defined as
¨
F · n̂ dS
S

Where S is a surface in three-space with unit normal vector n̂. To be

able to evaluate this we need to know how to deal with n̂ dS. It can
actually be shown through a long and somewhat laborious process that
−∂f /∂xî − ∂f /∂y ĵ + k̂
n̂ = q .
1 + (∂f /∂x)2 + (∂f /∂y)2

Since dS is a surface area differential we can say

s  2  2
∂f ∂f
dS = 1 + + dA
∂x ∂y
Where A is the area of the surface’s ‘shadow,’ a region which we call
D, in the xy-plane. Now we have
¨ ¨
s  2  2
−∂f /∂xî − ∂f /∂y ĵ + k̂ ∂f ∂f
F · n̂ dS = F· q 1+ + dA
∂x ∂y
S S 1 + (∂f /∂x)2 + (∂f /∂y)2

¨  
∂f ∂f
= hFx , Fy , Fz i · − , − , 1 dA
S ∂x ∂y

¨
∂f ∂f
= −Fx î − Fy ĵ + Fz k̂ dA.
D ∂x ∂y
.
Where f is the function of the surface chosen (e.g. a paraboloid would
be z = x2 + y 2 ). The surface integral across a field F of a surface S is

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 also commonly called the flux of F through S and measures the amount
of material passing though S per unit time. Using the previous example
of water through a pipe, the flux of the fluid field through the surface
of the pipe gives the amount of water passing through the surface per
unit time.

3 Conservative Field Theorems and Path In-

dependence
• A vector field F is called conservative if and only if F = ∇f for some
scaler function f .
• Theorem: If curlF = 0, then F is conservative1 .
• Theorem (Fundemental Theorem of Line Integrals): If F is
conservative, the line integral along any curve C with initial point
f (x1 , y1 , z1 ) and final point f (x2 , y2 , z2 ) can be computed as
ˆ
F · dr = f (x2 , y2 , z2 ) − f (x1 , y1 , z1 ).
C

where F = ∇f .
• Corollary 1: if F is conservative then, a line integral across F is path
independent, that is, for any two paths C1 and C2 with the same initial
and terminal points
ˆ ˆ
F · dr = F · dr.
C1 C2

• Corollary 2: if F is conservative then the line integral along any closed

path is zero, that is,
˛
F · dr = 0.
C

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It should be noted that while knowing a field is conservative imples that curlF = 0,
the converse is NOT true unless curlF = 0 in a simply connected region R and the partial
derivitives of f are continuous on R. In most cases of physical fields these can be assumed
when curlF = 0, such as the electric field, which is why the theorem is stated without
those conditions.

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4 Important Theorems in Vector Calculus
• Theorem (Green’s Theorem): Let C be a curve enclosing a simple
region. If the line integral of a vector field F is taken counter-clockwise
(positive orientation), then
˛ ¨
F · dr = curlF · k̂ dA.
C D

Green’s Theorem can also be written with the unit normal vector and
divergence
˛ ¨
F · n̂ ds = divF dA.
C D

This is called the normal form of Green’s theorem due to the presence
of the unit normal vector.
We can actually use Green’s theorem to prove F is conservative if and
only if curlF = 0.
Proof:
If F is conservative,
curlF =∇ × F
=∇ × (∇f )
=(∇ × ∇)f
=0f = 0.
If curlF = 0,
¨ ¨
curlF · k̂ dA = 0 · k̂ dA = 0
D ˛D
⇒ F · dr = 0 (for all closed C)
C

Hence, the field is path independent and therefore must be conservative.

-Q. E. D.
• Theorem (Stokes’ Theorem): Suppose we have a path C enclosing
a simple region and a vector field F. Then
˛ ¨
F · dr = curlF · n̂ dS
C S

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 where S is any surface bounded by C. It should be noted that Green’s
Theorem is a special case of Stokes’ Theorem, where the curve C is
planar and S is the the disk it bounds, thus n̂ = k̂.

• The orientation of a surface which decides whether n̂ should be di-

rected upward or downward. The right hand rule for orientation states
that if you place your thumb along the curve C in the direction of
its orientation, and then point toward the surface with your index fin-
ger, your middle finger will point in the direction of n̂. Some surfaces
are nonorientable, the classic example being the Mobius strip, shown
below.

Figure 1: The Mobius strip is a nonorientable surface

Since there is no one side which is “up” or “down,” the right hand
rule cannot be applied, Stokes’ Theorem falls apart and the flux is
undefined.

• Theorem (The Divergence Theorem): Suppose we have a surfave

S in space and a vector field F. If and only if S is a closed surface,
that is, it has a definite volume, such as a sphere or cube (not a plane
or lamina),
‹ ˚
F · n̂ dS = divF dV.
S V

What the divergence theorem says is simple: the flux through a closed
region, i. e. the amount of stuff flowing through that region per unit
time, is equal to the divergence of the field over the volume of that
region. If you think about this it is very simple and intuitive. Thus,
if you have a sufficient understanding of surface integrals, flux and
divergence, you should be able to derive this without referring to any
text (or this summary for that matter).

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Here are some works to refer to if you need or want more on Vector Calculus:

References
[1] James Stewart. Calculus: Early Trancendentals, 5th ed. Chapters 15 and
16.

[2] H. M. Schey. Div, Grad, Curl and All That: An Informal Text on Vector
Calculus.

[3] Erwin Kreyszig. Advanced Engineering Mathematics, 4th ed. Chapters

8 and 9.