Cutting Tool Applications

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By Geor

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Upcoming Chapters
Metal Removal
Cutting-Tool Materials
Metal Removal Methods
Machinability of Metals
Single Point Machining
Turning Tools and Operations
Turning Methods and Machines
Grooving and Threading
Shaping and Planing
Hole Making Processes
Drills and Drilling Operations
Drilling Methods and Machines
Boring Operations and Machines
Reaming and Tapping
Multi Point Machining
Milling Cutters and Operations
Milling Methods and Machines
Broaches and Broaching
Saws and Sawing
Abrasive Processes
Grinding Wheels and Operations
Grinding Methods and Machines
Lapping and Honing

Chapter 3
Machinability of
Metals
3.1 Introduction
The condition and physical properties of the work material have a direct influence on the
machinability of a work material. The various conditions and characteristics described as
condition of work material, individually and in combinations, directly influence and
determine the machinability. Operating conditions, tool material and geometry, and workpiece requirements exercise indirect effects on machinability and can often be used to
overcome difficult conditions presented by the work material. On the other hand, they
can create situations that increase machining difficulty if they are ignored. A thorough
understanding of all of the factors affecting machinability and machining will help in
selecting material and workpiece designs to achieve the optimum machining combinations critical to maximum productivity.

3.2 Condition of Work Material

George Schneider, Jr. CMfgE

Professor Emeritus
Engineering Technology
Lawrence Technological University
Former Chairman
Detroit Chapter ONE
Society of Manufacturing Engineers
Former President
International Excutive Board
Society of Carbide & Tool Engineers
Lawrence Tech. Univ.: http://www.ltu.edu
Prentice Hall: http://www.prenhall.com

2 Tooling & Production/Chapter 3

The following eight factors determine the condition of the work material: microstructure,
grain size, heat treatment, chemical composition, fabrication, hardness, yield strength,
and tensile strength.
Microstructure: The microstructure of a metal refers to its crystal or grain structure
as shown through examination of etched and polished surfaces under a microscope.
Metals whose microstructures are similar have like machining properties. But there can
be variations in the microstructure of the same workpiece, that will affect machinability.
Grain Size: Grain size and structure of a metal serve as general indicators of its
machinability. A metal with small undistorted grains tends to cut easily and finish easily. Such a metal is ductile, but it is also gummy. Metals of an intermediate grain size
represent a compromise that permits both cutting and finishing machinability. Hardness
of a metal must be correlated with grain size and it is generally used as an indicator of
machinability.
Heat Treatment: To provide desired properties in metals, they are sometimes put
through a series of heating and cooling operations when in the solid state. A material may
be treated to reduce brittleness, remove stress, to obtain ductility or toughness, to increase
strength, to obtain a definite microstructure, to change hardness, or to make other changes
that affect machinability.
Chemical Composition: Chemical composition of a metal is a major factor in determining its machinability. The effects of composition though, are not always clear,
because the elements that make up an alloy metal, work both singly and collectively.
Certain generalizations about chemical composition of steels in relation to machinability
can be made, but non-ferrous alloys are too numerous and varied to permit such generalizations.
Fabrication: Whether a metal has been hot rolled, cold rolled, cold drawn, cast, or
forged will affect its grain size, ductility, strength, hardness, structure - and therefore - its
machinability.
The term wrought refers to the hammering or forming of materials into premanfacwww.toolingandproduction.com

Chap. 3: Machinability of Metals

tured shapes which are readily altered
into components or products using traditional manufacturing techniques.
Wrought metals are defined as that
group of materials which are mechanically shaped into bars, billets, rolls,
sheets, plates or tubing.
Casting involves pouring molten
metal into a mold to arrive at a near
component shape which requires minimal, or in some cases no machining.
Molds for these operations are made
from sand, plaster, metals and a variety
of other materials.
Hardness: The textbook definition
of hardness is the tendency for a material to resist deformation. Hardness is
often measured using either the Brinell
or Rockwell scale. The method used to
measure hardness involves embedding a
specific size and shaped indentor into
the surface of the test material, using a
predetermined load or weight. The distance the indentor penetrates the material surface will correspond to a specific
Brinell or Rockwell hardness reading.
The greater the indentor surface penetration, the lower the ultimate Brinell or
Rockwell number, and thus the lower
the corresponding hardness level.
Therefore, high Brinell or Rockwell
numbers or readings represent a minimal amount of indentor penetration into
the workpiece and thus, by definition,
are an indication of an extremely hard
part. Figure 3.1 shows how hardness is
measured.

500 kg

Load

parative tests between a variety of

workpiece materials or a single material
which has undergone various hardening
processes.
The Rockwell test can be performed
with various indentor sizes and loads.
Several different scales exist for the
Rockwell method or hardness testing.
The three most popular are outlined
below in terms of the actual application
the test is designed to address:
Rockwell
Scale

Testing
Application

For tungsten carbide and

other extremely hard
materials & thin, hard
sheets.

For medium hardness

low and medium carbon
steels in the annealed
condition.

For materials > than

Rockwell B 100.
In terms of general machining practice, low material hardness enhances
productivity, since cutting speed is often
selected based on material hardness
(the lower the hardness, the higher the
speed). Tool life is adversely affected by
an increase in workpiece hardness,
since the cutting loads and temperatures rise for a specific cutting speed
with part hardness, thereby reducing

500 kg

Large indentation
Soft part

Load
Small indentation

Hard partt

Figure 3.1 Hardness is measured by depth of indentations made.

The Brinell hardness test involves

embedding a steel ball of a specific
diameter, using a kilogram load, in the
surface of a test piece. The Brinell
Hardness Number (BHN) is determined
by dividing the kilogram load by the
area (in square millimeters) of the circle
created at the rim of the dimple or
impression left in the workpiece surface. This standardized approach provides a consistent method to make comwww.toolingandproduction.com

tool life. In drilling and turning, the

added cutting temperature is detrimental to tool life, since it produces excess
heat causing accelerated edge wear. In
milling, increased material hardness
produces higher impact loads as inserts
enter the cut, which often leads to a premature breakdown of the cutting edge.
Yield Strength: Tensile test work is
used as a means of comparison of metal
material conditions. These tests can

establish the yield strength, tensile

strength and many other conditions of a
material based on its heat treatment. In
addition, these tests are used to compare
different workpiece materials. The tensile test involves taking a cylindrical rod
or shaft and pulling it from opposite
ends with a progressively larger force in
a hydraulic machine. Prior to the start
of the test, two marks either two or eight
inches apart are made on the rod or
shaft. As the rod is systematically subjected to increased loads, the marks
begin to move farther apart. A material
is in the so-called elastic zone when
the load can be removed from the rod
and the marks return to their initial distance apart of either two or eight inches.
If the test is allowed to progress, a point
is reached where, when the load is
removed the marks will not return to
their initial distance apart. At this point,
permanent set or deformation of the test
specimen has taken place. Figure 3.2
shows how yield strength is measured.
Yield strength is measured just prior
to the point before permanent deformation takes place. Yield strength is stated
in pounds per square inch (PSI) and is
determined by dividing the load just
prior to permanent deformation by the
cross sectional area of the test specimen. This material property has been
referred to as a condition, since it can be
altered during heat treatment. Increased
part hardness produces an increase in
yield strength and therefore, as a part
becomes harder, it takes a larger force to
produce permanent deformation of the
part. Yield strength should not be confused with fracture strength, cracking or
the actual breaking of the material into
pieces, since these properties are quite
different and unrelated to the current
subject.
By definition, a material with high
yield strength (force required per unit of
area to create permanent deformation)
requires a high level of force to initiate
chip formation in a machining operation. This implies that as a materials
yield strength increases, stronger insert
shapes as well as less positive cutting
geometries are necessary to combat the
additional load encountered in the cutting zone. Material hardness and yield
strength increase simultaneously during
heat treatment. Therefore, materials
with relatively high yield strengths will
be more difficult to machine and will
reduce tool life when compared to mateChapter 3/Tooling & Production 3

Chap. 3: Machinability of Metals

Test Specimen

Force = 0 lbs

Force = 0 lbs
2.000

Figure 3.2 Yield strength is measured by pulling a test specimen as shown.

rials with more moderate strengths.

Tensile Strength:
The tensile
strength of a material increases along
with yield strength as it is heat treated to
greater hardness levels. This material
condition is also established using a tensile test. Tensile strength (or ultimate
strength) is defined as the maximum
load that results during the tensile test,
divided by the cross-sectional area of
the test specimen. Therefore, tensile
strength, like yield strength, is
expressed in PSI. This value is referred
to as a material condition rather than a
property, since its level just like yield
strength and hardness, can be altered by
heat treatment. Therefore, based on the
material selected, distinct tensile and
yield strength levels exist for each hardness reading.
Just as increased yield strength
implied higher cutting forces during
machining operations, the same could
be said for increased tensile strength.
Again, as the workpiece tensile strength
is elevated, stronger cutting edge
geometries are required for productive
machining and acceptable tool life.

3.3 Physical Properties of

Work Materials
Physical properties will include those
characteristics included in the individual material groups, such as the modulus of elasticity, thermal conductivity,
thermal expansion and work hardening.
Modulus of Elasticity: The modulus
of elasticity can be determined during a
tensile test in the same manner as the
previously mentioned conditions.
However, unlike hardness, yield or tensile strength, the modulus of elasticity is
a fixed material property and , therefore,
is unaffected by heat treatment. This
particular property is an indicator of the
rate at which a material will deflect
when subjected to an external force.
This property is stated in PSI and typical values are several million PSI for
4 Tooling & Production/Chapter 3

metals. A 2 x 4 x 8 ft. wood beam

supported on either end, with a 200
pound weight hanging in the middle,
will sag 17 times more than a beam of
the same dimensions made out of steel
and subjected to the same load. The difference is not because steel is harder or
stronger, but because steel has a modulus of elasticity which is 17 times
greater than wood.
General manufacturing practice dictates that productive machining of a
workpiece material with a relatively
moderate modulus of elasticity normally requires positive or highly positive
raked cutting geometries. Positive cutting geometries produce lower cutting
forces and, therefore chip formation is
enhanced on elastic material using
these types of tools. Sharp positive cutting edges tend to bite and promote
shearing of a material, while blunt negative geometries have a tendency to create large cutting forces which impede
chip formation by severely pushing or
deflecting the part as the tool enters the
cut.
Thermal Conductivity: Materials
are frequently labeled as being either
heat
conductors
or
insulators.
Conductors tend to transfer heat from a
hot or cold object at a high rate, while
insulators impede the flow of heat.
Thermal conductivity is a measure of
how efficiently a material transfers heat.
Therefore, a material which has a relatively high thermal conductivity would
be considered a conductor, while one
with a relatively low level would be
regarded as an insulator.
Metals which exhibit low thermal
conductivities will not dissipate heat
freely and therefore, during the machining of these materials, the cutting tool
and workpiece become extremely hot.
This excess heat accelerates wear at the
cutting edge and reduces tool life. The
proper application of sufficient amounts
of coolant directly in the cutting zone

(between the cutting edge and workpiece) is essential to improving tool life
in metals with low thermal conductivities.
Thermal Expansion: Many materials, especially metals, tend to increase
in dimensional size as their temperature
rises. This physical property is referred
to as thermal expansion. The rate at
which metals expand varies, depending
on the type or alloy of material under
consideration. The rate at which metal
expands can be determined using the
materials expansion coefficient. The
greater the value of this coefficient, the
more a material will expand when subjected to a temperature rise or contract
when subjected to a temperature reduction. For example, a 100 inch bar of
steel which encounters a 100 degree
Fahrenheit rise in temperature would
measure 100.065 inches. A bar of aluminum exposed to the same set of test
conditions would measure 100.125
inches. In this case, the change in the
aluminum bar length was nearly twice
that of the steel bar. This is a clear indication of the significant difference in
thermal expansion coefficients between
these materials.
In terms of general machining practice, those materials with large thermal
expansion coefficients will make holding close finish tolerances extremely
difficult, since a small rise in workpiece
temperature will result in dimensional
change. The machining of these types
of materials requires adequate coolant
supplies for thermal and dimensional
stability. In addition, the use of positive
cutting geometries on these materials
will also reduce machining temperatures.
Work Hardening: Many metals
exhibit a physical characteristic which
produces dramatic increases in hardness due to cold work. Cold work
involves changing the shape of a metal
object by bending, shaping, rolling or
forming. As the metal is shaped, internal stresses develop which act to harden
the part. The rate and magnitude of this
internal hardening varies widely from
one material to another. Heat also plays
an important role in the work hardening
of a material. When materials which
exhibit work hardening tendencies are
subjected to increased temperature, it
acts like a catalyst to produce higher
hardness levels in the workpiece.
The machining of workpiece materiwww.toolingandproduction.com

Chap. 3: Machinability of Metals

als with work hardening properties
should be undertaken with a generous
amount of coolant. In addition, cutting
speeds should correlate specifically to
the material machined and should not
be recklessly altered to meet a production rate. The excess heat created by
unusually high cutting speeds could be
extremely detrimental to the machining
process by promoting work hardening
of the workpiece. Low chip thicknesses
should be avoided on these materials,
since this type of inefficient machining
practice creates heat due to friction,
which produces the same type of effect
mentioned earlier. Positive low force
cutting geometries at moderate speeds
and feeds are normally very effective on
these materials.

3.4 Metal Machining

The term machinability is a relative
measure of how easily a material can be
machined when compared to 160
Brinell AISI B1112 free machining low
carbon steel. The American Iron and
Steel Institute (AISI) ran turning tests of
this material at 180 surface feet and
compared their results for B1112
against several other materials. If
B1112 represents a 100% rating, then
materials with a rating less than this
level would be decidedly more difficult
to machine, while those that exceed
100% would be easier to machine.
The machinability rating of a metal
takes the normal cutting speed, surface
finish and tool life attained into consideration. These factors are weighted and
combined to arrive at a final machinMaterialHardness
Machinability
Rating
6061-T
Aluminum
190%
7075-T
Aluminum
120%
B1112
Steel 160 BHN
100%
416 Stainless
Steel 200 BHN
90%
1120 Steel160 BHN
80%
1020 Steel148 BHN
www.toolingandproduction.com

ability rating. The following chart

shows a variety of materials and their
specific machinability ratings:

3.4.1 Cast Iron

All metals which contain iron (Fe) are
known as ferrous materials. The word
ferrous is by definition, relating to or
containing iron. Ferrous materials
include cast iron, pig iron, wrought iron,
and low carbon and alloy steels. The
extensive use of cast iron and steel
workpiece materials, can be attributed
to the fact that iron is one of the most
frequently occurring elements in nature.
When iron ore and carbon are metallurgically mixed, a wide variety of
workpiece materials result with a fairly
unique set of physical properties.
Carbon contents are altered in cast irons
and steels to provide changes in hardness, yield and tensile strengths. The
physical properties of cast irons and
steels can be modified by changing the
amount of the iron-carbon mixtures in
these materials as well as their manufacturing process.
Pig iron is created after iron ore is
mixed with carbon in a series of furnaces. This material can be changed
further into cast iron, steel or wrought
iron depending on the selected manufacturing process.
Cast iron is an iron carbon mixture
which is generally used to pour sand
castings, as opposed to making billets or
bar stock. It has excellent flow properties and therefore, when it is heated to
extreme temperatures, is an ideal material for complex cast shapes and intricate molds. This material is often used
for automotive engine blocks, cylinder
heads, valve bodies, manifolds, heavy
equipment oil pans and machine bases.
Gray Cast Iron: Gray cast iron is an
extremely versatile, very machinable
relatively low strength cast iron used for
pipe, automotive engine blocks, farm
implements and fittings. This material
receives its dark gray color from the
excess carbon in the form of graphite
flakes which give it its name.
Gray cast iron workpieces have relatively low hardness and strength levels.
However, double negative or negative
(axial) positive (radial) rake angle
geometries are used to machine these
materials because of their tendency to
produce short discontinuous chips.
When this type of chip is produced during the machining of these workpieces,

the entire cutting force is concentrated

on a very narrow area of the cutting
edge and therefore, double positive rake
tools normally chip prematurely on
these types of materials due to their
lower edge strength.
White Cast Iron: White cast iron
occurs when all of the carbon in the
casting is combined with iron to form
cementite. This is an extremely hard
substance which results from the rapid
cooling of the casting after it is poured.
Since the carbon in this material is
transformed into cementite, the resulting color of the material when chipped
or fractured is a silvery white. Thus the
name white cast iron. However, white
cast iron has almost no ductility, and
therefore when it is subjected to any
type of bending or twisting loads, it
fractures. The hard brittle white cast
iron surface is desirable in those
instances where a material with extreme
abrasion resistance is required.
Applications of this material would
include plate rolls in a mill or rock
crushers.
Due to the extreme hardness of white
cast iron, it is very difficult to machine.
Double negative insert geometries are
almost exclusively required for these
materials, since their normal hardness
is 450 - 600 Brinell. As stated earlier
with gray iron, this class of cast material subjects the cutting edge to extremely
concentrated loads, thus requiring
added edge strength.
Malleable Cast Iron: When white
cast iron castings are annealed (softened
by heating to a controlled temperature
for a specific length of time), malleable
iron castings are formed. Malleable
iron castings result when hard, brittle
cementite in white iron castings is transformed into tempered carbon or
graphite in the form of rounded nodules
or aggregate. The resulting material is a
strong, ductile, tough and very machinable product which is used on a broad
scope of applications.
Malleable cast irons are relatively
easy to machine when compared to
white iron castings. However, double
negative
or
negative
(axial)
positive(radial) rake angle geometries
are also used to machine these materials as with gray iron, because of their
tendency to produce short discontinuous chips.
Nodular Cast Iron: Nodular or
ductile iron is used to manufacture a
Chapter 3/Tooling & Production 5

Chap. 3: Machinability of Metals

wide range of automotive engine components including cam shafts, crank
shafts, bearing caps and cylinder heads.
This materials is also frequently used
for heavy equipment cast parts as well
as heavy machinery face plates and
guides. Nodular iron is strong, ductile,
tough and extremely shock resistant.
Although nodular iron castings are
very machinable when compared with
gray iron castings of the same hardness,
high strength nodular iron castings can
have relatively low machinability ratings. The cutting geometry selected for
nodular iron castings is also dependent
on the grade to be machined. However,
double negative or positive (radial) and
negative (axial) rake angles are normally used.

3.4.2 Steel
Steel materials are comprised mainly of
iron and carbon, often with a modest
mixture of alloying elements. The
biggest difference between cast iron
materials and steel is the carbon content. Cast iron materials are compositions of iron and carbon, with a minimum of 1.7 percent carbon to 4.5 percent carbon. Steel has a typical carbon
content of .05 percent to 1.5 percent.
The commercial production of a significant number of steel grades is further evidence of the demand for this
versatile material. Very soft steels are
used in drawing applications for automobile fenders, hoods and oil pans,
while premium grade high strength
steels are used for cutting tools. Steels
are often selected for their electrical
properties or resistance to corrosion. In
other applications, non magnetic steels
are selected for wrist watches and
minesweepers.
Plain Carbon Steel: This category of
steels includes those materials which
are a combination of iron and carbon
with no alloying elements. As the carbon content in these materials is
increased, the ductility (ability to stretch
or elongate without breaking) of the
material is reduced. Plain carbon steels
are numbered in a four digit code
according to the AISI or SAE system
(i.e. 10XX). The last two digits of the
code indicate the carbon content of the
material in hundredths of a percentage
point. For example, a 1018 steel has a
.18% carbon content.
The machinability of plain carbon
steels is primarily dependent on the car6 Tooling & Production/Chapter 3

bon content of the material and its heat

treatment. Those materials in the low
carbon category are extremely ductile,
which creates problems in chip breaking on turning and drilling operations.
As the carbon content of the material
rises above .30%, reliable chip control
is often attainable. These materials
should be milled with a positive (radial)
and negative (axial) rake angle geometry. In turning and drilling operations
on these materials, negative or neutral
geometries should be used whenever
possible. The plain carbon steels as a
group are relatively easy to machine;
they only present machining problems
when their carbon content is very low
(chip breaking or built up edge), or
when they have been heat treated to an
extreme (wear, insert breakage or depth
of cut notching).
Alloy Steels: Plain carbon steels are
made up primarily of iron and carbon,
while alloy steels include these same
elements with many other elemental
additions. The purpose of alloying steel
is either to enhance the materials physical properties or its ultimate manufacturability.
The physical property
enhancements include improved toughness, tensile strength, hardenability, (the
relative ease with which a higher hardness level can be attained), ductility and
wear resistance. The use of alloying
elements can alter the final grain size of
a heat treated steel, which often results
in a lower machinability rating of the
final product. The primary types of
alloyed steel are: nickel, chromium,
manganese, vanadium, molybdenum,
chrome-nickel,
chrome-vanadium,
chrome-molybdenum, and nickelmolybdenum. The following summaries detail some of the differences in
these alloys in terms of their physical as
well as mechanical properties for
alloyed carbon steels:
Nickel - This element is used to
increase the hardness and ultimate
strength of the steel without sacrificing ductility.
Chromium - Chromium will extend
the hardness and strength gains
which can be realized with nickel.
However, these gains are offset by a
reduction in ductility.
Manganese - This category of alloyed
steels possesses a greater strength
level than nickel alloyed steels and
improved toughness when compared
to chromium alloyed steels.

Vanadium - Vanadium alloyed steels

are stronger, harder and tougher than
their manganese counterparts. This
group of materials however, loses a
significant amount of its ductility
when compared to the manganese
group to benefit from these other
physical properties.
Molybdenum - This group of alloyed
steels benefit from increased strength
and hardness without adversely
affecting ductility. These steels are
often considered very tough, with an
impact strength which approaches the
vanadium steels.
Chrome-Nickel - The alloying elements present in the chrome nickel
steels produce a very ductile, tough,
fine grain, wear resistant material.
However, they are relatively unstable
when heat treated and tend to distort,
especially as their chromium and
nickel content is increased.
Chrome-Vanadium - This combination of alloying elements produces
hardness, impact strength and toughness properties which exceed those of
the chrome-nickel steels.
This
alloyed steel has a very fine grain
structure and, therefore, improved
wear resistance.
Chrome-Molybdenum - This alloyed
steel has slightly different properties
than a straight molybdenum alloy due
to the chromium content of the alloy.
The final hardness and wear resistance of this alloy exceeds that of a
normal molybdenum alloy steel.
Nickel-Molybdenum - The properties
of this material are similar to chromemolydenum alloyed steels except for
one, its increased toughness.
The machinability of alloy steels
varies widely, depending on their hardness and chemical compositions. The
correct geometry selection for these
materials is often totally dependent on
the hardness of the part. Double positive milling or turning geometries
should be selected for these materials
only when either the workpiece,
machine or fixturing lacks the necessary rigidity to use stronger higher
force generating geometries. In milling,
positive (radial) negative (axial)
geometries are preferred on alloyed
steels due to their strength and toughness. In turning operations, double
negative or neutral geometries should
be used on softer alloy steels. Lead
angled tools should be used on these
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Chap. 3: Machinability of Metals

materials whenever possible to minimize the shock associated with cutter
entry into the cut.
Tool Steels: This group of high
strength steels is often used in the manufacture of cutting tools for metals,
wood and other workpiece materials. In
addition, these high strength materials
are used as die and punch materials due
to their extreme hardness and wear
resistance after heat treatment. The key
to achieving the hardness, strength and
wear resistance desired for any tool
steel is normally through careful heat
treatment. These materials are available
in a wide variety of grades with a substantial number of chemical compositions designed to satisfy specific as well
as general application criteria.
Tool steels are highly alloyed and
therefore, quite tough; However, they
can often be readily machined prior to
heat treatment.
Negative cutting
geometries will extend tool life when
machining these materials, provided the
system (machine, part and fixturing) is
able to withstand the additional tool
force.
Stainless Steels: As the name
implies, this group of materials is
designed to resist oxidation and other
forms of corrosion, in addition to heat in
some instances. These materials tend to
have significantly greater corrosion
resistance than their plain or alloy steel
counterparts due to the substantial additions of chromium as an alloying element. Stainless steels are used extensively in the food processing, chemical
and petroleum industries to transfer corrosive liquids between processing and
storage facilities. Stainless steels can be
cold formed, forged, machined, welded
or extruded. This group of materials
can attain relatively high strength levels
when compared to plain carbon and
alloy steels. Stainless steels are available in up to 150 different chemical
compositions. The wide selection of
these materials is designed to satisfy the
broad range of physical properties
required by potential customers and
industries.
Stainless steels fall into four distinct
metallurgical categories. These categories include: austenitic, ferritic,
martensitic, and precipitation hardening. Austenitic (300 series) steels are
generally difficult to machine. Chatter
could be a problem, thus requiring
machine tools with high stiffness.
www.toolingandproduction.com

However, ferritic stainless steels (also

300 series) have good machinability.
Martensitic (400 series) steels are abrasive and tend to form built-up edge, and
require tool materials with high hot
hardness and crater-wear resistance.
Precipitation-hardening stainless steels
are strong and abrasive, requiring hard
and abrasion-resistant tool materials.

3.4.3 Nonferrous Metals and Alloys

Nonferrous metals and alloys cover a
wide range of materials from the more
common metals such as aluminum, copper, and magnesium, to high-strength
high-temperature alloys such as tungsten, tantalum, and molybdenum.
Although more expensive than ferrous
metals, nonferrous metals and alloys
have important applications because of
their numerous properties, such as corrosion resistance, high thermal and electrical conductivity, low density, and
ease of fabrication.
Aluminum: The relatively extensive
use of aluminum as an industrial as well
as consumer based material revolves
around its many unique properties. For
example, aluminum is a very lightweight metal (1/3 the density when
compared to steel), yet it possesses
great strength for its weight. Therefore,
aluminum has been an excellent material for framing structures in military and
commercial aircraft. The corrosive
resistance of aluminum has made it a
popular material selection for the soft
drink industry (cans) and the residential
building industry (windows and siding).
In addition, most grades of aluminum
are easily machined and yield greater
tool life and productivity than many
other metals.
Aluminum is a soft, machinable metal
and the limitations on speeds are governed by the capacity of the machine
and good safe practices. Chips are of
the continuous type and frequently they
are a limiting safety factor because they
tend to bunch up. Aluminum has been
machined at such high speeds that the
chip becomes an oxide powder. To
increase its strength and hardness, aluminum is alloyed with silicon, iron,
manganese, nickel, chromium, and
other metals. These materials should be
machined with positive cutting geometries.
Copper: Copper is a very popular
material which is widely used for its
superior electrical conductivity, corro-

sion resistance and ease in formability.

In addition, when alloyed properly, copper alloys can exhibit a vast array of
strength levels and unique mechanical
properties.
Several copper alloys are now in
widespread commercial use including:
copper nickels, brasses. bronzes, copper-nickel-zinc alloys, leaded copper
and many special alloys. Brass and
bronze are the most popular copper
alloys in use.
The machinability of copper and its
alloys varies widely. Pure copper and
high copper alloys are very tough, abrasive, and prone to tearing. To limit and
prevent tearing, these materials should
be machined with positive cutting
geometries. Positive geometries should
also be used on bronze and bronze
alloys due to their toughness and ductility. Negative axial and positive radial rake angle geometries should be used
on brass alloys, since they have greater
levels of machinability and in a cast
state their chip formation is similar to
cast iron.
Nickel: Nickel is often used as an
alloying element to improve corrosion
and heat resistance and the strength of
many materials. When nickel is alloyed
or combined with copper (Monels),
chromium (Inconels and Hastelloys) or
chromium and cobalt (Waspalloys), it
provides a vast array of alloys which
exhibit a wide range of physical properties. Other important alloys belonging
to this group of materials include: Rene,
Astroloy, Udimet, Incoloys, and several
Haynes alloys. The machinability of
nickel based alloys is generally quite
low.
Most nickel based alloys should be
machined using positive cutting geometries.
Since these materials are
machined with carbide at 120 SFPM or
less, positive rake angle geometries are
required to minimize cutting forces and
heat generation. In the machining of
most materials, increased temperature
enhances chip flow and reduces the
physical force on the cutting edge.
Adequate clearance angles must be utilized on these materials, since many of
them are very ductile and prone to work
hardening. When a tool is stopped and
left to rub on the workpiece, hardening
of the workpiece surface will often
occur. To avoid this condition, care
should be taken to insure that as long as
the cutting edge and part are touching,
Chapter 3/Tooling & Production 7

Chap. 3: Machinability of Metals

the tool is always feeding.
Titanium and Titanium alloys:
Titanium is one of the earths most
abundant metals. Thus, its application
is fairly widespread from a cutting tool
material to the struts and framing members on jet aircraft. Titanium and its
alloys are often selected to be used in
aerospace applications due to their high
strength to weight ratio and ductility.
The machining of titanium and its
alloys involves the careful selection of
cutting geometry and speed. Positive
rake tools are often preferred on these
materials to minimize part deflection
and to reduce cutting temperatures in
the cutting zone. The generous use of
coolants on titanium and its alloys is
strongly advised to maintain thermal
stability and thus avoid the disastrous
effects of accelerated heat and temperature buildup which leads to workpiece
galling or tool breakage (drilling) and
rapid edge wear. Type machinability
rating for titanium and its alloys is
approximately 30% or less.
Refractory Alloys: The group of
materials designated as refractory alloys
includes those metals which contain
high concentrations of either tungsten
(W), tantalum (Ta), molybdenum (Mo)
or columbium (Co). This group of
materials is known for its heat resistance properties which allows them to
operate in extreme thermal environments without permanent damage. In
addition, these materials are known for
their extremely high melting points and
abrasiveness. Most of these materials
are quite brittle, thus, they possess very
low machinability ratings when also
considering their heat resistance and
extreme melting properties.
The
machining of this group of materials is
characterized by extremely low cutting
speeds and feed rates when utilizing
carbide cutting tools.
Cast molybdenum has a machinability rating of approximately 30 percent
while pure tungsten has a rating of only
5 percent. The machinability of tantalum and columbium is at a more moderate level and thus falls between these
two figures. Generally speaking, these
materials should be machined at moderate to low speeds at light depths of cut
using positive rake tools.

3.5 Judging Machinability

The factors affecting machinability
have been explained; four methods
8 Tooling & Production/Chapter 3

used to judge machinability are discussed below:

Tool Life: Metals which can be cut
without rapid tool wear are generally
thought of as being quite machinable,
and vice versa. A workpiece material
with many small hard inclusions may
appear to have the same mechanical
properties as a less abrasive metal. It
may require no greater power consumption during cutting. Yet, the machinability of this material would be lower
because its abrasive properties are
responsible for rapid wear on the tool,
resulting in higher machining costs.
One problem arising from the use of
tool life as a machinability index is its
sensitivity to the other machining variables. Of particular importance is the
effect of tool material. Machinability
ratings based on tool life cannot be
compared if a high speed steel tool is
used in one case and a sintered carbide
tool in another. The superior life of the
carbide tool would cause the machinability of the metal cut with the steel
tool to appear unfavorable. Even if
identical types of tool materials are used
in evaluating the workpiece materials,
meaningless ratings may still result.
For example, cast iron cutting grades of
carbide will not hold up when cutting
steel because of excessive cratering, and
steel cutting grades of carbide are not
hard enough to give sufficient abrasion
resistance when cutting cast iron.
Tool life may be defined as the period of time that the cutting tool performs
efficiently. Many variables such as
material to be machined, cutting tool
material, cutting tool geometry,
machine condition, cutting tool clamping, cutting speed, feed, and depth of
cut, make cutting tool life determination
very difficult.
The first comprehensive tool life data
were reported by F.W. Taylor in 1907,
and his work has been the basis for later
studies. Taylor showed that the relationship between cutting speed and tool
life can be expressed empirically by:
where:

VTn = C
V = cutting speed, in feet
per minute
T = tool life, in minutes
C = a constant depending on
work material, tool
material, and other
machine variables.
Numerically it is the

cutting speed which

would give 1 minute of
tool life.
n = a constant depending on
work and tool material.
This equation predicts that when
plotted on log-log scales, there is a linear relationship between tool life and
cutting speed. The exponent n has values ranging from 0.125 for high speed
steel (HSS) tools, to 0.70 for ceramic
tools.
Tool
Forces
and
Power
Consumption: The use of tool forces
or power consumption as a criterion of
machinability of the workpiece material
comes about for two reasons. First, the
concept of machinability as the ease
with which a metal is cut, implies that a
metal through which a tool is easily
pushed should have a good machinability rating. Second, the more practical
concept of machinability in terms of
minimum cost per part machined,
relates to forces and power consumption, and the overhead cost of a machine
of proper capacity.
When using tool forces as a machinability rating, either the cutting force or
the thrust force (feeding force) may be
used. The cutting force is the more popular of the two since it is the force that
pushes the tool through the workpiece
and determines the power consumed.
Although machinability ratings could
be listed according to the cutting forces
under a set of standard machining conditions, the data are usually presented in
terms of specific energy. Workpiece
materials having a high specific energy
of metal removal are said to be less
machinable than those with a lower specific energy.
The use of net power consumption
during machining as an index of the
machinability of the workpiece is similar to the use of cutting force. Again,
the data are most useful in terms of specific energy. One advantage of using
specific energy of metal removal as an
indication of machinability, is that it is
mainly a property of the workpiece
material itself and is quite insensitive to
tool material. By contrast, tool life is
strongly dependent on tool material.
The metal removal factor is the reciprocal of the specific energy and can be
used directly as a machinability rating if
forces or power consumption are used
to define machinability. That is, metals
www.toolingandproduction.com

Chap. 3: Machinability of Metals

Steel

1018 Steel

1045 Steel

4340 Steel

Tool Steel

17-4 PH Stainles

Inconel 718

Ti-6AI-4V

Stainless Steel

316 Stainless

Cast Iron

Gray Iron
80-55-06 Nodular Iron
A356 Aluminium
Figure 3.3 Ideal chips developed from a variety of common materials. (Courtesy Valenite Inc.)

with a high metal removal factor could

be said to have high machinability.
Cutting tool forces were discussed in
Chapter 2. Tool force and power consumption formulas and calculations are
beyond the scope of this article; they
are discussed in books which are more
theoretical in their approach to discussing machinability of metals.
Surface Finish: The quality of the
surface finish left on the workpiece during a cutting operation is sometimes
useful in determining the machinability
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rating of a metal. Some workpieces will

not take a good finish as well as others. The fundamental reason for surface
roughness is the formation and sloughing off of parts of the built-up edge on
the tool. Soft, ductile materials tend to
form a built-up edge rather easily.
Stainless steels, gas turbine alloy, and
other metals with high strain hardening
ability, also tend to machine with builtup edges. Materials which machine
with high shear zone angles tend to minimize built-up edge effects. These

Brass

include the aluminum alloys, cold

worked steels, free-machining steels,
brass, and titanium alloys. If surface
finish alone is the chosen index of
machinability, these latter metals would
rate higher than those in the first group.
In many cases, surface finish is a
meaningless criterion of workpiece
machinability. In roughing cuts, for
example, no attention to finish is
required. In many finishing cuts, the
conditions producing the desired
dimension on the part will inherently
Chapter 3/Tooling & Production 9

Chap. 3: Machinability of Metals

provide a good finish within the engineering specification.
Machinability figures based on surface finish measurements do not always
agree with figures obtained by force or
tool life determinations. Stainless steels
would have a low rating by any of these
standards, while aluminum alloys
would be rated high. Titanium alloys
would have a high rating by finish measurements, low by tool life tests, and
intermediate by force readings.
The machinability rating of various
materials by surface finish are easily
determined. Surface finish readings are
taken with an appropriate instrument
after standard workpieces of various
materials are machined under controlled
cutting conditions. The machinability
rating varies inversely with the instrument reading. A low reading means
good finish, and thus high machinabili-

10 Tooling & Production/Chapter 3

ty. Relative ratings may be obtained by

comparing the observed value of surface finish with that of a material chosen as the reference.
Chip Form: There have been
machinability ratings based on the type
of chip that is formed during the
machining operation. The machinability might be judged by the ease of handling and disposing of chips. A material that produces long stringy chips
would receive a low rating, as would
one which produces fine powdery chips.
Materials which inherently form nicely
broken chips, a half or full turn of the
normal chip helix, would receive top
rating. Chip handling and disposal can
be quite expensive. Stringy chips are a
menace to the operator and to the finish
on the freshly machined surface.
However, chip formation is a function
of the machine variables as well as the

workpiece material, and the ratings

obtained by this method could be
changed by provision of a suitable chip
breaker.
Ratings based on the ease of chip disposal are basically qualitative, and
would be judged by an individual who
might assign letter gradings of some
kind. Wide use is not made of this
method of interpreting machinability. It
finds some application in drilling,
where good chip formation action is
necessary to keep the chips running up
the flutes. However, the whipping
action of long coils once they are clear
of the hole is undesirable. Chip formation and tool wear were discussed in
Chapter 2; Figure 3.3 shows ideal chips
developed from a variety of common
materials.

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