EXPERIMENT NO.

1
BRINELL HARDNESS TEST
Objectives:
To determine the deformation of metal specimen when hardened steel specimen
is pressed into it under different normal loads.
To use the dentation to determine the properties of a metal.

Apparatus:

Brinell hardness tester

Weights
Mild steel sample
Microscope ( scale and graduated)
Steel ball (indenter)

THEORY:
Hardness is the property of a material by virtue of its ability to resist indentation
and scratching by harder bodies. It is the resistance of a material to permanent
deformation of the surface. In other words, one can define it as the resistance of
the metal to penetration by indenter. The hardness of a surface of the material
is, of course, a direct result of inter-atomic forces acting on the surface of the
material. We must note that hardness is not a fundamental property of a
material, however, but rather a combined effect of compressive, elastic and
plastics properties relative to mode of penetration, shape of penetrator, etc.
Hardness seems to bear a fairly constant relationship to the tensile strength of
given material and thus it can be used as a practical non-destructive test for an
approximate idea of the value of that property and the state of the metal near
the surface.

All hardness tests are made on the surface. We may note that in mechanical tests
the bulk of material is involved.

Sometimes hardness is expressed in terms of macro hardness & micro hardness.

The macro hardness of material relates to its resistance to larger value
displacements in plastic deformation, whereas micro hardness is the hardness of
the materials in microscopically small volumes e.g. in grain boundaries. Hardness
of material is of importance for dies and punches, limit gauges, cutting tools,
bearing surfaces etc. Softness of a material is opposite extreme of hardness. On
heating all materials become soft.

Brinell hardness number:

Brinell hardness number is the hardness index, calculated by pressing a
hardened steel ball (indenter) into test specimen under standardized hardness
of metallic materials, to check quality level of products, for uniformity of
samples of metals. The Brinell hardness number is obtained by dividing the
applied force by the spherical surface area of the indentation.

Mathematically;
BHN =

Applied load in Kg
Area of indentation

[ ]

Where,
P= Applied load, D= Diameter of steel ball, d= indentation impression

Brinell harness tester have a scope that we calculate the hardness number of
material but it also have a demerit that it is used to test those structure that
have a rough surfaces and hence we also separately need a microscope to
check the indentation impression and a scale to measure it. As compared to
that Rockwell is compatible easier in calculations because it gives a hardness
number on it scale we dont need separate scale for that.

FIGURE:

Procedure:
I. 1. First we clean the specimen from grease, and all dirt.
II.
III.
IV.

Then we placed the specimen in brinell hardness tester

Then Apply the load of 3000 Kg and ball indenter we use 10 mm in
diameter for a few second
Further removed the load and we get indentation impression

V.
VI.

See this indentation impression by the help of microscope and measure

it with a scale which is engraved with a microscope
Hence we get Hardness number of specimen

Observation and Calculation:

Applied
Load (P)
(Kg)

Ball
diameter(D)

3000

3000

Sr.No

Diameter
of Indent(d)
(mm)

Brinell
Hardness
Number
(B.H.N)

10

3.65

280

10

3.6

277

(mm)

Sample Calculation:

B.H.N =
=

2(3000)
3.1410[10(10)2 (3.65)2 ]

3000/10.675 =

280 .00

So, above expression show that B.H.N is 280.00 for mild

steel
Conclusion: We can calculate the mild steel hardness number with the help of
Hardness tester machine. So with the help of that we become familiar about
the brinell hardness number of mild steel.

EXPERIMENT NO.2
ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST
Objectives:
The purpose of this experiment was to determine the hardness of a
sample piece
To use the dentation to determine the properties of a metal.
Apparatus:

Rockwell Hardness Tester Model C504 (shown in Figure 2)

Testing Block with known RHN
Metal test samples
1/16 inch diameter steel ball

THEORY:
Hardness is the property of a material by virtue of its ability to resist indentation
and scratching by harder bodies. It is the resistance of a material to permanent
deformation of the surface. In other words, one can define it as the resistance of
the metal to penetration by indenter. The hardness of a surface of the material
is, of course, a direct result of inter-atomic forces acting on the surface of the
material. We must note that hardness is not a fundamental property of a
material, however, but rather a combined effect of compressive, elastic and
plastics properties relative to mode of penetration, shape of penetrator, etc.
Hardness seems to bear a fairly constant relationship to the tensile strength of
given material and thus it can be used as a practical non-destructive test for an
approximate idea of the value of that property and the state of the metal near
the surface.

All hardness tests are made on the surface. We may note that in mechanical tests
the bulk of material is involved.

Sometimes hardness is expressed in terms of macro hardness & micro

hardness. The macro hardness of material relates to its resistance to larger
value displacements in plastic deformation, whereas micro hardness is the

hardness of the materials in microscopically small volumes e.g. in grain

boundaries. Hardness of material is of importance for dies and punches,
limit gauges, cutting tools, bearing surfaces etc. Softness of a material is
opposite extreme of hardness. On heating all materials become soft.

Rockwell Hardness Number:

Rockwell test differs from the Brinell and Vickers tests is not obtaining a
value for the hardness in terms of an indentation but using the depth of
indentation, this depth being directly indicated by a pointer on a calibrated
scale. The indenter of hardened steel ball or diamond cone can be uses in
the Rockwell test. The procedure for applying load specimen is illustrated in
figure 3. A minor load of 10 kg is applied to press the indenter into contact
with the surface. A major (additional) load is then applied and causes the
indenter to penetrate into the specimen. The major load is then removed
and there is some reduction in the depth of the indenter due to the
deformation of the specimen not being entirely plastic. The difference in
the final depth of the indenter and the initial depth, before the major load
was applied, is determined. This is the permanent increase in penetration e
due to the major load.
The Rockwell hardness number (HR) is given as:

=
Where E is the arbitrary constant which is dependent on the type of
indenter. For the diamond cone indenter E is 100, for the steel ball is 130.
A variation of the Rockwell test has to be used for thin sheet, this test being
referred to as the Rockwell Superficial Hardness Test. Similar loads are used
and the depth of indentation which is correspondingly smaller is measured
with a more sensitive device.

FIGURE:

Procedure:
1. Verify using the test block that the machine is accurate.
2. Determine the indenter to use. In this lab we will use a steel ball 1/16Inch in diameter.
3. Select a test area on the sample, being sure to stay away for the edges
and other indentions made on the sample.
4. Raise the sample against the indenter by turning the large screw until
the center gauge is vertical.
5. Use the small screw to set the dial reading to zero.
6. Press the lever down to start the test.
7. Read the RHN from the red scale on the dial and include the prefix
B.

8. Repeat steps (3)-(7) four times so that a total of five indentations are
on the sample.
Observation and Calculation:
Sr.No

Minor Load
(Kg)

Major Load

1.

10

150

Rockwell
Hardness
Number
(HR)
17

2.

10

150

18.5

3.

10

150

19

(Kg)

Conclusion:

We can calculate the steel hardness number with the help of Rockwell
Hardness tester machine. So with the help of that we become familiar
about the Rockwell hardness number of mild steel.

EXPERIMENT NO.3
VICKER HARDNESS TEST
Objective
Measurement of Hardness by using Micro or Vickers Hardness Test
Apparatus:
Vickers Hardness Tester having attached microscope
Prepared specimen (polished)
Square shaped diamond pyramid indenter (1360 )

THEORY:

Hardness is the property of a material by virtue of its ability to resist

indentation and scratching by harder bodies. It is the resistance of
a material to permanent deformation of the surface. In other
words, one can define it as the resistance of the metal to
penetration by indenter. The hardness of a surface of the material
is, of course, a direct result of inter-atomic forces acting on the
surface of the material. We must note that hardness is not a
fundamental property of a material, however, but rather a
combined effect of compressive, elastic and plastics properties
relative to mode of penetration, shape of penetrator, etc.
Hardness seems to bear a fairly constant relationship to the tensile
strength of given material and thus it can be used as a practical
non-destructive test for an approximate idea of the value of that
property and the state of the metal near the surface.
All hardness tests are made on the surface. We may note that in
mechanical tests the bulk of material is involved.

Vickers Hardness Test:

A method of determining the hardness of steel whereby a diamond
pyramid is pressed into the polished surface of the specimen and the
diagonals of the impression are measured with a microscope fitted
with a micrometer eye piece. The rate of application and duration are
automatically controlled and the load can be varied. Two types of
indenters are generally used for the Vickers test family, a square base
pyramid shaped diamond for testing in a Vickers hardness tester and
a narrow rhombus shaped indenter for a Knop hardness test .The
principle of the Vickers Hardness method is similar to the Brinell test.
The Vickers indenter is a 136 degrees square-based diamond pyramid.
The indenter is pressed into the sample by an accurately
controlled test force. The force is maintained for a specific dwell
time, normally 10 15 af t er t he dwell t i me i s compl et e, and
t he indenter is removed l eaving a n indent in the sample that
appears square shaped on the surface. The impression, produced
by the Vickers indenter is clearer, than the impression of Brinell
indenter; therefore this method is more accurate. The siz e of t he
i ndent i s det ermi ned opti call y by measuring t he two
diagonals of the square indent and their average is calculated. The
length of the impression diagonal is measured by means of a
microscope, which is usually an integral part of the Vickers Tester. The
load is usually applied for 30 seconds.
The Vickers number (HV) is calculated by the formula:

Where
F= Applied load (N)
D= Length of the impression diagonal (mm)

FIGURE:

Procedure:
1. The specimen was placed on the vice.
2. The indenter was lowered until it just touches the specimen surface.
3. The appropriate load (F = 2kgf) was set for the indenter for 10
seconds.
4. The indenter was allowed to penetrate the specimen surface.
5. Load was removed and indenter was raised from specimen surface.
6. The appropriate parameter (diameter) of the indentation was
measured.
7. The hardness value was computed.
8. The above steps were repeated for 3 times at different locations on
the specimen and the average value was computed.

Observation and Calculation:

Sr.NO

1.

Load
(F)
(N)
5

Diagonals
Mean (d)

(m)
(mm) (mm)
.06307 .06261
.06284

Hardness
(HV)
239.43

Sample Calculation:-

=
=

.
(. )

= .

The Vickers number, which normally ranges from HV 100 to HV 1000

for metals, will increase as the sample gets harder.
Conclusion:
We can calculate the hardness number with the help of Vickers Hardness
tester machine. So with the help of that we become familiar about the
Vickers hardness number.
Comments:

The biggest advantage of Vickers is its scale, which comprises the

smallest and the highest hardness values in one scale. It is thus very
suitable for laboratory tests.
Most of the disadvantages of Vickers are based on the long
duration of the whole procedure because the indentation must be
measured optically (with the help of a microscope or projector).

EXPERIMENT NO.4
IMPACT TEST
Objective
To find impact strength of a material.
Apparatus:
Charpy Impact Tester
Specimen(V.Natched or U.Natched)

THEORY:
Impact test is a test used in studying the toughness of material. The
definition of toughness is defined as the capacity of material to absorb
energy and deform plastically before fracturing. Toughness is
associated with both ductility and strength of materials.
Since the amount of plastic deformation that occurs before fracture is
a measure of the ductility of the material and because the stress
needed to cause fracture is a measure of its strength, it follows that
toughness is associated with both the ductility and strength of the
material.
Impact test involves the sudden and dynamic application of the load.
For this purpose, in general, a pendulum is made to swing from a fixed
height and strike the standard impact specimen.
There are two types of method to test impact test which is Izod test
and Charpy test. These two methods are different in placing the
specimens. In Izod test, the specimen is placed in vertical position and
the notch area is facing the pendulum. Meanwhile in Charpy test, the
specimen is placed horizontally with unnotched area facing the
pendulum. Moreover, Izod impact specimen only has a V-notch
specimen while Charpy impact specimen has both U-notch and V-notch

specimen. Charpy test result can indicate how brittle the materials are.
The most common method for the measurement of impact strength
that is Charpy tests is used in this experiment.

IMPACT STENGTH:
= ( )

Where,
P= mass of hammer
D= distance between center of gravity of hammer and
center of connector.
FIGURE:

Procedure:
1. The dimensions of the unnotched length and the thickness of the
specimen are measured.
2) The pendulum is raised to the left until it indicates the maximum
energy range on the upper indicator unit.
3) The specimen is placed horizontally across supports with the notch
away from the pendulum
4) Pendulum is released.
5) The indicated value from the indicator unit is recorded.
6) The brake is applied until the pendulum has returned to its stable
hanging vertical position.
7) The specimen is removed from the testing area and failure surface
is observed.
Observation and Calculation:
Sr.NO

1
2
3

Mass
(P)
(Kg)
40.98
40.98
40.98

Distance(D)
(m)
0.694
0.694
0.694

Angle

Angle

()
136.5
139.5
138

()
96
100
98

Strength(E)
Kg.m
17.63
16.79
17.34

Sample Calculation:-

= ( )
= (. ). )( . )

E = 17.63 Kg.m

Conclusion: We can calculate the impact strength of material with the help of
Charpy impact tester. So with the help of that we become familiar about the
Impact strength.
Comments:
By comparing all the specimens used, it can be conclude that the best
specimen that gives highest impact energy is mild steel (v-notch). Mild steel is
tougher than carbon steel as it has lower carbon composition in it and the vnotch provides better performance against impact as it gives bigger unnotched
cross-section area compared to u-notch mild steel bar.

EXPERIMENT NO.5
TENSILE TEST
Objectives
To investigate the behavior of two material specimens under a
Tensile Test. The materials to be investigated are Copper and
Steel
To determine a materials properties.
To determine the Ultimate Tensile Stress of a material.

Apparatus:
Tensometer
Aluminium alloy
Mild steel

THEORY:
Tensile testing is one of the most fundamental tests for engineering, and
provides valuable information about a material and its associated
properties. These properties can be used for design and analysis of
engineering structures, and for developing new materials that better suit a
specified use.
The basic purpose of this experiment is to investigate the behavior of two
material specimens under a Tensile Test. The materials to be investigated
are Copper and Steel. From performing the Tensile Test the following
properties will be determined; youngs modulus, yield stress, ultimate
tensile stress, percentage elongation at fracture, percentage reduction in
cross-sectional area at fracture and fracture stress. This experiment is used
to determine a materials properties, and is used in a wide range of
industries. One example of this could be to determine the Ultimate Tensile
Stress of a material to be used for a shopping bag, to check it can hold
enough weight.

STRESS-STRAIN:
The relationship between the stress and strain that a particular
material displays is known as that particular material's stressstrain
curve. It is unique for each material and is found by recording the
amount of deformation (strain) at distinct intervals of tensile or
compressive loading (stress). These curves reveal many of the
properties of a material.
Stressstrain curves of various materials vary widely, and different
tensile tests conducted on the same material yield different results,
depending upon the temperature of the specimen and the speed of
the loading.

FIGURE:

Specimen:

Procedure:
1. The diameter and gauge length for all the specimen provided is taken

2. The specimen is installed inside the testing machine and load is

added little by little until the specimen break, Value of the load applied
and elongation is recorded.
3. The diameter and the gauge length of the specimen at the fractured
part is once again measured and recorded.
4. The it fracture for both specimen is observed.

Based on the load and displacement obtained from the experiment, we

can get:
(a) Tensile stress

(b) Strain

(c) Yield stress

=

(d) Ultimate tensile stress

=

(e) Percentage Elongation:

%age Elongation =

(f) Reduction in Area

. =

Where:
F = Load (N)
= Initial horizontal cross- sectional area, (mm)
= Final horizontal cross- sectional area, (mm)
= Initial gauge length, (mm)
= Final gauge length, (mm)

NOTE:
Percentage Elongation and Reduction in Area gives Information
about ductility of material.
Conclusion:
Hence, By tensile test the parameters like tensile stress, tensile strain,
ultimate tensile stress, yield strength, percentage elongation and
reduction in area.