Electrical Energy and Power

JOSEPH PRIEST
Miami University
Oxford, Ohio, United States

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Atomic Structure
Electricity
Electrical Resistance
Electric Power and Electric Energy
Magnetic Force and Magnetism
Electric Generators
Transformers

Glossary
alternating current (AC) An electric current that alternates
direction at regular intervals.
ampere (A) Unit of electric current. One ampere is a rate of
flow of charge equal to 1 C/s (I Q/t).
atom An atom consists of a dense, positively charged
nucleus surrounded by a system of electrons equal in
number to the number of protons in the nucleus. The
atom is bound together by electric forces between the
electrons and the nucleus.
atomic number The number of electrons (or protons) in a
neutral atom.
coulomb (C) The metric unit of electric charge. In terms
of the charge of the electron, the sum of the charges of
approximately 6 1/4 billion-billion electrons equals 1 C.
direct current (DC) An electric current for which charges
flow in one direction.
electric current Electric charges in motion. The ampere is
the measuring unit.
electric field Qualitatively, a region of space in which an
electric charge feels a force.
electric force A force between two objects that each have
the physical property of charge.
electrical resistance The resistance offered by the structure
of a conductor to the flow of electric charges.
hertz (Hz) Unit of frequency equal to one cycle per second.
Named for Heinrich Hertz (18571894), a German
physicist.
kilowatt-hour (kWh) A unit of energy equal to a power of
1 kilowatt (1000 W) acting for 1 h.
magnetic field Qualitatively, a region of space in which the
pole of a magnet or a moving charge feels a force.

Encyclopedia of Energy, Volume 2. r 2004 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

magnetic field line An imaginary line in a magnetic field

along which a tiny compass needle aligns.
nucleus (of an atom) The positively charged central region
of an atom. It is composed of neutrons and protons and
contains nearly all the mass of the atom.
ohm Unit of electrical resistance. If a potential difference
of 1 V across some electrical element causes a current of
1 A, the electrical resistance is 1 ohm (R V/I).
Ohms law If the electrical resistance of a device (e.g., a
toaster element) does not depend on the current in the
device, then it is said to obey Ohms law.
potential difference The work required to move an amount
of charge between two positions divided by the strength
of the charge (V W/Q). The volt is the measuring unit.
power Rate of doing work. The watt is the metric
measuring unit.
transformer An electromagnetic device used to change the
strength of an AC voltage.
volt (V) Unit of potential difference. If 1 J of work is
required to move 1 C of charge between two positions,
the potential difference between the positions is 1 V
(V W/Q).
voltage A common expression for potential difference.
watt (W) The metric unit of power. A rate of doing work
of 1 J/s is a watt (P W/t).

Electric charge is a property of matter in the same

sense that mass is a property of matter. These two
properties produce two distinct types of force. Two
objects experience a mutual gravitational force
because of the property of mass. We see the result
of a gravitational force when a pencil is dropped and
pulled toward Earth. An electric force is felt by each
of two objects possessing the property of charge.
Unlike the gravitational force, which always tends to
pull masses toward each other, electric forces can
tend to pull objects together or push objects apart. If
the electric force is attractive, we say the charges
acquired by the two objects are unlike. The charges
are like when the two objects repel. Two unlike
charges are distinguished by calling one positive and
the other negative. A toy balloon acquires an electric
charge when rubbed on ones hair. The charge on the

157

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Electrical Energy and Power

balloon is negative. Any charge repelled by the

balloon is negative; any charge attracted is positive.
It is easy to relate to the property of mass because
mass is a measure of the quantity of matter. Charge is
a much more subtle property because we cannot see
charge; we see only the results of forces produced by
charge.
In 1784, Augustin de Coulomb discovered that the
force between two charges labeled q and Q and
separated a distance r obeys a law of the form
Fk

qQ
:
r2

In the metric system of units charges q and Q are

measured in Coulombs (C), r is measured in meters,
and the constant k has the value
k 8:99  109

newton meter2
coulumb2

Electric charge, electric force, and energy associated

with the electric force play roles ranging from the
structure of atoms to the liberation of energy in either
a nuclear-fueled or coal-fired electric power plant.

1. ATOMIC STRUCTURE
The charge acquired by rubbing a balloon as well as
electric current in a wire has its roots in atoms, which
are the basic structural components of matter. An
elementary model of an atom incorporates features
of an Earthsatellite system. Electrons are satellites
and a nucleus acts like Earth. An electron has a mass
of 9.11  1031 kg and a negative charge of
1.60  1019 C. A nucleus is positively charged
and is much more massive than an electron. The
mass of the nucleus is confined to a volume
approximating a sphere of radius of approximately
1  1015 m. The closest electron is approximately
1  1010 m. In perspective, if the radius of the
nucleus were approximately the thickness of a dime,
the nearest electron would be approximately the
length of a football field away. Having both mass and
electric charge, electrons and a nucleus experience
gravitational and electrical forces that tend to bind
the electrons to the nucleus. However, the overwhelming binding is due to the electric force.
In a normal atom, the total negative charge of the
electrons balances the positive charge of the nucleus
and the atom is said to be electrically neutral. The
number of electrons in a neutral atom is called the
atomic number, which distinguishes different atomic
species. For example, a carbon atom has 6 electrons

and an oxygen atom has 8 electrons. Most electrical

wires in homes are made of copper. Each atom of
copper has 29 electrons. As the atomic number
increases, the mass of the atom also increases. This
results from the additional electrons and by an
increase in the mass of the nucleus.

2. ELECTRICITY
A current is defined as a steady and smooth onward
movement, as of water. A steady movement of cars on
a highway would be a car current. The rate at which
cars pass a point on the highway is a measure of the car
current. To determine the car current, one would count
the cars, measure the time for the cars to pass, and
divide the number by the time to obtain the rate in
units such as cars per minute. If each car had two
passengers, then multiplying the car rate by two yields
a passenger current measured in passengers per minute.
An electric current is a flow of electric charges. In
wires and appliances the flow is due to electrons
because they are much freer than the positive charges
in the nucleus. Electrons moving through a wire are
analogous to cars moving on a highway. One cannot
see the electrons but in principle one can stand at the
edge of the wire and count the electrons passing by in
a measured time interval and express the rate in
units of electrons per second. Multiplying the
electron rate by the charge per electron yields the
rate at which charge flows in units of coulombs
per second. As an equation,
Electric current
coulumbs of charge flowing through a wire
time required for the flow
Q
I :
t

Recording charge (Q) in coulombs and the time

interval (t) in seconds yields coulombs per second as
the units of electric current (I). A coulomb per second
is called an ampere (A). If 100 C of charge flow by
some position in a wire in 10 s, the current is 10 A.
The electric current in a lit flashlight bulb is approximately 1A. If the bulb were on for 10 min, the total
charge passing through the bulb in 10 min is
1 C=s  10 min  60 s=min 600 C:
A force must be exerted on the electrons to cause
them to flow through a wire just as a force must be
applied to water to keep it moving through a pipe.
The electric force has its origin in the force between

Electrical Energy and Power

electric charges. Electrons pulled toward a positive

charge create an electric current. Electric forces do
work on the electrons just as work is done on an
automobile pushed some distance by a person. It is
the role of a battery in a flashlight or an electric
generator in an electric power plant to supply
electrical pressure for moving electrons. This
electrical pressure is called a potential difference
(voltage is a less formal word describing the same
idea). A potential difference is analogous to a water
pressure difference for moving water through a pipe.
Potential difference is defined in terms of the amount
of work done by electric forces on a charge as it
moves between two positions:
Potential difference

electrical work on the amount of charge moved

amount of charge
W
:
Q

All electrical appliances have two electrical connections. To operate an appliance, an appropriate
potential difference must be connected to these two
connections. If two wires were connected to a
flashlight bulb and the other ends of the wires
touched to the terminals of a flashlight battery, the
bulb would light. The lit condition signals a complete
electrical circuit. It is complete in the sense that a
complete (or closed) path is provided for the flow of
electrons. Cutting one wire with a pair of scissors
breaks the circuit and the light no longer glows. A
switch is a device that allows opening and closing
electrical circuits. A switch is analogous to a faucet
that can be opened or closed to control the flow of
water. An example of a water circuit is shown in
Fig. 1. A pump pulls water from the container, forces
it through a valve, past a water wheel, and back into
the container. In a household electrical circuit, an

Work (W) is measured in joules (J) and charge (Q) is

measured in coulombs, making potential difference
(V) joules per coulomb. A joule per coulomb is called
a volt (V). If 100 J of work is done by electric forces
on 1 C of charge when it moves between two
positions, the potential difference between the two
positions is 100 V. Batteries for most automobiles
provide a 12-V potential difference between two
terminals. If 2 C of charge flow between the terminals,
electrical forces do 24 J of work on the 2 C of charge.
The notion of a difference in potential is very
important. If a building is said to be 500 ft high, this
probably means the difference in height between
the top and bottom is 500 ft. Clearly, however, if the
building were on top of a mountain, its height would
be more than 500 ft relative to the base of the
mountain. Potential differences, like heights, are also
relative. The potential difference between the terminals in a household electrical outlet is 115 V. This
means that one of the contacts is 115 V relative to the
other contact. This other contact in a household
outlet is at the same potential as any other part of the
room, including a person in the room. You can touch
this contact and not get an electrical shock because
there is no potential difference between you and the
contact. This contact is called ground because a wire
connects it to a metal stake driven into the ground.
Generally, this ground wire can be seen alongside an
electric utility pole holding wires that bring electricity to a house. The other contact in an outlet is
referred to as hot. Electrical shocks occur when
you touch both ground and the hot contact.

159

Pipe

Paddle
wheel

Valve

Pump

Reservoir
Wire

Switch
Motor

Generator

Ground (earth)

FIGURE 1

Schematic comparison of a fluid circuit and an

electrical circuit. The water pump forces water to circulate through
the water circuit. The electrical pump, a battery or generator,
forces electrons to circulate through the electrical circuit. The sum
total of electric charges never changes in the process, just as in the
absence of leaks the sum total of water never changes in the water
circuit.

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Electrical Energy and Power

electric generator provided by an electric utility pulls

electrons from the ground, forces them through a
switch, through a motor, for example, and back into
the ground. The wire plays the role of a water pipe.

3. ELECTRICAL RESISTANCE
Electrons moving through a wire migrate through a
network of atoms. This network impedes the flow,
and we say the wire has electrical resistance. The
resistance depends on the composition of the wire.
For example, an aluminum wire having the same
length and diameter as a copper wire offers more
resistance than the copper wire. Just as water flows
easier through short pipes than through long pipes,
electrons flow easier through short wires than through
long wires. Also, just as water flows easier through
large-diameter pipes than through small-diameter
pipes, electrons flow easier through large-diameter
wires than through small-diameter wires. Accordingly,
the resistance of a wire increases as the length
increases but decreases as the diameter increases.
A current is produced in a wire when the ends are
connected to a potential difference. The current
increases if the potential difference (the electrical
pressure) increases. If the resistance increases, the
current decreases. This reasoning is modeled as an
equation by writing
potential difference
Current
resistance
V
I :
4
R
Resistance has units of volts divided by amperes.
This unit is called an ohm. If 1.5 A is produced in a
bulb connected to a 12-V battery, the resistance of
the bulb is
R V=I 12 V=1:5 A 8 ohms:
The resistance need not be constant. Doubling the
potential difference across the bulb may produce a
current of 2 A and a resistance of 6 ohms. If the
resistance does not depend on the potential difference,
the device obeys Ohms law. Wires used for electrical
conductors and heating elements in toasters and irons
obey Ohms law. Transistors do not obey Ohms law.
In a household in which the potential difference is
fixed at 115 V, the current in an appliance depends
on its resistance. As the resistance decreases, the
current increases. The energy used to overcome this
electrical resistance appears as heat. For example, the
heat liberated in a toaster is produced by electrons

overcoming the electrical resistance provided by the

metallic elements of the toaster.

4. ELECTRIC POWER AND

ELECTRIC ENERGY
Like water pulled over a dam by a gravitational force,
electrons moved by an electric force acquire kinetic
energy as a result of work done on them. Electrons
convert this energy in a variety of ways. In a lamp, the
energy is converted to heat and light. In an electric
motor, the energy is converted to mechanical rotational energy. The rate at which moving charges
convert energy is called electric power:
energy converted in joules
Power
time required in seconds
E
5
P :
t
Electric power is expressed in joules per second, or
watts. Electric clothes dryers use electric power in the
range of a few thousands of watts; electric power
plants produce power in the range of hundreds of
millions of watts. Thousands of watts and millions of
watts are usually expressed as kilowatts (kW) and
megawatts (MW), respectively.
A useful relation for electric power follows from
combining the equation for the definition of power,
P W/t, and the definition of potential difference,
V W/Q. Substituting for W in the equation P
W/t, we have P V(Q/t). Recognizing that Q/t is
current I, we find P VI. Power equals voltage times
current is a general relationship for any electrical
device. For a resistance, we can use V IR to arrive
at P I2R and P V2/R.
Companies that provide the voltage for forcing
electrons through our appliances are often referred to
as power companies. It is reasonable to expect that
the companies are paid for power. However, they are
actually paid for energy, not power.
Power is the rate of converting energy. A 100-W
light bulb requires energy at a rate of 100 J/s
regardless of how long it is on. However, the cost
of operation depends on how long the bulb is lit.
Using Eq. (5), it follows that energy, power, and time
are related by
Energy power  time
E Pt:
It follows that any unit of power multiplied by a unit
of time yields a unit of energy. Watts (or kilowatts)

Electrical Energy and Power

TABLE I

Wire moves down "cutting"

magnetic field lines

Power Requirements of Common Household Appliances

Appliance

Power (W)

Cooking range (full operation)

12,000

Heat pump
Clothes dryer

12,000
5,000

Oven

N
S

3,200

Water heater

2,500

Air conditioner (window)

1,600

Microwave oven

1,500

Broiler

1,400

Hot plate

1,250

Frying pan
Toaster

1,200
1,100

Hand iron

1,000

Electric space heater

1,000

Hair dryer

1,000

Clothes washer

500

Television (color)

330

Food mixer

130

Hi-fi stereo
Radio

100
70

Razor

161

14

Toothbrush

Clock

and hours are units of power and time. The watthour (or kilowatt-hour) is a unit of energy. It is
peculiar because the units of time (hours) do not
cancel the time units of seconds in power.
Table I lists the power requirements for several
household appliances. Note that those involving the
generation or removal of heat require the most
power. These devices tend to have low resistance.

5. MAGNETIC FORCE
AND MAGNETISM
We have discussed electric current and the idea that
an electrical pressure is required to establish electric
current. Nothing has been said about how the power
company generates the pressure or how it is
transmitted to homes and factories. To understand
this important aspect of producing electricity, we
must discuss some fundamentals of magnetic force
and magnetism.
Images on a TV are produced by electrons impacting with the screen. The picture distorts if a magnet is

FIGURE 2 A current is established in a wire when it moves in a

magnetic field so as to cut the magnetic field lines. If the wire is
moved directly from the N to the S pole, no magnetic field lines are
cut and no current results. The arrow indicates the direction in
which electrons move in the wire.

placed near the face of a black-and-white TV. The

distortion results from an interaction of the moving
electrons with a magnetic field produced by the
magnet. As a general principle, any moving charge
cutting magnetic field lines experiences a magnetic
force. In Fig. 2, magnetic field lines are directed from
the N pole to the S pole. A wire moved vertically in
the magnetic field cuts the magnetic field lines and
all charges in the wire experience a force by virtue of
moving in a magnetic field. However, only the free
electrons in the wire acquire motion. If the ends of
the wire are connected to a light bulb, for example,
an electric current is produced in the circuit. Had the
wire been moved horizontally parallel to the
magnetic field lines, there would have been no
current in the circuit. Work done by the agent
moving the wire is responsible for the energy
acquired by the electrons. This is the principle of
an electric generator such as one might find on a
bicycle or in an electric power plant. On a bicycle
generator, the agent moving the wire is a wheel
rotating wires mounted on the shaft of the generator.
A large steam turbine is the agent in an electric
power plant.
The generator principle was illustrated by holding
a magnet fixed and moving the wire in the magnetic
field. A current would also be produced if the wire
were held fixed and the magnet moved. As long as
the wire cuts the magnetic field lines, a current
results. If the wire were moved in a direction
opposite to that shown in Fig. 2, the electric current
changes direction. Cutting magnetic field lines with
an oscillatory motion produces a current whose
direction alternates. Such a current is called an alternating current (AC). The current produced by a
battery is called direct current because the charge
flows in one direction only.

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Electrical Energy and Power

6. ELECTRIC GENERATORS
A practical electric generator contains a coil of wire
that is rotated in a magnetic field. To understand the
operation, we examine a single loop as shown in
Fig. 3. Metallic rings, called slip rings, are mounted
on the shaft of the rotating loop and the ends of the
loop are bonded to the slip rings. Metal contacts,
called brushes, rub against the slip rings. The loop,
slip rings, brushes, and connected electrical device
form an electrical circuit for a current. The magnet
produces a magnetic field whose field lines are
directed from the N pole to the S pole. Only the
sides of the loop labeled A and B are able to cut
magnetic field lines. The two segments of the coil
labeled A and B always move in opposite directions.
Accordingly, the current is always in opposite
directions in these two segments. The maximum
current results when the wires move perpendicular to
the magnetic field lines. There is no current in the
circuit when the wire segments move parallel to the
magnetic field lines. When the segment designated A
in Fig. 3 is in the upmost position of its rotational
path, it is moving horizontally to the right. Because
the magnetic field lines are directed to the right, the
wire is instantaneously moving parallel to the
magnetic field lines. At this instant, there is no
current in the circuit. As the loop rotates, the
segments begin cutting the magnetic field lines and
a current develops in the circuit. When the portion of
the loop designated A has moved one-fourth of a
turn down, instantaneously it moves perpendicular
to the magnetic field lines. In this position, the
electron current is a maximum. The electron current
decreases to zero when the coil makes another onefourth turn. As the coil rotates further, the electron
current increases and changes direction. It reaches a

maximum when the coil makes a third one-fourth

turn. Finally, the electron current decreases to zero
when the coil returns to the initial starting position.
A plot of electron current versus position of the coil,
or equivalently time since the position depends on
time, is shown in Fig. 4. The cycle of current and
time shown in Fig. 4 repeats with each revolution of
the coil. The number of cycles produced each second
is called the frequency. A cycle per second is called a
hertz (Hz). In the United States, the frequency of the
AC voltage produced by commercial electric power
plants is 60 Hz.
When a toaster is plugged into an AC household
outlet, the current produced in the wires of the
toaster continually changes in magnitude and direction. Nevertheless, the current causes the toaster
wires to warm. Otherwise, one would not be able to
toast bread. Household voltage is usually labeled
120 V, even though the voltage is continually
changing. The 120-V rating means that the voltage
is as effective at producing heat as a 120-V battery
connected to the toaster. The 120-V AC label on a
light bulb is the effective value of an AC voltage
needed to power the bulb.
A generator that provides electricity for a headlamp on a bicycle functions very much like the one
illustrated in Fig. 3. Mechanical energy is provided by
the bicycle wheel rubbing against and rotating a shaft
connected to the coil of the generator. The magnetic
field is provided by a magnet. This type of generator
produces approximately 5 W of electric power.
Although the generator in a commercial electric
power plant is much larger in size and often produces

Axis of rotation
for the loop

A
N
B
S

Slip
rings

Brushes

FIGURE 3 Principle of operation of an AC generator. A current

develops in the rotating coil when it moves through the magnetic
field created by the magnet. The slip rings rotate with the coil and
make electrical contact with the brushes that are connected to an
electrical device, such as a light bulb or a motor.

Electron current

T
4

T
2

3T
4

FIGURE 4 Plot of induced current in the rotating coil of an AC

generator. Positive and negative currents are used to distinguish the
two directions of charge flow. T/4, T/2, 3T/4, and T denote times
for one-fourth of a rotation, one-half of a rotation, three-fourths of
a rotation, and a full rotation of the coil, respectively.

Electrical Energy and Power

1 billion watts of electric power, the basic physical

principle is the same. The commercial generator uses
a steam turbine for the input mechanical energy and a
massive stationary coil with a circulating electric
current to provide the magnetic field.

Laminated
iron core
Toaster,
for example
AC voltage
source

7. TRANSFORMERS
An AC generator and a battery both deliver energy to
such things as light bulbs connected to them. If a
light bulb requires 12 V and one has a single battery
that can provide 2 V, it is difficult to use the battery
to power a device that can change the voltage from 2
to 12 V. If AC voltages are involved, it is reasonably
easy to tailor voltages using an apparatus called a
transformer. Transformers play very important roles
in the transmission of electric power and in adapting
voltages for industrial and household uses. The
transformer principle is straightforward.
An electric current produces a magnetic field
proportional to the current. If the current is constant,
as would be the case if a battery were connected to
the ends of a wire, the magnetic field is constant. The
direction of the magnetic field lines depends on the
direction of the current. If the battery is replaced by
an AC source, the magnitude of the magnetic field
changes as the current changes and the direction of
the magnetic field lines changes when the current
changes direction. There exists in the vicinity of the
wire a changing magnetic field. If a coil of wire is
placed in this changing magnetic field, an alternating
current develops in it because the magnetic field lines
as they change cut the wires of the coil. It is much
like changing the magnetic field lines by moving a
magnet. This principle is used in transformers to
change the size of an AC voltage. The small black
box often connected to an electrical outlet and to a
portable computer to recharge the computers battery
is a transformer that typically reduces the outlet
voltage from 115 to 20 V.
A transformer has two distinct coils of wire
wound onto an iron core (Fig. 5). One of the coils,
the primary, is connected to an AC voltage such as at
the outlet in a house. The other coil, the secondary, is
connected to an electrical device such as a light bulb.
The AC current in the primary coil produces
magnetic field lines that are guided into the
secondary coil by the iron core. The interception of
the magnetic field lines by the secondary coil
produces a current in the secondary coil. The ratio
of the primary and secondary voltages is equal to the
ratio of the number of turns of wire in the primary

163

Secondary
coil
Primary
coil

FIGURE 5

Essentially, a transformer consists of two coils of

wire (primary and secondary) and an iron core to guide the
magnetic field lines from the primary coil to the secondary coil.

and secondary coils of the transformer:

Vs =Vp Ns =Np :

Door chimes in houses often require 6 V for

operation. Suppose that the voltage available at an
outlet is 120 V. If a transformer has 20 times more
turns on the primary than on the secondary so that
Ns/Np 1/20, then the secondary voltage will be 6 V
when the primary voltage is 120 V. The primary is
connected to the available 120 V and the secondary is
connected to the chimes.
The secondary of a transformer delivers electric
power to whatever is attached to it. This electric
power has its origin in the electrical source connected
to the primary. The principle of conservation of
energy prohibits obtaining more power in the
secondary than was supplied in the primary. Transformers tend to warm, indicating that some of the
power supplied in the primary appears as heat so that
the secondary power is always less than that in the
primary. In a well-designed transformer, the efficiency for energy transfer is approximately 99%.
The ability of a transformer to tailor voltages and
its very high efficiency makes it an extremely useful
device.

SEE ALSO THE

FOLLOWING ARTICLES
Batteries, Overview  Electricity Use, History of 
Electric Motors  Electric Power Measurements and
Variables  Electric Power Systems Engineering 
Electromagnetism  Mechanical Energy

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Electrical Energy and Power

Further Reading
Hobson, A. (2002). Physics: Concepts and Connections. 3rd ed.
Prentice Hall, Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
Priest, J. (2000). Energy: Principles, Problems, Alternatives. 5th
ed. Kendall/Hunt, Dubuque, IA.

Serway, R. A., and Beichner, R. J. (2000). Physics for Scientists

and Engineers. Brooks/Cole, Pacific Grove, CA.
Serway, R. A., and Faughn, J. S. (1999). College Physics. Brooks/
Cole, Pacific Grove, CA.