CONNECTICUT

LAW REVIEW
VOLUME 43

JULY 2011

NUMBER 5

Article
Critical Race Theory of Society
TUKUFU ZUBERI
Kimberl Williams Crenshaws Twenty Years of Critical Race Theory:
Looking Back To Move Forward calls for a broader definition of CRT and
for the next phase of this movement to embrace scholars from a multitude
of disciplines. The tradition of critical theories of race in the social
sciences is intimately related to the CRT Movement developed in the law.
The social sciences are an important part of the realization of Crenshaws
aspirations. This Article argues that Crenshaws call is visionary and a
necessary step for researchers interested in the end of white supremacy
and the elevation of the human sciences and human rights and equality.

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ARTICLE CONTENTS
I.

INTRODUCTION............................................................................... 1575

II. A TRADITION OF CRITICAL THEORIES OF

RACE IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES ................................................. 1577
III. THE CRITICAL RACE THEORY MOVEMENT
WITHIN THE TRADITION ............................................................... 1583
IV. TOWARD A CRITIQUE OF THE POST-RACIAL
BLINDNESS ....................................................................................... 1587

Critical Race Theory of Society

TUKUFU ZUBERI*
I. INTRODUCTION
As a social scientist, I have always been concerned with social justice;
as such, I have been distinctly interested in the development of social
movements to transform society. In The Matter of Color by A. Leon
Higginbotham, Jr.1 and Derrick Bells And We Are Not Saved 2 helped me
appreciate the historical hypocrisy of American democracy and law. It was
the Critical Race Theory (CRT) movement, however, pioneered by the
likes of Kimberl Williams Crenshaw and others, that began to
institutionalize the critical questioning of the intellectual assumptions of
White supremacy in law.3 This movement parallels the tradition in the
social sciences of working for human rights and social justice, and against
racism, sexism, and other forms of oppression. I would like to take this
opportunity to consider the tradition of critical theories of race in the social
sciences, and how this tradition might be related to the CRT movement
that developed in the law. In this way, I will be able to comment on the
two central enquiries pursued by Crenshaw in her article, Twenty Years of
* Dr. Tukufu Zuberi is the Lasry Family Professor of Race Relations and chair of the Department
of Sociology at the University of Pennsylvania. He is dedicated to bringing a fresh view of culture and
society to the public through various platforms such as guest lecturing at universities, television
programs (i.e., History Detectives), and interactive social media. Currently, he works on human rights
initiatives by participating in public speaking engagements, international collaborations with
transnational organizations, and individuals dedicated to human equality. Professor Zuberi has written
extensively on race, African and African Diaspora populations. He was awarded the 2009 Oliver
Cromwell Cox Book Award for his co-edited volume, White Logic, White Methods.
1
See A. LEON HIGGINBOTHAM, JR., IN THE MATTER OF COLOR: RACE AND THE AMERICAN
LEGAL PROCESS 390 (1978) (recounting inter alia that the United States was created with the notion
that all men are created equal yet began its experiment in self-government with a legacy of more than
one-half million enslaved [B]lackspersons denied citizenship and enslaved . . . solely as a matter of
color).
2
See DERRICK BELL, AND WE ARE NOT SAVED: THE ELUSIVE QUEST FOR RACIAL JUSTICE 7
(1987) (discussing the Constitutional Contradiction and the concerns that likely led even those
Framers opposed to slavery to sanction its recognition in a Constitution whose Preamble pledges to
secure the Blessings of Liberty to ourselves and our Posterity).
3
See, e.g., CRITICAL RACE THEORY: THE CUTTING EDGE, at xvxvi (Richard Delgado & Jean
Stefancic eds., 2d ed. 2000) (observing that CRT challeng[es] racial orthodoxy, shak[es] up the legal
academy, question[s] comfortable liberal premises, and lead[s] the search for new ways of thinking
about [the United States] most intractable, and insoluble, problemrace); CRITICAL RACE THEORY:
THE KEY WRITINGS THAT FORMED THE MOVEMENT, at xiii (Kimberl Crenshaw et al. eds., 1995)
[hereinafter CRITICAL RACE THEORY: THE KEY WRITINGS] (As we conceive it, Critical Race Theory
embraces a movement of . . . scholars . . . whose work challenges the ways in which race and racial
power are constructed and represented in American legal culture and, more generally, in American
society as a whole.).

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4

Critical Race Theory: Looking Back To Move Forward. In her article,

Crenshaw calls for a broader definition of CRT and for the next phase of
this movement to embrace scholars from disciplines other than law.5 I will
begin my comments by considering the conditions and traditions in the
social sciences that could facilitate the realization of this possibility. Next,
I will discuss how the CRT movement is a powerful and innovative
companion of the critical traditions of race research in the social sciences.
I will conclude by explaining how I agree with Crenshaws call for a
common, and necessarily contentious, direction of critical scholarship of
race beyond the post-racial movement of colorblind intellectual folly.
The social sciences are the study of both the relationship between
individuals and the agglomeration of individuals. The various disciplines
that make up the social sciences are part of what Foucault referred to as
the sciences of man.6 The knowledge produced within the social
sciences is implicated in the intersection of systems of oppression within
matrices of domination.7 The social sciences produce knowledge about
others as deviants from the norm, which is defined as White,
heterosexual, bourgeois, and male.
Furthermore, social science
researchers, in the main, have sought to define inferior others of color as
deviant.8 To the extent that African Americans and other people of color
4

Kimberl Williams Crenshaw, Twenty Years of Critical Race Theory: Looking Back To Move
Forward, 43 CONN. L. REV. 1253 (2011) [hereinafter Crenshaw, Twenty Years].
5
Id. at 126062.
6
MICHEL FOUCAULT, THE ORDER OF THINGS: AN ARCHAEOLOGY OF THE HUMAN SCIENCES
36465 (Pantheon Books 1970) (1966); Tukufu Zuberi & Eduardo Bonilla-Silva, Telling the Real Tale
of the Hunt: Toward a Race Conscious Sociology of Racial Stratification, in WHITE LOGIC, WHITE
METHODS: RACISM AND METHODOLOGY 329, 330 (Tukufu Zuberi & Eduardo Bonilla-Silva eds.,
2008).
7
See 2 PATRICIA HILL COLLINS, BLACK FEMINIST THOUGHT: KNOWLEDGE, CONSCIOUSNESS,
AND THE POLITICS OF EMPOWERMENT 22129 (1990) (asserting that [k]knowledge is a vitally
important part of the social relations of domination and resistance and discussing the significance of
reconceptualizing race, class, and gender as interlocking systems of oppression); DOROTHY ROSS, THE
ORIGINS OF AMERICAN SOCIAL SCIENCE 472 (1991) (However much the social sciences deny the
normative character of their presumably scientific theories, such theories necessarily construct
worldviews, and most often they are propagated as worldviews. For most of this century social
scientists have been engaged in uncovering the impersonal webs of influence that shape urban
industrial society in America.); Eduardo Bonilla-Silva & Tukufu Zuberi, Toward a Definition of White
Logic and White Methods, in WHITE LOGIC, WHITE METHODS, supra note 6, at 3, 1519 [hereinafter
Bonilla-Silva & Zuberi, Toward a Definition] (arguing that White dominance in the field of sociology
has led to an inherently White perspective on sociological research and methodology); Kimberl
Williams Crenshaw, Mapping the Margins: Intersectionality, Identity Politics, and Violence Against
Women of Color, in CRITICAL RACE THEORY: THE KEY WRITINGS, supra note 3, at 357, 35758
(focusing on the impact of the intersecting patterns of racism and sexism).
8
See FOUCAULT, supra note 6, at 38087 (2002); TUKUFU ZUBERI, THICKER THAN BLOOD: HOW
RACIAL STATISTICS LIE 73 (2001) (Widely read eugenic books . . . present a range of arguments on the
benefits of using a biological model to explain social differences in society, especially the deviant
behavior of the poor and marginalized. Thus, the eugenicists have attempted to explain social
differences in crime, wealth, test scores, and social dislocation by reference to presumed intellectual
aptitudes. Racial and class differences are thought to be a reflection of more fundamental differences
in intellectual and moral capacity.); Tukufu Zuberi, Sociology and the African Diaspora Experience,

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have been studied in the disciplines of the social sciences, they have been
studied with women and everyday workers as groups of savage deviant
peoples who are problematic.9
II. A TRADITION OF CRITICAL THEORIES OF
RACE IN THE SOCIAL SCIENCES
The social sciences matured and came into existence at the same time
that African enslavement ended and colonialism matured in Africa, Asia,
and the Americas.10 Historically, [w]omen and people of color might be
the objects of study, but they were [not] part of the mainstream of the
social sciences.11 As marginalized scholars, women and people of color
often engaged the academy as agents of change.12 They were concerned
with challenging the existing hierarchies and with transforming the
perspectives of the social scientists themselves. I make this point so that
we recognize that CRT existed before it was named. The emergence of
CRT as a scholarly and political movement is a fundamentally important
moment of this articulation. As such, CRT may be borne out of a left
intervention into race discourse and a race intervention into left
discourse;13 it is encased, however, in a larger struggle against the
aggressions of White supremacy. There is no doubt that CRT is one of the
most important developments in recent times. CRT establishes the
fundamental role that the law plays in the maintenance of racial hierarchy,
in A COMPANION TO AFRICAN-AMERICAN STUDIES 246, 25051 (Lewis R. Gordon & Jane Anna
Gordon eds., 2006) [hereinafter Zuberi, African Diaspora] (arguing that the Eurocentric perspective in
the social sciences views African Americans as racialized others (internal quotation marks omitted)).
9
See LEE D. BAKER, FROM SAVAGE TO NEGRO: ANTHROPOLOGY AND THE CONSTRUCTION OF
RACE, 18961954, at 1415, 219 (1998) (noting that one of the theories used to continue the
enslavement of African Americans was the idea that Negroes were like children who needed direction,
discipline, and the parentlike care of a master, and that present day opposing images of Blacks
successful assimilated minority and gangster-welfare motherserve to bifurcate prejudice along
class lines); HOMI K. BHABHA, THE LOCATION OF CULTURE 70 (1994) (The objective of colonial
discourse is to construe the colonized as a population of degenerate types on the basis of racial origin,
in order to justify conquest and to establish systems of administration and instruction.); W.E.B. DU
BOIS, BLACK RECONSTRUCTION IN AMERICA: AN ESSAY TOWARD A HISTORY OF THE PART WHICH
BLACK FOLK PLAYED IN THE ATTEMPT TO RECONSTRUCT DEMOCRACY IN AMERICA, 18601880, at
71113 (Antheneum Publishers 7th ed. 1977) (1935) (noting that a study of contemporary textbooks
revealed that Blacks were deemed, among other things, ignorant, lazy, dishonest, extravagant, and
responsible for poor government during the Reconstruction era); ZUBERI, THICKER THAN BLOOD,
supra note 8, at 88 (Many sociologists [around the turn of the twentieth century] assumed European
racial superiority. It was this cultural perspective of European superiority that came to replace
biological justifications of race. The move from eugenic to cultural arguments was a move from one
type of essentialist perspective, the biological evolutionary, to another type of essentialist perspective,
the cultural. This shift witnessed the birth of assimilation and a focus on unproductive behavior of the
unassimilated as a dominant perspectivein a word, a return to viewing the Negro as a problem.).
10
Zuberi, African Diaspora, supra note 8, at 246.
11
Id.
12
See id. at 24849 (noting that Africans and their descendants as well as women published
scholarly works that creatively challenged social oppression).
13
CRITICAL RACE THEORY: THE KEY WRITINGS, supra note 3, at xix.

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and it offers an opportunity to imagine processes that challenge these

systems of domination.
The antecedent ideas for CRT existed in the social sciences long before
the intellectual movement in law. In fact, the critical tradition among
African Diaspora populations existed long before the creation of the social
sciences. The written liberation narratives of the enslaved and the
appeals from free individuals of African descent in the Americas is a
tradition worthy of consideration. The scholars surviving the experience of
enslavement established an analytical foundation for a response to social
oppression.14 This tradition was the product of men and women who spoke
and wrote against the enslavement of Africans and White supremacy. It
began before the end of African enslavement in the nineteenth century and
traces to Quobna Ottobah Cugoano, David Walker, Robert Alexander
Young, Maria W. Stewart, Martin R. Delany, Edward Blyden, Alexander
Crummell, Henry M. Turner, and Frederick Douglass, among others.15
14
See 1 ST. CLAIR DRAKE, BLACK FOLK HERE AND THERE: AN ESSAY IN HISTORY AND
ANTHROPOLOGY 14 (1990) (describing the development of the [B]lack perspective in the narratives
of late-nineteenth and early-twentieth century scholars).
15
Zuberi, African Diaspora, supra note 8, at 24849. One of the first appeals was written in
February 1829 by Robert Alexander Young. ROBERT ALEXANDER YOUNG, THE ETHIOPIAN
MANIFESTO: ISSUE IN DEFENCE OF THE BLACK MANS RIGHTS IN THE SCALE OF UNIVERSAL FREEDOM
(1829). In the autumn of 1829, David Walker privately published his own appeal. DAVID WALKER,
DAVID WALKERS APPEAL TO THE COLOURED CITIZENS OF THE WORLD, BUT IN PARTICULAR, AND
VERY EXPRESSLY, TO THOSE OF THE UNITED STATES (1829). Walkers Appeal presented a militant
indictment of racism and enslavement with a call to arms. Zuberi, African Diaspora, supra note 8, at
249. It was followed shortly thereafter by Nat Turners insurrection in Southampton County, Virginia.
Id. The less educated and less sophisticated enslaved population did not produce any similar Appeals
as such, but, for these individuals, the stor[ies] of their lives were appeals for social justice. Id. The
slave autobiographies were personal accounts of what freedom meant, how to achieve it, and a
personal appeal to end the cruelties [of] slavery. Id. After the publication of various other
autobiographies, the autobiography became one of the most important literary genres in the response to
racist narratives of the African place and role in modern society. E.g., HENRY BIBB, NARRATIVE OF
THE LIFE AND ADVENTURES OF HENRY BIBB, AN AMERICAN SLAVE (1849); WILLIAM W. BROWN,
NARRATIVE OF WILLIAM W. BROWN, AN AMERICAN SLAVE (1847); FREDERICK DOUGLASS,
NARRATIVE OF THE LIFE OF FREDERICK DOUGLASS, AN AMERICAN SLAVE (1845); 1 OLAUDAH
EQUIANO, THE INTERESTING NARRATIVE OF THE LIFE OF OLAUDAH EQUIANO, OR GUSTAVUS VASSA,
THE AFRICAN (1789); HARRIET A. JACOBS, INCIDENTS IN THE LIFE OF A SLAVE GIRL (1861); SOLOMON
NORTHUP, TWELVE YEARS A SLAVE: NARRATIVE OF SOLOMON NORTHUP, A CITIZEN OF NEW-YORK,
KIDNAPPED IN WASHINGTON CITY IN 1841, AND RESCUED IN 1853, FROM A COTTON PLANTATION
NEAR THE RED RIVER, IN LOUISIANA (1853); MOSES ROPER, A NARRATIVE OF THE ADVENTURES AND
ESCAPE OF MOSES ROPER FROM AMERICAN SLAVERY (1838). The autobiographical tradition among
the formerly enslaved began as an oral tradition, and evolved into the written form as a strategy for
meeting a wider audience and having a more lasting effect on the audience. Fugitives made most of
these accounts from enslavement. Those who had purchased their freedom or had been manumitted
produced another type of reminiscence of enslavement. Names such as Henry Watson, Lunsford Lane,
Isaac Jefferson, Peter Randolph, Austin Steward, and Richard Allenthe founder of the African
Methodist Episcopal Churchare but a few in this less-well-known tradition. For more on the
autobiographical tradition among the formerly enslaved, see SLAVE TESTIMONY: TWO CENTURIES OF
LETTERS, SPEECHES, INTERVIEWS, AND AUTOBIOGRAPHIES (John W. Blassingame ed., 1977) and
Houston A. Baker, Jr., Introduction to FREDERICK DOUGLASS, NARRATIVE OF THE LIFE OF FREDERICK
DOUGLASS, AN AMERICAN SLAVE 7, 89 (Penguin Books 1982) (1845). On the continuation of this
tradition among African-American scholars, see V.P. FRANKLIN, LIVING OUR STORIES, TELLING OUR

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Despite this critical tradition between the oppressed colonial and

enslaved subjects, the social sciences developed at a time when there was a
need for scientific justification of racial stratification.16 The Emancipation
Proclamation and amendments to the U.S. Constitution all gave more
clarity to the idea of democracy as promoting human equality. The
continued existence of racial stratification in society and a racial hierarchy
in both political and economic matters necessitated a justification in this
new era of democracy. This situation did not give birth to objectivity in
the analysis of race, nor did it allow the social sciences to reflect on the
critical tradition already present in the nineteenth century. The social
sciences developed theories and methods of analysis that helped justify
racial stratification.17
Following the integration of a few scholars of color, the social sciences
remained disciplines that supported White supremacy.18 Integration of the
social sciences was not done for the purpose of transforming sociological
theory or methods; indeed, many social scientists of color and women who
integrated the discipline became White scholars with Black faces.19 This
fact led critical social scientists to a tradition that challenged these claims,
a tradition that was isolated from the prestige of mainstream academia.
The social sciences have always had their critical theorists of race.20
These individuals specific confrontations in the various disciplines of
social science (economics, political science, sociology, and anthropology)
derived from the intellectual foundations of the social movements with
which they identified, such as the anti-lynching campaigns, the Suffragist
and Feminist Movements, Pan-Africanism, Black Power, Civil Rights,
TRUTHS: AUTOBIOGRAPHY AND THE MAKING OF THE AFRICAN-AMERICAN INTELLECTUAL TRADITION
(1995). By far the most impressive and important of the ex-bondsmens autobiographies was that of
Frederick Douglass. Douglasss Narrative, written during the American Literary Renaissance, was as
important as Herman Melvilles Moby-Dick (1851) and Henry David Thoreaus Walden (1854) in the
literature of nineteenth-century America. Zuberi, African Diaspora, supra note 8, at 24950.
16
See Zuberi, African Diaspora, supra note 8, at 246 (noting, for instance, that sociology
matured and came into its own at the same time that African enslavement ended and colonialism
matured in Africa, Asia, and the Americas, and that the social sciences focus[ed] on arriving at
generalities that were presumed to govern human behavior).
17
Bonilla-Silva & Zuberi, Toward a Definition, supra note 7, at 16.
18
Id.
19
Id.
20
For example, in the United States this tradition has been represented by women such as Ida B.
Wells, Joyce Ladner, Patricia Hill Collins, Margaret Anderson, France Winddance Twine, Julianne
Malveaux, and Jane Addams; men of color such as W.E.B. Du Bois, Abram Harris, Jr., Oliver C. Cox,
Aldon Morris, James Blackwell, Thomas Pettigrew, Charles V. Willie, Michael Omi, Cedric J.
Robinson, Ronald W. Walters, Harold Cruse, Thomas D. Boston, William Darity Jr., James B. Stewart,
Eduardo Bonilla-Silva; and a few white men such as Howard Winant, Joe R. Feagin, Robert Blauner,
Charles Lemert, and Craig Calhoun challenged white supremacist standards early on, and offered more
nuanced interpretations of human inequality and dignity in society. This list is not meant to be
encyclopedic. THOMAS D. BOSTON, A DIFFERENT VISION: AFRICAN AMERICAN ECONOMIC THOUGHT
(1997); COLLINS, supra note 7, at 25; Bonilla-Silva & Zuberi, Toward a Definition, supra note 7, at
1617, 19, 339; Zuberi, African Diaspora, supra note 8, at 25761.

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21

anti-racism, and other struggles for human equality and dignity. Indeed,
W.E.B. Du Bois, Ida B. Wells, Aim Csaire, C.L.R. James, Frantz Fanon,
Anna Julia Cooper, Oliver C. Cox, and E. Franklin Frazier could all be
categorized as critical Pan-African scholars of race, yet they did not
singularly define their tradition as a movement in the same way that the
critical race theorists have in law.
An assimilationist perspective dominates the sociology of race.22
From this perspective, [non-Whites] represent a problem of social
assimilation.23 The majority of sociologists pursue social science
research without any reservations as to the influence of race and the market
economy on their perspective. These studies often only produce statistics
of racial differences, which are used to justify continued racial
stratification and denying the humanity of non-Whites.24 Trends within
the assimilationist perspective range from the moralizing of various writers
through research on segregation, and social and economic stratification.25
Over the course of his life, W.E.B. Du Bois served as a leading
challenger of the views of assimilationism and a leading figure in the rise
of the African-centered perspective:
Du Bois would advance a creative critical perspective
that became African centered. For example, he published
[Darkwater: Voices From Within the Veil (1920);] Black
Reconstruction in America (1935); Black Folk: Then And
Now (1939); An Essay in the History And Sociology of the
Negro Race (1939); [Color and Democracy (1945);] and The
World and Africa: An Inquiry into the Part Which Africa
Played in World History (1946). In this body of work Du
Bois focused on historical case studies that presented the
complexity of racial stratification [and democracy and
economic exclusion]. In this work we find a perspective that
is heavily influenced by the work of Karl Marx, but which
also adds the importance of African and other colored and
oppressed persons. The mature Du Bois expressed in his
21

Zuberi, African Diaspora, supra note 8, at 25051.

See JAMES B. MCKEE, SOCIOLOGY AND THE RACE PROBLEM: THE FAILURE OF A PERSPECTIVE
67, 12124 (1993) (describing the influence of the concept of assimilation in sociological studies of
race relations); Tukufu Zuberi, The Population Dynamics of the Changing Color Line, in PROBLEM OF
THE CENTURY: RACIAL STRATIFICATION IN THE UNITED STATES 145, 14547 (Elijah Anderson &
Douglas S. Massey eds., 2001) (observing how [a]ssimilation and racial stratification define the
dynamics of race); Zuberi, African Diaspora, supra note 8, at 252 (The assimilationist perspective
presents the major social problem as a problem of social integration of deviant segments of society.).
23
Zuberi, African Diaspora, supra note 8, at 252.
24
ZUBERI, THICKER THAN BLOOD, supra note 8, at 106 (Social statistics have been used to
justify racial stratification. Among social statisticians an implicit tendency to accept the underlying
logic of racial reasoning has developed.).
25
Zuberi, African Diaspora, supra note 8, at 252.
22

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CRITICAL RACE THEORY OF SOCIETY

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work a long tradition of intellectual reinsertion of the African

place in society as an actor. The older Du Boiss sociological
work presents a counter-narrative to the assimilationist
perspective, especially regarding the role that African people
played in the formation of modern society.
For Du Bois, to understand modern society it is essential
to understand the African. The flaw of Eurocentrism is that it
provides a corrupt picture of the human experience. By
ignoring the contributions of Africaand we might add Asia
and AmericaEurocentrism made Europe the model for the
world without fully understanding the world.
The rise of African-centered perspectives coincides with
the rise of Pan-Africanism. As Drake notes, scholars [in this
tradition] see their struggles as not only involving [B]lack
people everywhere but also as being organically related to
Third World struggles generally and to the worldwide
struggle of proletariat and peasantry regardless of race.26
The voices in this tradition varied from Sojourner Truth in her oral
presentations in support of the humanity of women and African
Americans27 to Ida B. Wells in her historic fight against White supremacist
brutalities28 to Anna Julia Cooper in her courageous efforts to identify class
and gender dimensions of racial domination within the African-American
community.29 Various texts and journals marked the parameters of this
debate worldwide. These texts would include W.E.B. Du Boiss The
World and Africa: An Inquiry into the Part Which Africa Has Played in
World History (1946); Jean-Paul Sartres essay Black Orpheus (1948);
Richard Wrights Black Power: A Record of Reactions in a Land of Pathos
(1954); Ami Csaires Discourse on Colonialism (1955); George
Padmores Pan-Africanism or Communism?: The Coming Struggle for
Africa (1956); Albert Memmis The Colonizer and the Colonized (1957);
Richard Wrights White Man, Listen! (1957); and journals such as The
Crisis, The Journal of Negro History, Prsence Africaine, La Revue du
Monde Noir, and African Revolution.
Like the abolitionists before them, scholars advocating this perspective
26

Id. at 255.
Sojourner Truth, Aint I a Woman? Address at Womens Convention, Akron, Ohio (Dec.
1851), in MOD. HIST. SOURCEBOOK, http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/mod/sojtruth-woman.html (last
visited Apr. 20, 2011).
28
Lee D. Baker, Ida B. Wells-Barnett and Her Passion for Justice, DUKE UNIV. (Apr. 1996),
http://www.duke.edu/~ldbaker/classes/AAIH/caaih/ibwells/ibwbkgrd.html; see also PAULA J.
GIDDINGS, IDA: A SWORD AMONG LIONS (2008); IDA B. WELLS-BARNETT, ON LYNCHINGS:
SOUTHERN HORRORS, LYNCH LAW IN ALL ITS PHASES (1892).
29
ANNA JULIA COOPER, THE VOICE OF ANNA JULIA COOPER (Charles Lemert & Esme Bhan eds.,
1998).
27

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facilitated a response to the injustices of colonialism and the

marginalization of Africa and its descendants. This perspective, however,
does not provide an adequate critique of the hegemonic structuralfunctional objective of social science that predominates the assimilationist
perspective.30 By prioritizing class over race, some critical theorists have
been blind to creative modes and forms of social change. For example,
many critical sociologists, like Oliver C. Cox, suggested that the possibility
of a nationalist movement was slim in a racially stratified society like the
United States, but were optimistic about nationalism in Africa. Cox, for
instance, noted that Negro Americans will probably never become
nationalistic; the numerical balance of the races will not allow the
development of nationalistic antagonism on the part of the colored
people. . . . Yet it is fairly certain that African Negroes in every
continental colony will in time develop nationalism.31 As we know,
however, the Civil Rights and Black Power Movements resulted in the
Civil Rights Bill in 1957 and forced the passage of the Civil Rights Acts in
1964, and 1966.32 The National Liberation Movement ended the classical
form of European colonialism in most of Africa. At the same time, it is
important to recall that the success of the Civil Rights Movement and the
passage of various Civil Rights bills and acts were not necessarily in line
with the aspirations of the Black Power Movement.33 This contradiction
between the Black Power Movement and the Civil Rights Movement can
help us understand the limits of the assimilationist project. Scholars like
W.E.B. Du Bois, George Padmore, and Frantz Fanon participated in the
efforts to create and support National Liberation Movements, and in the
cause of the Civil Rights Movement in the United States. Efforts such as
theirs produced a critique of how race was studied by the major
disciplines.34 Yet, the assimilationist perspective continues to preclude any
consideration of the social effects of the Black Power Movement in the
United States, Caribbean, Latin America, and the anti-colonial movement
30
See MCKEE, supra note 22, at 34 (describing the shortcomings in sociological studies of race
relations and noting that sociologists of race relations [have failed] to understand fully their own
object of study).
31
OLIVER CROMWELL COX, CASTE, CLASS, AND RACE: A STUDY IN SOCIAL DYNAMICS 403
(1948).
32
MARY FRANCES BERRY, BLACK RESISTANCE WHITE LAW: A HISTORY OF CONSTITUTIONAL
RACISM IN AMERICA 140, 159, 170 (1971).
33
See KWAME TURE & CHARLES V. HAMILTON, BLACK POWER: THE POLITICS OF LIBERATION IN
AMERICA 5053 (Vintage Books 1992) (1967) (describing the differences between the meanings and
objectives of the Civil Rights and Black Power Movements and noting that the civil rights laws were
effectively nullified by deliberately weak enforcement).
34
See St. Clair Drake, Diaspora Studies and Pan-Africanism, in GLOBAL DIMENSIONS OF THE
AFRICAN DIASPORA 341, 380 (Joseph E. Harris ed., 1st ed. 1982) (advising that rather than in the
major African studies programs . . . diaspora studies have their best chance of flourishing as a
cooperative activity between Afro-American, African and West Indian scholars and those nonblack
scholars who wish to be associated with them).

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in Africa. The point was epitomized by the debate around the work of
Michael Hanchard by Pierre Bourdieu and Loc Wacquant.35
III. THE CRITICAL RACE THEORY MOVEMENT WITHIN THE TRADITION
By focusing on racial power within society, CRT is a clear modern
articulation of the earlier twentieth century critique of the foundation of
western rationality that is the basis of White logic. It is important to
recognize that at the current moment the social sciences continue to be
dominated by a White logic of analysis, methods, and theories;36 the same
might be argued for law as well. Much of the critical perspective presents
a fusion of left philosophy and right social analysis. That is, most
critical analysis does not focus on the survival and freedom of human
beings, nor does it suggest a different future. Often, critical vision has
proven to be more ideological and less transformative. It is important for a
critical perspective to creatively embrace what can be.37 What is needed is
a critique of the hegemonic structural-functional objective social science
(as suggested by Alvin Gouldners The Coming Crisis of Western
Sociology38 and Jrgen Habermass The Theory of Communicative

35

See Pierre Bourdieu & Loc Wacquant, On the Cunning of Imperialist Reason, THEORY,
CULTURE & SOCY, Feb. 1999, at 41, 44 (observing that, by applying North American racial
categories to the Brazilian [racismo mascarado] situation, [Hanchard] makes the particular history of
the US Civil Rights Movement into the universal standard for the struggle of all groups oppressed on
grounds of colour (or caste)); Michael Hanchard, Acts of Misrecognition: Transnational Black Politics,
Anti-Imperialism and the Ethnocentrisms of Pierre Bourdieu and Loc Wacquant, THEORY, CULTURE
& SOCY, Aug. 2003, at 5, 57 (stating that Bourdieu and Wacquant identify the author and other U.S.
scholars with reproducing and disseminating U.S. cultural imperialism in these scholars analyses of
Brazilian race relations and comparison of it to the U.S. Civil Rights Movement); Michael Hanchard,
Afro-Modernity: Temporality, Politics, and the African Diaspora, 11 PUB. CULTURE 245, 245, 25767
(1999) (concluding that [w]hether in the form of the nation-state or universal ideas about human
rights, [B]lack nationalism, and racial as well as other modes of collective identity have invariably
reacted against or innovated upon discourses of modernity, and exploring this contention through
studies of race relations and civil rights movements in the Caribbean and South America, Ghana, and
the United States).
36
Bonilla-Silva & Zuberi, Toward a Definition, supra note 7, at 1718 (White logic, then, refers
to a context in which White supremacy has defined the techniques and processes of reasoning about
social facts. White logic assumes a historical posture that grants eternal objectivity to the views of
elite Whites. . . . Therefore, White logic operates to foster a debilitating alienation among the racially
oppressed, as they are thrown into a world of preexisting meanings as [people] incapable of meaning
making. (alteration in original) (citations omitted)); see also Zuberi & Bonilla-Silva, Telling the Real
Tale, supra note 6, at 33032 (pointing out flaws in White logic and stating that, [r]ather than leading
to a science of objectivity, White logic has fostered an ethnocentric orientation).
37
See ROBIN D.G. KELLEY, FREEDOM DREAMS: THE BLACK RADICAL IMAGINATION, at xii
(2002) (I conceived Freedom Dreams as a preliminary effort to recover ideasvisions, fashioned
mainly by those marginalized [B]lack activists who proposed a different way out of our
constrictions.).
38
See ALVIN W. GOULDNER, THE COMING CRISIS OF WESTERN SOCIOLOGY 3 (1970) (The
criticism and transformation of society can be divorced only at our peril from the criticism and
transformation of theories about society.).

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39

Action ) and the poststructuralist and anticolonialist perspectives of Frantz

Fanon, Aim Csaire, Michel Foucault, and Edward Said.40 This
reflexivity suggests a more creative critical perspective, as reflected in the
early work of diverse scholars such as Oliver C. Cox41 and Fanon.42 For
many modern sociologists, the 1973 classic volume edited by Joyce A.
Ladner, entitled The Death of White Sociology, reinvigorated the tradition
of critical thought in the social sciences.43 Scholars within this perspective
have sought to interrogate the social ideals and facts as self-reflective
researchers.
More recently, scholars have begun to undermine the scientific claims
of the social sciences generally by engaging in both the methodological
and theoretical dimensions of the disciplines.44 This critique is also
reflected in the theoretical work represented by stratification economics,45
39
See 1 JRGEN HABERMAS, THE THEORY OF COMMUNICATIVE ACTION, at xlixliv (Thomas
McCarthy trans., Polity Press 1986) (1984) (integrating historical and systematic investigations into the
authors analysis).
40
See Lewis R. Gordon, Theorizing Race and Racism in an Age of Disciplinary Decadence,
SHIBBOLETHS: J. COMP. THEORY, 2006, at 20, 2026.
41
See COX, supra note 31, at ix, xi, xvixvii (criticizing previous works for being too highly
philosophical and abstract and stating that the characteristics of a caste system [are] so important as a
basis for an understanding of other types of social systems that the entire first part of the book is
dedicated to it).
42
See FRANTZ FANON, BLACK SKIN, WHITE MASKS 1011 (Charles Lam Markmann trans., 1967)
(undertaking a psychological analysis, yet observing that the effective disalienation of the [B]lack man
entails an immediate recognition of social and economic realities).
43
THE DEATH OF WHITE SOCIOLOGY (Joyce A. Ladner ed., 1973).
44
See LINDA TUHIWAI SMITH, DECOLONIZING METHODOLOGIES: RESEARCH AND INDIGENOUS
PEOPLES 9 (1999) (The second part of the book examines the different approaches and methodologies
that are being developed to ensure that research with indigenous peoples can be more respectful,
ethical, sympathetic and useful.); RACE AND ETHNICITY IN RESEARCH METHODS 3 (John H. Stanfield
II & Rutledge M. Dennis eds., 1993) ([Stanfield] organized the present volume three years ago in an
effort to encourage race and ethnic studies researchers in American social sciences to think critically in
epistemological and theoretical veins about methodologies.); RESEARCHING RACE AND RACISM 10
(Martin Bulmer & John Solomos eds., 2004) (In thinking about putting this edited collection together,
we wanted to allow space for a wide range of theoretical perspectives and methodologies.); France
Winddance Twine, Racial Ideologies and Racial Methodologies, in RACING RESEARCH, RESEARCHING
RACE: METHODOLOGICAL DILEMMAS IN CRITICAL RACE STUDIES 1, 2627 (France Winddance Twine
& Jonathan W. Warren eds., 2000) (I commissioned the chapters in this volume in order to advance
theoretical debates in qualitative research methods scholarship about the particular dilemmas racial
ideologies and racialized fields generate for researchers. . . . Furthermore, I wanted to integrate the
concerns of research methodologists and critical race theorists in a single book.); Zuberi & BonillaSilva, Telling the Real Tale, supra note 6, at 329 (stating that [o]ur specific intent in this chapter is to
spark new thinking on methods so as to turn the sociological tables on the sociology that made us,
people of color, into a problem).
45
See William Darity, Jr., Stratification Economics: The Role of Intergroup Inequality, 29 J.
ECON. & FIN. 144, 144 (2005) (proposing that the emergence of stratification economics constitutes a
systematic and empirically grounded . . . alternative to the conventional wisdom on intergroup
disparity); William Darity, Jr., Stratification Economics: Context Versus Culture and the Reparations
Controversy, 57 U. KAN. L. REV. 795 (2009); James B. Stewart, Economics, Stratification, in 2
INTERNATIONAL ENCYCLOPEDIA OF THE SOCIAL SCIENCES 530, 53031 (William A. Darity, Jr. ed., 2d
ed. 2008) (noting that theoretical stratification economics challenges the scientific claims of the social
sciences, and surmising that further challenges will arise as the discipline evolves).

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46

47

1585
48

liberation sociology, Black feminist thought, racial critical theory, and

racial formation.49 These perspectives share a view that modern society
must be understood in a broader context than that established by the
acceptance of traditional explanations. The point here is to show that CRT
developed alongside similar struggles over the terms by which racial
power would be understood and contested in a post-reform institutional
setting in the social sciences.50
The CRT movement, then, is part of a general movement against racial
power. Specifically, prior to the CRT movement America experienced the
African-American Studies Movement in the 1960s and 1970s.
During this period of great social transformation, social theorists began
to reconsider the implications of the politics of race and gender at both the
national and international levels. African Diaspora scholars had long held
that only by understanding decolonization and deracialization could one
understand the development of capitalism and modern society.51 The rise
of nationalist movements internationally and within the United States itself
changed the way many scholars viewed social science. In the classic Black
Power: The Politics of Liberation in America, Kwame Ture and Charles V.
Hamilton argued that:
Black people must redefine themselves, and only they
can do that. Throughout this country, vast segments of the
black communities are beginning to recognize the need to
assert their own definitions, to reclaim their history, their
culture; to create their own sense of community and
togetherness. There is a growing resentment of the word
Negro, for example, because this term is the invention of
46
See JOE R. FEAGIN & HERNN VERA, LIBERATION SOCIOLOGY, at viiiix, 3 (2d ed. 2008)
(discussing how sociological theories and sociology are taught and describing the theoretical
frameworks on which social theorists focus).
47
See COLLINS, supra note 7, at xiixiii (stating an intention to examine Black womens
experiences and ideas).
48
See DAVID THEO GOLDBERG, THE RACIAL STATE 12 (2002) (describing the state of race
theory as awfully weary and suggesting that [t]he modern state . . . . is a state or set of conditions
that assumes varied racially conceived character in difference sociospecific milieus); RACE CRITICAL
THEORIES: TEXT AND CONTEXT 1 (Philomena Essed & David Theo Goldberg eds., 2002) (stating that
the book brings together a range of influential theorists of race and racism in the critical tradition over
the past twenty years).
49
See MICHAEL OMI & HOWARD WINANT, RACIAL FORMATION IN THE UNITED STATES: FROM
THE 1960S TO THE 1990S, at 1 (2d ed. 1994) (criticizing the notion that the United States is a colorblind society).
50
Crenshaw, Twenty Years, supra note 4, at 1286.
51
See, e.g., DU BOIS, BLACK RECONSTRUCTION, supra note 9, at 316 (recounting the role of
slavery in U.S. commerce, describing the exploitation of Black workers, and noting that the [B]lack
worker . . . [was the] founding stone of a new economic system in the nineteenth century and for the
modern world); see also COX, supra note 31, at 32122 (observing that European prejudice toward
and commercial exploitation of peoples developed with the rise of capitalism and nationalism, and that
racial antagonism traces to the policies and attitudes of White Europeans and North Americans, the
leading proponents of capitalism).

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our oppressor; it is his image of us that he describes. Many

blacks are now calling themselves African-Americans, AfroAmericans or black people because that is our image to
ourselves.52
Many scholars likewise created a new image of themselves and their
place in society. The rejection of Eurocentrism resulted in an effort to
foster a new discourse, and, in this way, the successes of the Black Studies
Movement went beyond the experiences of African Americans.53 In fact,
the Black Studies Movement was followed by the creation of Womens
Studies, Hispanic Studies, Asian-American Studies, Native-American
Studies, and, more recently, Queer Studies. It is important that this process
was replicated in terms of subsequent formations such as LatCrit [and]
QueerCrit, [which] are turns, spinoffs or splinterings of CRT.54
The CRT movement is an important part of the efforts for racial
redemption. It offers a unique opportunity to challenge the White logic
that is the basis of the social sciences, and it is rooted in an epistemology
of liberation.55 CRT has contributed to this new epistemology by
articulating the contours of racial power, undermining the logic of the postracial reality.
Such a perspective has to begin with recognizing class and race as
dialectical. Stuart Hall suggests a non-reductive approach to questions
concerning the inter-relationship between class and race.56 By not
reducing the problem to a single determining articulation of oppression
class or racewe avoid making circular and dogmatic arguments. To
52

TURE & HAMILTON, supra note 33, at 37.

The Black Studies Movement in the United States represents an intellectual response to the
assimilationist tradition in Eurocentric scholarship. The Black Studies Movement is part of the Black
Power Movement. As Maulana Karenga observes in his popular Introduction to Black Studies, Black
Studies is rooted in the social visions and struggles of the 60s which aimed at Black power, liberation
and a higher level of human life and thus from its inception, it has had both an academic and social
thrust and mission. MAULANA KARENGA, INTRODUCTION TO BLACK STUDIES 3 (2d ed. 1993). Black
Studies seeks to critically challenge the Eurocentric domination of scholarship and to forge a new
intellectual discourse regarding human life. See id. at 21 (Black Studies challenges both the cultural
content of what is called western and the definition itself, arguing for a multicultural interpretation of
the western hemisphere rather than a Eurocentric one.).
54
Crenshaw, Twenty Years, supra note 4, at 1300.
55
See FEAGIN & VERA, supra note 46, at 36 (Liberation sociology seeks to stimulate debate in
the field of sociology . . . . [It] can provide probing research that supports the struggles of the
oppressed against classist, racist, sexist, heterosexist, and other authoritarian types of oppression.);
Bonilla-Silva & Zuberi, Toward a Definition, supra note 7, at 1520 (identifying four fundamental
problems that White logic and White methods pose for sociology and its practitioners, especially in
contemporary sociology); Paula M.L. Moya, Postmodernism, Realism, and the Politics of Identity:
Cheri Moraga and Chicana Feminism, in FEMINIST GENEALOGIES, COLONIAL LEGACIES,
DEMOCRATIC FUTURES 125, 13641 (M. Jacqui Alexander & Chandra Talpade Mohanty eds., 1997)
(articulating a realist account of Chicana identity that theorizes the linkages between social location,
experience, epistemic privilege, and cultural identity).
56
Stuart Hall, Gramscis Relevance for the Study of Race and Ethnicity, 10 J. COMM. INQUIRY 5,
24 (1986).
53

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view the problem from a purely class perspective limits our ability to
understand the dynamics of race.57 Likewise, by viewing the problem from
a perspective that privileges race over class, we enter into what Cornel
West calls the pitfalls of racial reasoning.58 Long ago, this perspective
successfully engaged culture-of-poverty arguments; however, these
arguments have resurfaced.59
IV. TOWARD A CRITIQUE OF THE POST-RACIAL BLINDNESS
The Civil Rights Movement sought racial progress using the law as the
basis of its protest.60 This tendency was also reflected in certain elements
of the Black Power Movement that witnessed the Black Panther Partys
use of the legal code to justify many of its actions.61 It is in fact this
dimension of the Civil Rights Movement that may account for Crenshaws
origin narrative of CRT as an intellectual movement. CRT arrives at the
moment in which there is a great need for a more critical stance toward the
discourse around the rule of the law and the place of race in the fight for
social justice.62 The post-racial rhetoric of this moment serves as a
powerful mask over the racial realties that persist. As Eduardo BonillaSilva notes, [n]owadays, except for members of white supremacist
organizations, few whites in the United States claim to be racist.63 The
companion colorblind rhetoric is in fact a form of racism that had
facilitated the re-articulation of once-defeated justification for racial
stratification as a statement in support of social justice. The co-optation by
57
See Candace West & Sarah Fenstermaker, Power, Inequality, and the Accomplishment of
Gender: An Ethnomethodolgical View, in THEORY ON GENDER/FEMINISM ON THEORY 151, 15455
(Paula England ed., 1993) (noting that, in regard to gender studies, empirical descriptions of the male
role and female role have tended to treat [W]hite middle-class persons experiences as prototypical,
relegating departures from these prototypes to the status of deviant cases, which reduce[s] the
explanatory utility of this approach in accounting for the diversity of gender relations across different
groups).
58
See CORNEL WEST, RACE MATTERS 3549 (1993) (criticizing the appointment of Clarence
Thomas to the Supreme Court because his race was emphasized before his qualifications, and noting
that Black leaders are caught in a framework of racial reasoning that does not allow them to directly
address manipulative language).
59
See Mario Luis Small et al., Reconsidering Culture and Poverty, ANNALS AM. ACAD. POL. &
SOC. SCI., May 2010, at 6, 23 (acknowledging the importance of macrostructural conditions, such as
the concentration of wealth and income[] [and] the spatial segregation across classes and racial groups
in explaining the reproduction of poverty).
60
ALDON D. MORRIS, THE ORIGINS OF THE CIVIL RIGHTS MOVEMENT: BLACK COMMUNITIES
ORGANIZING FOR CHANGE, at xi (1984).
61
See HUEY P. NEWTON, REVOLUTIONARY SUICIDE 11415 (1973) (discussing how the Black
Panther Party used the law to support its community and arm its patrols).
62
See Crenshaw, Twenty Years, supra note 4, at 1288 (describing academic works that had
significant foundational influences on Critical Race Theory and observing that [Critical Race Theory]
emerged not only as a critical intervention in a particular institutional contestation over race but also as
a race intervention in a critical space).
63
EDUARDO BONILLA-SILVA, RACISM WITHOUT RACISTS: COLOR-BLIND RACISM AND THE
PERSISTENCE OF RACIAL INEQUALITY IN THE UNITED STATES 1 (2003).

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the right wing in the words of Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr. is only one
example of this trend.64
The conservative project of associating colorblindness with racial
enlightenment and racial justice advocacy with grievance politics65 is a
blatant right-wing move, however, the so-called universal programs and
universal politics advocated by liberals and many progressives alike are
equally conservative.66 A more radical perspective views race as a
problem to be overcome. From this point of view, consciousness of race is
necessary. This consciousness is fundamental in order to arrive at racial
change. The elimination of racial consciousness should be accompanied
by the abolishment of racial discrimination, exclusion, and domination.
How this process is articulated in different fields of study, however, is
determined by the specific dynamics within that discipline. Crenshaw
aptly describes the struggle with Critical Legal Studies and Feminist
Critical Legal Studies to maintain a kind of racial consciousness in law that
gave birth to the CRT movement.67 The twenty-four people who were
attending the foundational CRT workshop were by definition the
individuals who defined a kind of racial consciousness as a necessary
element in fostering and understanding the contested position of those in
power with racialized minorities in a position of subjugation.68
In the general context, critical race research is based on the
epistemology of racial emancipation and examines the practices of racial
power and works towards the elimination of the effects of White
supremacy.69 As part of this kind of research the critical race perspective is
informed by the experiences of the many racialized groups in the world
suffering from the various forms of white supremacy. CRT, along with the
like-minded critical theorists of race in sociology, is in solidarity in its
aspirations for social justice of oppressed people everywhere. The CRT
movement is also in solidarity with the aspirations of human rights and
social justice.
What we have called the epistemology of racial
emancipation elsewhere is not subsumed by the universal projects of
human rights, world citizenship, or class equality, but seeks to elevate
these projects beyond some of their historically based limitations.70 In
64

For more examples of these frames of colorblind racism, see id., at 2552.
See Crenshaw, Twenty Years, supra note 4, at 1315.
66
See William Julius Wilson, The New Social Inequality and Affirmative Opportunity, in THE
NEW MAJORITY: TOWARD A POPULAR PROGRESSIVE POLITICS 57, 7475 (Theda Skocpol & Stanley B.
Greenberg eds., 1997) (advocating for new, universal social programs that address racial inequality).
67
See Crenshaw, Twenty Years, supra note 4, at 128991 (describing the struggle over race in
Critical Legal Studies and the eventual conscious emergence of Critical Race Theory).
68
See id. at 126264 (describing the unifying characteristics of the individuals who attended the
first Critical Race Theory workshop).
69
See Zuberi & Bonilla-Silva, Telling the Real Tale, supra note 6, at 33539
70
See id. at 33035 (describing the features of the epistemology of racial liberation and
expressing support for the acceptance of group differences to encourage universal participation in
social and political institutions). For examples of the social science research that has attempted this,
65

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effect, most critical theorists of race in sociology would agree wholeheartedly with Crenshaws critical assessment of Barack Obamas A More
Perfect Union speech as a post-racialist gloss on colorblindness.71 The
social reality of the persistence of poverty, violence in the inner city, the
unprecedented high Black and Brown unemployment rates, the staggering
rates of incarceration, the deals with the rich and powerful, and the failure
to represent the interests of the poor and colored who voted in
unprecedented numbers is an indication that colorblindness is just that,
blind to the realities of minority rights and in solidarity with elite power.
Critical social scientists on racial matters provide data, arguments,
counter-narratives, and all sorts of intellectual ammunition against
dominant representations of racial groups and racial inequality. I have
suggested above that the legacy and history of their research, which goes
back as far Du Boiss The Philadelphia Negro,72 continues today as
political scientists, economists, sociologists, and anthropologists attempt to
engage their disciplines in a way similar to that which can be seen in the
CRT movement in law.73 To accomplish this task, critical social scientists
have been race-conscious and engaged in a systematic analysis of racial
stratification and its effects.74 An academically neutral or even liberal
sociologist cannot adequately do the job.75 Legal efforts to unmask the
ways in which racism stifles the chances of people of color finds its
articulation in the CRT movement. In sociology, the movement led to the
formation of the Association of Black Sociologists and the Society for the
Study of Social Problems. In political science, it led to the National
Conference of Black Political Scientists. In economics, it led to the
formation of the National Economic Association. In anthropology, it led to
the Association of Black Anthropologists.
I have not attempted to be encyclopedic or panoramic in the empirical
presentation of this paper. Rather, the examples I have used are
see ERNESTO LACLAU & CHANTAL MOUFFE, HEGEMONY AND SOCIALIST STRATEGY: TOWARDS A
RADICAL DEMOCRATIC POLITICS 35 (Winston Moore & Paul Cammack trans., 1985); MARK Q.
SAWYER, RACIAL POLITICS IN POST-REVOLUTIONARY CUBA, at xviixix (2006); GERHARD SCHUTTE,
WHAT RACISTS BELIEVE: RACE RELATIONS IN SOUTH AFRICA AND THE UNITED STATES 1, 510
(1995); IRIS MARION YOUNG, JUSTICE AND THE POLITICS OF DIFFERENCE 8, 1013 (1990).
71
Crenshaw, Twenty Years, supra note 4, at 1324.
72
W.E.B. DU BOIS, The Philadelphia Negro: A Social Study, in PUBLICATIONS OF THE
UNIVERSITY OF PENNSYLVANIA: SERIES IN POLITICAL ECONOMY AND PUBLIC LAW (1899).
73
Crenshaw, Twenty Years, supra note 4, at 125657 & nn.37.
74
See Jerry Kang, Trojan Horses of Race, 118 HARV. L. REV. 1489, 159192 (2005) ([L]egal
analysts, social cognitionists . . . evolutionary psychologists, neurobiologists, computer scientists,
political scientists, and behavioral (law and) economists cooperate to deepen our understanding of
human behavior generally and racial mechanics specifically, with an eye toward practical solutions.).
75
See, e.g., W.E.B. Du Bois, Sociology Hesitant, BOUNDARY 2, Fall 2000, at 37, 42 (noting the
shortcomings of the liberal sociological discipline with respect to the study of human actions and that
social scientists should not hesitate to seek social transformation as a consequence of their social
findings); Zuberi & Bonilla-Silva, Telling the Real Tale, supra note 6, at 329, 331 (noting the criticisms
and shortcomings of the sociology of race relations (internal quotation marks omitted)).

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illustrative. A true, critical social scientist necessarily investigates human

experience within the broader context of world society.76 Such a
perspective attempts to help us develop a true critical human science. In
this way, social sciences are part of what Crenshaw refers to as
uncovering the epistemic foundations of white supremacy as well as the
habits of disciplinary thought that cabin competing paradigms through
colorblind conventions.77
To conclude, then, CRT sets out to change the social world. It is a
challenge across disciplinary silos to fashion a more integrated and
common sense account of how race shapes social life.78 Consequently, a
true critical theory of race requires that we disarrange the current social
order and challenge the terms and language in which this reality is
described. The social and economic realities of race must be changed by
our actions. Mutual understanding or the development of friendships
across racial groups cannot change racial realities; the erasure of humanity
that race has brought to bear cannot be clearly understood except in the
exact measure in which we engaged in social activity to transform its social
basis. CRT is the process by which two forces, which are by definition
opposed to each other, culminate in the re-articulation of what it means to
be human.79
The CRT movement in law reaffirms that a truly critical racial theory
requires theorists to participate in the modification of social reality. This
tradition of collaboration allowed social scientists to support the U.S.
Supreme Courts decision in Brown v. Board of Education.80 Crenshaws
broader perspective calls for a leftist critique that works within and across
disciplinary boundaries while molding a new consensus around racial
justice and human equality.81 Her perspective privileges the human over
the racialized individual and the discipline in which the researcher works.82
CRT in law has taken a tremendous step forward through its recognition as
a movement, as well as through the collaboration of likeminded individuals
76
See, e.g., W.E.B. DU BOIS, BLACK FOLK, THEN AND NOW: AN ESSAY IN THE HISTORY AND
SOCIOLOGY OF THE NEGRO RACE, at vii-ix (H. Holt & Co. 1939) (stating that I have for the last six
years interested myself in trying to promote an Encyclopaedia [sic] of the Negro; an effort to ascertain
and publish the verifiable history and social condition of the Negro race, according to the best
scholarship of the world, regardless of race, nation or color).
77
Crenshaw, Twenty Years, supra note 4, at 1347.
78
Id. at 134849 (quoting Letter from Claude Steele and Kimberl Williams Crenshaw (May 7,
2009)).
79
See supra notes 1015 and accompanying text.
80
347 U.S. 483 (1954).
81
See Crenshaw, Twenty Years, supra note 4, at 1262 (The opportunity presented now is for
scholars across . . . disciplines not only to reveal how disciplinary conventions themselves constitute
racial power, but also to provide an inventory of the critical tools developed over time to weaken and
potentially dismantle them.).
82
See id. at 1261 (stating that CRT is not so much an intellectual unit filled with natural stuff
theories, themes, practices and the likebut one that is dynamically constituted by a series of
contestations and convergences pertaining to the ways that racial power is understood).

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83

and traditions of other disciplines. This new self-conscious action could

lead to a type of socially engaging scholarship.

83
See id. at 1299 (That opportunity finally came when a critical mass of minority scholars who
had been active in CLS came together for an extended time period at the University of Wisconsin. . . .
With the alignment of a working concept and institutional resources, the first CRT Workshop became a
reality.).