The chapter presents facts connected with general theories on memory.

There
could be information found about major types of memory: short-term, working and
long-term memory. The types not only are described in a scientific way but also
explained carefully in terms of teaching vocabulary as well. All the terms which appear
in the chapter are precisely explained by various authors and scientists. Forgetting is
also a part of memory and it is analysed in this chapter. It is significant to know how
words are remembered, mostly by learners of a foreign language. There are some tips
given of how data is possessed by students and what they should do in order to store
lexical items for a long time and make vocabulary never forgotten. Moreover, theories
on mnemonics and its use are described as well.

1.1. Memory theories

According to Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English (2003) memory is
someones ability to remember things, places, experiences etc. Another source gives
the explanation that memory includes not only the conditioned reflex but also the
ability to remember one face out of a thousand that have been seen, the ability to
memorize a poem, the ability to demonstrate an improved throwing arm, and the ability
to find ones way around an old neighborhood (Squire, 1987: 3).
The first research on memory was done by Plato (427-347 BC) as he explained
the workings of memory using the metaphor of the wax tablet. The tablets were used
to store information in forms of imprints. Then, repetitions could make the information
increased while neglect made them disappear. The metaphor seems to be very clear and
simple to understand the idea of memory itself. How does forgetting occur in such a
case? The wax consistency is the key factor in terms of memory length. Memory can
last longer when the wax is hard but information is hard intended on it. It is easier to
indent when the wax is soft but then memory lives shorter. However, the theory does not
describe the brains ability to use memory to access newly gathered information and it is
a need to describe another one (Morris, 1978: 3-6).
Todays research on memory is being mainly done by psychologists.
Neurosciences helped describe the functioning of the brain. A very experimental study
connected with memory was done by Ebbinghaus (1850-1909) and Wundt (1832-1920).
Ebbinghaus learned to memorize meaningless sets of letters (e.g. CAG, WAW vowel
1

between two consonants) and tried to recall them after a certain period of time. It was
the mechanical repetition. He proved and showed the relationship between learning
time, amount of repetitions and memory durability. Ebbinghaus also showed the process
of remembering and forgetting when time was responsible for the loss of information
in his memory (Morris, 1978: 12).
The research done by Ebbinghaus was very influential on the concept of
mnemonics which, in the 19th century, was a basic study of learning purposes. Instead of
learning purposes rote learning became the main object of memory research and the
idea of learning nonsense syllables perfectly eliminated images or elaboration appeared
(Paivio, 1971: 1). However, nonsense syllables were an artificial material with no
meaning and this limited the research. That is the reason why Bartlett used more natural
context in his research (Bartlett, 1932: 227-235). His studies proved that meaning is a
central factor to human memory and is necessary for mnemonic and cognitive learning
strategies. It was not only developed by Bartlett but also Alexander and Judy (1988:
375-404) played a vital role in the research.
The later years of 1940s and 1950s put an end to memory and imagery research.
Stimulus response paradigm was the key factor in behaviourism. Remembering in
imagery has neither unique instigating stimuli nor unique behavioural signs. Learning to
use imagery terms would therefore derive mainly from induction or stimulus
generalization (Paivio, 1971: 1). This school proved that habit forming became a
leading learning strategy.
The issue of learning has been addressed to cognitive psychologists in recent
times. The main idea of the cognitive researchers is to find ways of understanding
learners cognitive processes. Among the cognitive theories, there is a concept of
mnemonics within which Keyword Method (KWM) appears as well. The method is
very effective and helpful in memorising learning material (Sperber, 1989: 12).
Nowadays, KWM is not used as a systematic method in learning a language, however it
is a learning strategy that is used by some individuals. The reason why the method has
not come into being was that many linguists and educators stated that the method was
not a scientific one and it could not be applied widely.
In psychology, the era of Behaviouristic Blitzkrieg came to an end in 1950s. It
was also the time when cognitivism came into being as a study of memory (Hrees,
1985: 2444). An idea of cognition created two separate storage systems created by
Brown (1958: 12-21) and Peterson and Peterson (1959: 193-198). The storage system
2

was based on a long-term store where interference affects retention and a short-term
store where the decay of the memory trace affects retention.
The human memory is obviously much more flexible than a library system
(Metzig and Schuster, 1998: 22).

1.1.1

Working (short-term) memory

Short-term memory (STM), as the name itself indicates, concerns keeping

information for a short time (seconds, minutes). Pollacks experiments (1952: 765-769)
were developed by Miller (1956: 81-97) who stated that the short-term memory cannot
process more than 7+/-2 items of information. However, the idea was extended by
Schacter (2001: 27) who proved that information ought to be presented in appropriate
blocks of 7+/-2 items. However, the term short-term memory was replaced with
working memory (WM) by Baddely and Hitch (1974) and Baddely, Lewis and Villar
(1984: 439) with the components: central executive, phonological lop, sketchpad.
Another aspect of the theory was added by Salame and Baddely (1982: 150) and it was
the primary acoustic store. As Baddeley, A. D., and Hitch, G. J. (1974) presented, the
central executive is some kind of a short-term processor which includes problemsolving functions and it means it has cognitive and meta-cognitive functions.
Working memory (WM) is involved in language acquisition. The assumption
was proved by Gathercole (1994: 51) and Schacter (2001: 30). Generally, there are two
slave systems. One of them keeps verbal material (the phonological loop) which is
often named as the inner voice as well. Another system retains visual or spatial
characteristics, so called the inner eye (Gathercole, 1994: 51). It was discovered by
Gathercole (1994) that the phonological loop and word learning are clearly linked. The
phonological loop turns out to be a gateway to acquiring new vocabulary. The loop
helps us to put together the sounds of novel words (Schacter, 2001: 30). Some
advantages of mnemonics can be seen from the terms inner voice and inner eye in the
reliance on imagery. While learning vocabulary issues, a supplementary slave system
is used by imagery.
Baddeley created the model of working memory where he stated that the shortterm memory has a limited duration and information decays over time. It could be
overcome and information can be retained for longer but information must be repeated
3

either read loudly or it can be mentally simulated. For some researchers spontaneous
decay is an important part in forgetting over the short term (Lewandowsky ed. 2004,
771-790).

1.1.2

Long term memory

All the information, that is needed to be learnt, ought to be transferred into long-

term memory (LTM). Cognitivists had a chance to show what they can do when it
comes to the matter of how long-term memory operates. Encoding processes of how
information is retrieved from the store and transfer of information from LTM to STM
were also a matter for cognitive researchers (Mayer, 1998).
Some pre-existing information is the core thing to be found in the LTM in order
to attach the new information. As vocabulary is concerned it means finding some
element already in the mental lexicon to relate the new lexical information to (Schmitt,
2000: 132). Such an element is the keyword in the native language. Rohrer (1984: 1617) also distinguishes LTM into the one that concerns active memory (information to be
retrieved) and inactive memory (information to be recognized). Its equivalent in
language learning is the active and passive lexicon.
Two types of long-term memory were proposed by Tulving (1972): semantic and
episodic memory. These two kinds are pieces of the declarative memory which depends
on propositional representations that complements. The semantic memory is for
meaning (Reber, 1995: 449). However, Tulving (1972) defines it as a system for
transmitting, receiving and retaining information. It means that, according to the author,
semantic memory seems to be something similar to foreign language learnt by someone.
Episodic memory is about where, how and when the information is picked up (Reber,
1995: 447). In other words, it matters feelings like first love, for example. Another kinds
are: procedural memory (responsible for automatic cognitive skills, like e.g. riding a
bike), and priming memory (exposures to a stimulus influences response to a later
stimulus), e.g. river will prime one meaning of bank (Reber, 1995: 597).
It shows that different brain parts does not represent different types of memory
but some prefrontal activations of working, episodic and semantic memory occur
(Nyberg et al., 2003: 371-377).

1.1.3

Storage model
Peoples memory has been described as a storehouse for years. In the past, the

one who treated memory in such a way was Locke (1632 1704) who named memory
as the storehouse of our ideas (Locke John, 2009: 263). In modern times two authors:
Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968: 82-90) are connected with the storage model.
Three categories that the storage models distinguish are: ultra-short-term, shortterm and long-term memory. Lindsay and Norman (1981) named the ultra-short-term
memory as sensory one which concerns receiving sensory information. Irrelevant
information is also filtered thanks to ultra-short-memory. An example of that could be
passing cars on a road. As it was discussed above, short-term memory passes useful
information, from the STM to the LTM. The long-term memory has no limited capacity.
It was also proved that information stored in the long-term memory can stay there
indefinitely. However, information can be lost but hypnosis is a way of retrieving lost
information. Data in the LTM could be stored and resistant to retrieval but under some
conditions. Huge amounts of information can be stored by cognition (Lindsay and
Norman, 1981). It is much easier to retrieve information when more references are
available. Although, it is an obvious thing that memory not only store verbal
information but the other ones as well. Buried or lost information can be much easily
retrieved when it was learned with mnemonics. It means that data that we have on the
tip of the tongue is a phenomenon of retrieving information in a simpler way
(Kaminska, 2002). What is interesting and surprising is the fact that many of us are not
able to remember a word, even we are familiar with it, even though it is possible to
remember its gender or meaning (Brown & McNeil, 1966).
There are different theories of how information is stored and processed in the
long-term memory. Some researchers state that it happens by rehearsal, i.e. the action of
continuous repetitions. (Craik & Lockhart, 1972; Seamon, 1980) while the others does
not support the idea (Craik & Watkins, 1973).

1.1.4

Forgetting
While discussing memory, the study of forgetting is necessary to be mentioned.

Gairns and Redmann (1993) admit that spontaneous decay is the cause of forgetting
5

data in the sensory register in the STM. The cause is alo that new information comes to
our brains. When it comes to teaching vocabulary, it is a teachers role to anchor lexical
items in the long-term memory. Information, in the LTM, may be disused and that is
another reason why we forget. The authors (Gairns and Redmann, 1993) also state that
another view, when it comes to forgetting, is the interference. The aspect was extended
by Spear (1978: 44) who said about proactive interference (information added
previously) and retroactive interference (information stored later). The problem is in the
recalling because information is not lost. The notion of the failure in recalling is called
cue-dependent forgetting. This is a problem of retrieval, not of storage (Gairns and
Redmann, 1993: 89).
Theories of memory are very hard to be discussed. It is not fully possible to get
inside the brain and get to know how memory works. The theories have become very
popular among psychologists and neuroscientists. Thanks to their inspiration a new
theory of connectionism appeared (Persson, 1995).
The theory of connectionism is treated to be a framework of cognition, not a specific
or unitary model (Persson, 1995: 15). That is quite a modern theory that mostly relies
on computer technology and its main aim is to stimulate brain processes. Computers
imitate neurons (units), axons and synapses and, what is more, these networks is able to
learn. This learning concerns changing the weights or strength of connections between
units in order to change the way in which the network will process inputs on
subsequent occasions (Bechtel & Abrahamsen, 1991: 70). The past-tense model of
acquisition by Rumelhart and McClelland (1986) proved that a simulation is possible.
The model showed some features of humans language acquisition. Similar conclusions
were reached by Plunkett and Marchmann (1989). The acquisition of German definite
articles was simulated by Taraban et al. (1989). In the field of connectionism, all the
language acquisition models deal with language learning in general however, not
learning a foreign language. For connectionists, learning a foreign language is other
learning which deals with repeated input or explicit teaching.
Definitely, connectionism is a very specialised branch of science. However, it is
the one that can be very useful and needed in many fields. Connectionism has
knowledge from the neurosciences in computer models and it is definitely a
contribution to the memory understanding.

1.2. How words are remembered

As opposed to grammar learning, vocabulary study is mostly based on
remembering individual items, not a rule-based system. Thornbury (2007: 13) gives
three types of memory: short-term, working, and long-term one, but in terms of learning
vocabulary. The author (2007) states that holding words in our minds for a few seconds
(STM) is not an effective way of learning lexis. In order to be a successful learner a lot
of operations need to take place in a humans brain.
The function of working memory is the one that can perform such operations.
Reasoning, understanding and mostly learning are cognitive tasks and they depend on
working memory. Thornbury (2007) explains how working memory works. He says that
when we, as learners, hear a word, e.g. tangi, we try to find in our long-term memory a
similar word which could be tango and decide if it is the same or different. But
material remains in a working memory for about twenty seconds (Thornbury, 2007:
23).
The long-term memory, unlike the working one, has an unlimited capacity and
its contests can be durable for a long time. But, a very important matter is seen by
Thornbury (2007). The author says that in fact long-term memory can retain a lot of
information permanently but students who learn new lexical items the length of a lesson
forget them next time the lesson is and it suggests that long-term memory is not always
as long as we would wish it. It occupies a continuum from the quickly forgotten to
the never forgotten (Thornbury, 2007: 24). The core thing is to remember words to be
never forgotten and research on lexis learning give the tips of how words should be
remembered:
Repetition words that are constantly remembered have a chance to be in
the LTM for a long time. Repetition should be taken by reading. At first

words are in working memory but later become never forgotten.

Retrieval it is also a kind of repetition. When a learner retrieves a word

from his/her memory, it makes it more likely to be recalled again later.

Spacing memory work should not be massed together but it is better
when it is distributed in a period of time. The principle is also known as
distributed practice which means that teaching a new set of words. It is a
good idea to show the first two/three items, test them, then present more
items and test them again and so on. Then, vocabulary items are presented
and remembered gradually.

Pacing each student has his/her own pace of work which means that
teachers ought to allow time, while lexical items learning, to do memory

work.
Use presenting words in an interesting way in order to remember them

more easily.
Cognitive depth it could be based on rhyming. It is a good way because
students have an opportunity to remember words very fast. For example

teachers could rhyme tango with mango etc.

Personal organising if judgements of words are personalised by learners
it is much better for them to memorize vocabulary. It was proved that
words that were repeated in sentences loudly brought better results than

rehearsing them silently.

Imaging mental picture that appears in learners minds. Words that are

visualised are remembered fast and in a better way.

Mnemonics it is based on some tricks that help retrieve information or
rules which are stored in memory but they are not automatically

retrievable. The most effective kinds of mnemonics are visual ones.

Motivation it helps learners spend more time doing rehearsal and
practice. Motivated students learn fast and their willing can become a

crucial fact in learning lexical items.

Attention/arousal learners can improve their knowledge by conscious
attention. Words that stir up learners emotions can be much more easily

recalled than the ones which are unimportant for them.

Affective depth it relates to affective information that is stored with
cognitive data. Learners make cognitive judgements about words, and this
is an important factor, but it is also vital that students make affective
(emotional) judgements. (Thornbury, 2007: 24-26)

As it is seen, Thornbury (2007) gave many useful tips how to store lexical data
for a long time and create it never forgotten. Teachers should help their students find
appropriate ways of remembering information.
1.2.1. Mnemonics: methods, strategies or techniques?
Mnemonic means something such as a poem or a sentence that you use to help
you remember a rule, a name etc. The word comes from mnemonikos, from
mimneskesthai to remember from the Greek language (Longman Dictionary of
Contemporary English 2003). Another dictionary gives the definition of mnemonics as
8

it

is

something intended to assist the memory, as a verse or

formula

<http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/mnemonic>.
Alexander and Judy (1988) state that the term strategy is still hard to define
which encompasses learners cognitive attitudes. The term does not have specificity
and can be treated as a fuzzy one (Wellman, 1983: 31-51). Learners are engaged in
strategic time-monitoring, mnemonic devices, elaboration labelling and revision
techniques.
What is interesting is the fact that the KWM (Keyword Method) was classified as
strategy (Ott, Butler, Blake, and Ball, 1973: 148.), procedure (Raugh and Atkinson,
1975: 1), method (Pressley, Levin, Hall, Miller, and Berry, 1980: 22), technique
(Paivio and Desrochers, 1981: 17), and approach (Stoller & Grabe, 1993: 10).
Sometimes it could be confusing because researchers use the terms interchangeably.
However, Rodgers (1995: 15-16) makes distinction between approach, method and
technique.
Approach is the level at which assumptions and beliefs about language and language
learning are specified; method is the level at which theory is put into practice and at
which choices are made about the particular skills to be taught, the content to be taught,
and the order in which the content will be presented; technique is the level at which
classroom procedures are described (ibid).
Larsen-Freeman (1986) criticizes the narrow description of the terms presented by
Rodgers (1995). There were attempts to substitute the term of technique with another
term procedure. Classroom techniques are encompassed by procedures and it is
explained by Hubbard et al. (1990). The author (1990) also defines that a method is a set
of procedures or systematically used collection of techniques.
This became a vital definition for the KWM. We can argue that using mnemonic
devices such as keywords is non-systematic without understanding mnemonics as
technique. However, if the KWM is used systematically it can be treated as a method.
1.2.2. Use of mnemonics
It has been checked for years what learning strategies are used by language
learners. Now, it seems to be necessary to see how mnemonics cope with it.
In the study done by OMalley et al. (1985: 21-46) it was proved that out of 297
beginners did not use keywords. There were only 149 of them who did it. Another study,
9

done by the same authors (1990) found out that there were only 4% of learners who
used deduction, recombination and keywords. However, 600 Japanese learners were
surveyed by Schmitt (1997). He prepared the questionnaire to find out what 40 learning
strategies seem to be satisfactory for them. It turned out that the KWM appeared in 38 th
place as most/least helpful strategy. But, it is well-known that some cultures base on
repetitions, e.g. Japanese culture. The survey is often criticised to be narrow. Another
study was done by Sperber (1989) who wanted to check if mnemonics is used in
Western Europe and North America. He sent the questionnaire to about 10.000 teachers
and it turned out that 2% of them use some forms of mnemonics, which was positive. In
2001 Griffith and Parr did research with learners and teachers. The results were quite
surprising because teachers claimed that memory strategies are most frequently used by
their students which was not the truth. It means that teachers and learners opinions
vary a lot and OMalley et al. (1985) reached the same conclusions. However, teachers
ought to be aware of the strategies they students apply because only then educators can
find appropriate strategies for their learners.
Mnemonics can be successfully used in courses where technical items are
taught, the items which are difficult to be remembered. In teaching materials or
methodology books, the Keyword Method is not often described. Teachers need to
become convinced of mnemonics which could be the best strategy for learning
vocabulary. Mnemonics and other memory strategies were recommended by Rubin and
Thompson (1982) as the characteristic strategies for good learners.
A good way of remembering lists is to make them easily remembered, e.g. by
acronyms, phrases with an acronym or passwords. It should be based on as many
associations as possible, e.g. the rainbow would be useful to remember the names of
colours (Red, Orange, Yellow, Green, Blue, Indigo, Violet). Another useful tip is to use
zoology mnemonic to remember the classification like: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order,
Family, Genus, Species.
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