BAR-ILAN UNIVERSITY

Job Satisfaction and Well-Being and their Association with Personal,

Organizational and Community Resources among Charedi and Secular
Female Social Workers

Rachel Goodstein

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Masters

Degree in the Louis and Gabi Weisfeld School of Social Work, Bar-Ilan University

Ramat Gan, Israel

2012

This work was carried out under the supervision Professor Nehami Baum and Dr. Chaya
Schwartz (The Louis and Gabi Weisfeld School of Social Work), Bar-Ilan University.

Acknowledgements
I would like to thank Hashem for giving me the following blessings that enabled me
to complete this study.
My mentors Dr. Chaya Shwartz and Nehami Baum opened the door of research to me
and encouraged me to step through it. They are kind, smart, diplomatic, humble and patient.
Thank you for giving of yourselves and teaching me how to truly appreciate criticism.
Mr. Dov Har-Even explained every question I had about the results, many times
twice. I am grateful to him that I am now able to critically read the latest research and share
it with others.
The scholarship committee of Bar Ilan University which gave me generous grants
which helped offset some of my expenses.
Rabbanit Adina Bar-Shalom with the help of Bar Ilan University for actualizing her
vision and dream in the establishment of the Michlala Charedit where I was privileged to be
from the first graduating class of social workers.
The city of Modiin Ilit and especially my boss Miki Miller and supervisor Esti
Huminor for enabling me to continue my studies and helping me to grow professionally.
My wonderful husband, Dovid, who after a long day of work was available to type,
layout, field phone calls, encourage me and financially support this undertaking.
Our fabulous children, Mordechai and Leah, Talya and Daniel, Moshe, Binyomin,
Shlomo, Chaya, Sara Kayla and Yehuda who shopped, cooked, cleaned, made jokes and
even showed interest in what I was doing.
My good friend Yael Edelstein who encouraged me, listened to theories, believed in
me and kept me nourished.

ii

Table of Contents
Abstract................................................................................................................................. vii
1.

Introduction..................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Job Satisfaction ......................................................................................................... 3
1.2 Well-being ................................................................................................................ 5
1.3 Theoretical Model..................................................................................................... 6
1.4 Professional self-esteem ........................................................................................... 7
1.5 Support...................................................................................................................... 9
1.6 Colleague Support..................................................................................................... 9
1.7 Supervisory Support ............................................................................................... 10
1.8 Perceived environmental and family support of the profession ............................. 11
1.9 Study Questions and Model.................................................................................... 13
1.10 Study Hypotheses ................................................................................................... 14

2.

Methods.......................................................................................................................... 15
2.1 Participants.............................................................................................................. 15
2.2 Measures ................................................................................................................. 16
2.3 Procedure ................................................................................................................ 20

3.

Results ............................................................................................................................ 21
3.1 Part 1: Differences between Charedi and secular social workers ........................... 21
3.2 Part 2: Associations between the independent and dependent variables ................ 25
3.3 Part 3: Hierarchical regression analyses of job satisfaction and well-being........... 30

4.

Discussion ...................................................................................................................... 43
4.1 Part 1: Differences between Charedi and secular social workers.......................... 43
4.2 Part 2: Associations between the dependent and independent variables ............... 45
4.2.1

Perceived environmental and family support of the profession and

well-being .................................................................................................. 45
iii

4.2.2

Perceived environmental support of the profession and intrinsic job

satisfaction ................................................................................................. 45

4.2.3

Supervisory support and intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction, and

well-being .................................................................................................. 46

4.2.4

Professional self-esteem and intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction,

and well-being ........................................................................................... 46

4.2.5

Colleague support and job satisfaction and well-being ............................. 47

4.2.6

Perceived Environmental and family support of the profession and

intrinsic job satisfaction and well-being among Charedi and secular
social workers ............................................................................................ 48

4.2.7

Personal and professional characteristics, intrinsic and extrinsic job

satisfaction, and well-being ....................................................................... 49

4.3 Part 3: Interactions and factors that explain intrinsic and extrinsic job
satisfaction, and well-being................................................................................... 50
4.4 Limitations .............................................................................................................. 54
4.5 Recommendations for social work practice............................................................ 55
Bibliography ......................................................................................................................... 56
Appendix 1

Demographics Questionnaire - Charedi .................................................. 64

Appendix 2

Demographics Questionnaire - Secular ................................................... 66

Appendix 3

Supervisory Support Questionnaire......................................................... 68

Appendix 4

Extrinsic Job Satisfaction Questionnaire................................................. 69

Appendix 5

Professional Self-Esteem Questionnaire .................................................. 70

Appendix 6

Intrinsic Job Satisfaction Questionnaire ................................................. 71

Appendix 7

Well-Being Questionnaire ......................................................................... 72

Appendix 8

Family and Environmental Perception Questionnaire........................... 73

Appendix 9

Colleague Support Questionnaire ............................................................ 74

............ ................................................................................................................

iv

Table of Figures
Figure 1:

Ecological System for Job Satisfaction and Well-being....................................... 7

Figure 2:

Study Model........................................................................................................ 13

Figure 3:

Interaction of Age x Supervision in Explaining the Variance of Intrinsic

Job Satisfaction ................................................................................................... 33

Figure 4:

Interaction of Perceived Family Support of the Profession x Professional

Self-esteem.......................................................................................................... 34

Figure 5:

Structural Equation Model for the Explained Variance of Professional

Self-esteem and Well-being ................................................................................ 38

Figure 6:

Structural Equation Model for Charedi Social Workers ..................................... 39

Figure 7:

Structural Equation Model for Secular Social Workers...................................... 40

Table of Tables
Table 1: Differences between Groups in Age and Number of Children ............................. 15
Table 2: Distribution of Marital Status by Group................................................................ 15
Table 3: Mean and Standard Deviations of Independent Variables among Charedi
and Secular Social Workers .............................................................................. 22
Table 4: Distribution of Professional Characteristics by Group.......................................... 23
Table 5: Work Experience and Weekly Work Hours by Group (Mean and SD)................ 24
Table 6: Dependent Variables by Group ............................................................................. 25
Table 7: Pearson Correlations between the Independent Variables of Job
Satisfaction and Well-being, N = 186 ............................................................... 26
Table 8: Differences between Groups in Correlations of Perceived Environmental
and Family Support of the Profession with the Dependent Variables .................. 27
Table 9: Pearson Correlations between Personal and Professional Characteristics
and the Dependent Variables................................................................................. 28
Table 10: Hierarchical Regression Analysis of Intrinsic Job Satisfaction (beta
coefficients ............................................................................................................ 31
Table 11: Hierarchical Regression Analysis of Extrinsic Job Satisfaction (beta
coefficients) ........................................................................................................... 35
Table 12: Hierarchical Regression Analysis of Well-being (beta coefficients) .................... 36

vi

Abstract
It is not within the norms of Charedi society for women to study any profession that
requires a university degree, making Charedi social workers pioneers within their culture and
a new population that has entered the profession. The goal of this study was to examine
factors that contribute to the job satisfaction and well-being of Charedi and secular female
social workers, and to examine whether there are differences between these. Based on
Bronfenbrenners Ecological Systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1977), this study examined
the associations and influences of the social workers personal resource (professional selfesteem), organizational resources (colleague and supervisory support) and community
resources (perceived family and environmental support of the profession) to job satisfaction
and well-being.
Method: 188 female social workers, with at least one year of professional, field
experience, participated in the study: 102 Charedi and 86 secular. The participants filled out
a questionnaire that included the following 8 subscales: demographic; supervisory
support ( 1989 , ;) extrinsic job satisfaction ( 1989 , ;) professional selfesteem ( Carmel, 1997); intrinsic job satisfaction (Brayfield & Rothe, 1951); well being
(Tennant et al, 2007); perceived family and environmental support of the profession (Baum
et al, in press); colleague support( 1989 ,) .
Results: Both groups of social workers reported high levels of job satisfaction and
well-being. Significant correlations were found across the entire sample between:
1) professional self-esteem, supervisory support and the measures of job satisfaction
(intrinsic, extrinsic) and well-being; and 2) perceived environmental support of the
profession and intrinsic job satisfaction and well-being; 3) perceived family support of the
profession and well-being.

vii

Professional self-esteem contributed significantly to the well-being of both groups.

Among Charedi social workers, intrinsic job satisfaction and perceived environmental
support of the profession contributed to professional self-esteem. Among secular social
workers, perceived family and environmental support of the profession, and supervisory
support, contributed to professional self-esteem. The correlations were much stronger among
the secular social workers than among the Charedi social workers.
This study, a first of its kind among Charedi social workers, emphasizes the
significance of perceived positive family and environmental support of the profession, and
adds to the existing body of knowledge on the significance of supervision. The findings of
this study can be used to promote further research and the establishment of programs that
identify the unique characteristics, and are sensitive to the needs, of both Charedi and secular
social workers.

viii

1.

Introduction
Charedim or ultra-orthodox Jews are a minority population within Israeli society.

This population is identified by: (a) a lifestyle based on Judaism and stringent adherence
to Jewish law; (b) acceptance of certain Rabbis as the leaders of the generation; c)
geographic separation; d) identifiable dress (men wear black skullcaps, dark pants and
white dress shirts with tzizit; women wear modest dresses or skirts and shirts, and
stockings; and cover their hair if they are married); e) attempts to create an independent
financial income (Rabbis, teachers, businesses within the community, mohel, ritual
slaughterer); and (f) an independent school system (2007 ,). The Charedi movement
is not homogenous, but comprised of different groups, approaches and ideologies,
characterized mainly as a movement trying to protect itself from the surrounding spiritual
and societal threats. These threats are seen as endangering their lifestyle that is based on
stringent adherence to Jewish law (2007 ,). The Charedi community protects itself
by creating separate resources from those of secular society to provide the services that it
requires, without compromising Charedi values. One of the significant resources created
is the Charedi girls school system (2003 ,). The standard educational system for
Charedi girls is the Bait Yaacov network of schools, which starts from pre-school and
extends through high school, with an additional two year teaching seminary track. Some
Bait Yaacov high schools offer matriculation, but without sufficient points for continued
academic study in the various universities. Most Bait Yaacov graduates get married
during or shortly after the two year seminary track and start families immediately. They
financially support their husbands who continue to learn full time in frameworks called
Kollels. In the year 2000, the Council for Higher Education certified the opening of a
special ultra-orthodox college to operate academic programs for the Charedi population.
The first program to be opened was a B.A program in Social work, under the auspices of
1

Bar-Ilan University. This program allowed ultra-Orthodox women to study social work in
a setting that was compatible with the restrictions of the society to which they belong,
while maintaining high academic standards. A similar program, called Mivchar, opened in
Bnei-Brak under the auspices of the University of Haifas School of Social Work. After
10 years of existence, neither of the programs is an accepted alternative to attending a Bait
Yaacov seminary, nor are they accepted norms within the Charedi community. Young
Charedi women who are studying for an academic degree in preparation to working as
social workers are acting contrary to the norms of their society. In addition, an academic
degree can imply a desire to have a career. Work may no longer be about financially
supporting a husband who learns in kollel and a large family but may include selfactualization, independence and career advancement. These attitudes are not cultural
norms for Charedi women but are for secular women (1979 ,).
Job satisfaction and well-being of workers are variables that have been studied by
organizational psychologists for years. Companies are interested in understanding what
contributes to a workers job satisfaction and well-being for a variety of reasons. One of
the reasons is prevention of worker turnover (Cranny, Smith, & Stone, 1992), which is
also an important reason for studying the job satisfaction and well-being of Charedi social
workers. The insular Charedi community is acknowledging that they have problems that
need professional help (2009 ,; 2009 , - , ,), and it is
important that the small percentage of Charedi social workers, who are culturally sensitive
to the communitys values, remain in the profession and provide the necessary
professional help. It is important to understand the factors that contribute to their job
satisfaction and well-being, and whether these differ from those affecting secular social
workers, in light of differences that may exist in their attitudes towards work. This study
also represents the first time that a new minority professional population within Israel

Charedi social workers - were asked about their job satisfaction and well-being. This
study examines the contribution of professional self-esteem, colleague support,
supervisory support, perceived family and environmental support of the profession to the
social workers job satisfaction and well-being.
1.1

Job Satisfaction
Job satisfaction has been examined in the social science literature for many years.

It is believed to affect worker productivity, absenteeism, and turnover. Job satisfaction is

also thought to possibly affect the well-being of the individual in terms of physical and
mental health, and general life satisfaction (Mottaz, 1985). Job satisfaction has been
defined as a pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job or job
experiences (Locke, 1976), assumed to result from an interplay of cognition and affect, or
thoughts and emotions.
Some theories about factors contributing to job satisfaction include aspects of the
job itself and the work environment (Herzberg, Mausner & Snyderman, 1959; Salanick &
Pfeffer, 1978; Smith, Kendall & Hulin, 1969), aspects of the individuals personality
(Arvey, Bouchard, Segal & Abraham, 1989; Ilies & Judge, 2003; Staw & Ross, 1985) or a
combination of both situational influences and individual differences (Locke, 1976).
Social work is known for its heavy workload and difficult clients in difficult
settings (Bennett, Evans & Tattersall, 1993), as well as problems recruiting and retaining
staff, and low job satisfaction (Morris, 2005). Despite this, there is evidence of high job
satisfaction (Rose, 2003). Collins (2008) writes that research has focused on the negatives
in social workers lives, such as job dissatisfaction, absence from work and other physical
and behavioral symptoms of stress, while little attention has been given to expanding on
the positive aspects of work in the profession. For example, a large scale survey of two
thousand social workers indicated that job satisfaction was related to being valued, doing
3

something valuable for the community and having good relationships with colleagues
(Winchester, 2003). Hertzberg (1987) believes that the job factors that produce job
satisfaction differ from those that produce job dissatisfaction. He proposes that the
opposite of job satisfaction is not dissatisfaction but rather no job satisfaction, and that the
opposite of dissatisfaction is not job satisfaction but rather no dissatisfaction. Hertzberg
refers to the factors leading to job satisfaction as motivator factors, and those leading to
no dissatisfaction as hygiene factors. Motivator factors are intrinsic to the job and include
achievement, recognition of achievement, the work itself, responsibility, and growth or
advancement. Hygiene factors are extrinsic to the job and include company policy and
administration, supervision, interpersonal relationships, working conditions, salary, status
and security. Hertzberg (1987) relates extrinsic factors to mans basic biological drives
and intrinsic motivators to mans ability to experience psychological growth. The current
study examined the contribution of colleague and supervisory support, professional selfesteem, and perceived family and environmental support of the profession and their interassociations to intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction.
Judge and Locke (1993) hypothesize that job satisfaction will influence well-being
because of its importance to individuals lives. The centrality of work to individuals
probably derives from the fact that most individuals spend the majority of their waking
hours at work. Having ones identity and time bound to work suggests its importance in
judging happiness and well-being. Russell (2008) writes that work can influence
individuals' judgment of their happiness and well-being as they place importance and
meaning into the work they do. In addition, professionals invest much time, effort and
resources in their training, development of their careers and addressing the demands of
work. It can be assumed that achievements or failures in the work domain can affect
general satisfaction with life (Carmel, 1997). Social workers place value on their work

(Winchester, 2003) and it appears that job satisfaction in this vocation should influence
social workers sense of well-being. This study examines the influence that intrinsic and
extrinsic job satisfaction has on the social workers perception of their well-being.
1.2

Well-being
Well-being has been approached from two different philosophical views in

psychology. The hedonic view equates well-being with pleasure and happiness, or the
balance between positive and negative affect. The eudemonic view, by contrast, defines
well-being in terms of individual strivings to actualize their potential, and find meaning
and purpose in their lives. The hedonic position views feeling good as the key criterion
of well-being, while the eudemonic position is concerned with aspects of thinking and
doing that allow one to lead the good life (Lent & Brown, 2008; Ryan & Deci, 2001).
These views have influenced and formed two distinct schools of research in
positive psychology, with different types of measures. The new hedonic psychology uses
subjective well-being (SWB) as its measure of assessment, while the eudemonic approach
uses psychological well-being (PWB) as its measure of assessment. In this study, wellbeing is defined as a multidimensional phenomenon that includes aspects of both the
hedonic and eudemonic concepts of well-being (Compton, Smith, Cornish & Qualls,
1996; King & Nappa, 1998; McGregor & Little, 1998).
Many factors have been found to relate to worker well-being. An employees work
environment has been found to influence his or her well-being (Russell, 2008). A
combination of personal and environmental influences can act to facilitate or constrain
individual well-being (Warr, 1987). Some environmental influences found in the
workplace that contribute to well-being include interpersonal contact, valued social
position and the opportunity to use ones skills. Some work related factors that have been
found to impact social workers well-being are their work environment (i.e. physical,
5

cultural and systematic), interrelationships at work (i.e. with clients, colleagues and
supervisors), and specific aspects of the job (i.e. factors associated with workload and
type of work) (Shier & Graham, 2010). This study examines some influences that may
contribute to the social workers well-being. Based on literature the variables that will be
examined in relationship to well-being are colleague support (Turner, Borling, &
Zacharatos, 2002), supervisory support (Kadushin & Harkness, 2002), professional selfesteem (Carmel, 1997), perceived family and environmental support of the profession,
intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction.
1.3

Theoretical Model
The research model for this study is based on Urie Bronfenbrenners Ecological

Systems Theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1977, 1979), which addresses the multiple effects and
interrelatedness of social elements in an environment. It is based on the person, the
environment and the continuous interaction of the two. Job satisfaction and well-being, as
any other processes, are embedded in an ecological system in which the components of
the system influence the process. Figure 1 describes an ecological view of job satisfaction
and well-being. Each component in the expanding set of components exerts some
influence on the preceding component, the closer components having the greatest
influence on one another. The more distant the component the less direct, immediate
impact it is likely to exert.

Figure 1: Ecological System for Job Satisfaction and Well-being

Perceived family and environmental support of the profession

Supervisory and colleague support

Intrinsic

Personal resource

Organizational resource

Job satisfaction

Community resources

Personal resource

Well-Being

Organizational resource

Job satisfaction

Extrinsic

Community resources

Professional self-esteem

Professional self esteem

Supervisory and colleague support

Perceived family and environmental support of the profession

1.4

Professional self-esteem
In light of Bronfenbrenners Ecological Systems theory (Bronfenbrenner, 1979)

the variable of professional self-esteem is viewed as a microsystem and a personal

resource in job satisfaction and well-being. Theoretically, specific self-esteem, such as
professional self-esteem, is part of a persons general self-esteem (Rosenberg, Schooler,
Schoenbach, & Rosenberg, 1995). Self-esteem is influenced by different agents across a

persons lifetime (Rosenberg, 1979). In childhood, parents are significant influential

agents, whereas in adolescence, peer and social approval are more important than that of
parents. In adulthood, self-esteem is influenced by colleagues and members of the adults
community. Vocation plays a central role in the lives of professionals (Carmel, 1997).
Professional self-esteem, which indicates self-perceived professional competence, is
proposed as a resource that affects work and well-being. Professional self-esteem is
defined as an individual's attitude about professional competence, performance and worth
along a positive-negative dimension (Carmel, 1997). Bernstein (2000) and Carmel (1997)
examined professional self-esteem amongst doctors and found it to buffer against burnout
and contribute to job and life satisfaction. They also consider that professional self-esteem
can be a significant personal resource for other professionals in coping with stressful
demands inherent in their work. Kadushin & Harkness (2002) write that in most jobs, selfrecognition (confirmed by others) that the work has been well done and the outcome
desirable provides satisfaction to the worker. Social work does not enjoy tangible
measures of success. Social workers often do not know if their interventions have been
successful or made a positive difference. They rarely receive direct confirmation of their
competence from their clients. In most cases, the social worker can only guess if the
objectives have been achieved. Uncertainty regarding achievement of objectives,
combined with rare positive client feedback, can make a worker doubt her competence
and the significance of her work. In addition, the worker is the principal instrument in
helping the client. If, for whatever reason, the worker believes that the facilitative
relationship is not successful, she may focus on the way in which her needs and feelings
intruded on the relationship. Failure can be felt as a reflection on her competence as a
worker. All the above can affect the social workers sense of job satisfaction and wellbeing. It can be assumed that professional self-esteem will be a significant personal

resource and contribute to job satisfaction and well-being. Another resource that should
contribute to the social workers job satisfaction and well-being is the organizational
resources of colleague and supervisory support.
1.5

Support
Support has been defined as the degree to which the environment makes available

resources relevant to the demands made upon the system (Payne, 1980). A resource that
helps people cope with job stress is supportive relationships with others (Thompson,
Murphy, & Stradling, 1994). Collins (2008) divides support systems in the social work
profession into two categories: formal and informal. Formal support involves line
management and supervision and appraisal systems, whereas informal support originates
inside and outside the social work setting and can involve family and friends. Support is a
coping strategy and is sought for instrumental and/or emotional reasons. Instrumental
reasons include seeking practical advice, information or assistance and emotional reasons
include moral support, sympathy or understanding (Carver, Scheier, & Weintraub, 1989).
Colleague and supervisory support can be viewed as a type of formal support in that they
take place within the organization in which the social worker practices. Perceived family
and environmental support of the profession can be viewed as informal support, as they
originate outside of the organization.
1.6

Colleague Support
One of the primary sources of support for people in the helping professions is the

professional peer group (Catherall, 1999). Studies have emphasized the importance of
support from colleagues for social workers (Bennett et al., 1993; Bradley & Sutherland,
1995; Smith & Nursten, 1998; Thompson, Stradling, Murphy, & ONeill, 1996).
Colleague support amongst social workers was found to help buffer against burnout,
improve job satisfaction and strengthen social workers sense of commitment to their
9

work (Koeske & Koeske, 1989; Poulin & Walter, 1992; Um & Harrison, 1998). Workers
feel comfortable turning to their colleagues to discuss dissatisfaction, doubts about the
job, anxiety about inadequate performance or guilt about mistakes. Colleagues are
familiar with the job situation and probably have experienced similar problems. They are
usually available, share a similar frame of reference and do not have administrative power
(Kadushin & Harkness, 2002). Colleague support should be an important resource that
influences job satisfaction and well-being. In the proposed study, colleague support will
be examined as an organizational resource and according to the studys theory as a mesosystem that contributes to well-being and to job satisfaction.
1.7

Supervisory Support
Kadushin (1985) defines supervision as a service that includes administrative,

educational and supportive functions provided by a member of the administrative staff

(supervisor) to the social worker. The administrative function of the supervisor includes
responsibility for agency management and specific, clearly defined administrative
functions such as work delegation, monitoring, reviewing and evaluating work. The
supervisor organizes the work place, agency facilities and human resources to achieve
agency administrative objectives in a way that quantitatively and qualitatively is in
accordance with the agency policies and procedures (Kadushin & Harkness, 2002). The
educational function of the supervisor is to provide the social worker with the knowledge
required to do her job effectively and help her to learn this. This function relates to
teaching knowledge, skills and attitudes to the social worker through analysis of the social
workers interaction with the client. The educational function helps promote the
professional development of the social worker (Kadushin, 1985). The function of
supportive supervision is to help the social worker cope with work related stresses. Stress
can come from clients, the relationship with the supervisor, performance and compliance
10

demands of administrative supervision and learning demands of educational supervision,

as well as work tasks. In supportive supervision the supervisor is available and
approachable, and communicates confidence in the worker (Kadushin, 1985). Supportive
supervision is concerned with helping the supervisee deal with job-related stress and
developing attitudes and feelings conducive to the best job performance (Kadushin &
Harkness, 2002). Positive supervisory support should be an organizational resource that
contributes to social workers job satisfaction and well-being.
1.8

Perceived environmental and family support of the profession

The contribution of social work to society has always been contested (Lymbery,

2001) and social workers are concerned about the public image of their profession
(Lecroy & Stinson, 2004). If the public image of social workers is confused, uninformed
or hostile, the profession is less able to fulfill its mission of helping those in need. In some
studies the public perception of social work indicates a stereotyped image of the social
worker as a child protector, and an overall negative attitude towards social workers
(Condie, Hanson, Lang, Moss, & Kane, 1978; Kaufman & Raymond; 1996; Weinberger,
1967). This perception is a result of a long media history depicting the involvement of
social workers in the removal of children from their homes. In a more recent study by
Leroy & Stinson (2004), an increase in the public perception of social workers as child
protectors was found. Their study reported a need to enhance the public image of social
workers and accurately educate the public about the roles, activities and competencies of
professional social workers.
Social work as a profession is not within the norms of Charedi society ( ,
2007), which is ignorant about the profession and the role of social workers ( ,
2009). There has been no study of how Charedi social workers perceive their professional
status in the Charedi community. The little that is known on the subject is gleaned from
11

public notices (pashkevilim). For example, in 2009, after the arrest and imprisonment of a
Charedi woman who was accused of abusing one of her children and refusing to cooperate
with authorities, public notices were put up in the Geula and Mea Shearim areas in
Jerusalem condemning social services and social workers. Although this may represent
the view of the more extreme elements within the Charedi society towards the social work
profession, it may also be possible to understand the image portrayed of the profession
from childrens literature written especially for the Charedi community. In these books
the social worker is portrayed both negatively (2003 , )and positively (2005 ,
1995 ,). Significant differences were found between Charedi and secular populations
with regard to their perceptions of the importance of the different functions of social
workers (2010 ,). The areas of therapy, community intervention and political activism
were perceived as more important functions by the secular population than the Charedi
population. Despite these differences, the study found that the Charedi population
perceives the role of the social worker as important. Additional evidence on perception of
the profession in the Charedi community is found in an article ( , - , ,
2009) that reports the cooperation between Rabbis and the social service department in
the Charedi city of Modiin Illit. Charedi social workers are trying to inform the Charedi
public about the roles and training of social workers, as well as change negative
stereotypical perceptions about the social work profession, through interviews with and by
the Charedi media (2009 ,). This study examines, for the first time, the perceived
family and environmental support of the social work profession by Charedi social
workers. The Charedi social workers perceptions about how their family and
environment view their profession may influence their sense of well-being. Rosenberg
(1973) reports that the association between the perceived self and the self-image is
considerably stronger than the association between the accorded self (what others actually

12

think) and the self-image. It is therefore important to examine how the Charedi social
workers perceive the view of their profession within their community, and its association
with their well-being and job satisfaction.
1.9

Study Questions and Model

The questions of this study are:

1.

What contributes to job satisfaction among Charedi social workers?

2.

What contributes to the well-being of Charedi social workers?

3.

Are there differences between Charedi and secular social workers with regard to the
variables that contribute to job satisfaction and well-being?
Based on the ecological model, this study answers the research questions by

examining the associations between professional self-esteem, colleague and supervisory

support, perceived family and environmental support of the profession and the social
workers sense of job satisfaction and well-being.
Figure 2: Study Model

Background
Variables

Organization
Characteristics
Demographic
Characteristics

Personal Resource:
Professional
self-esteem
Organizational
Resources:
Colleague and
supervisory support
Community Resource:
Perceived family and
environmental support
of profession

13

Intrinsic and
Extrinsic
Job
satisfaction

Well-being

1.10

Study Hypotheses

Hypothesis 1: Perceived family and environmental support of the profession will be lower
among Charedi social workers than among secular social workers.
Hypothesis 2: Higher professional self-esteem will be associated with greater job
satisfaction and well-being.
Hypothesis 3: Greater perceived supervisory support will be associated with higher job
satisfaction and well-being.
Hypothesis 4: Greater perceived colleague support will be associated with higher job
satisfaction and well-being.
Hypothesis 5: Positive perceptions of the profession by the family and the environment
will be associated with greater job satisfaction and well-being.
Hypothesis 6: Higher job satisfaction will be associated with better well-being.

14

2.

Methods

2.1

Participants
Study participants included 188 practicing female social workers in Israel sampled

using the non-probability convenience sampling technique (see procedure on page 20).
One hundred and two (53.7%) of the social workers defined themselves as Charedi and 86
(46.3%) defined themselves as secular. The age of the social workers ranged from 22 to
65 (M=35.74, SD=9.54, Median=34).. One hundred and forty-one (75%) of the social
workers were married and 47 (25%) were unmarried. The groups did not differ in age or
distribution of marital status. Charedi social workers had significantly more children (M =
3.42, SD = 2.67) than secular social workers (M = 1.53, SD = 1.44).
Table 1: Differences between Groups in Age and Number of Children
Secular (n=86)

Age
No. Children

Charedi (n=102)

SD

SD

36.06

9.22

35.48

9.84

.41

1.53

1.44

3.42

2.67

5.86***

***p<.001
Table 2: Distribution of Marital Status by Group
Secular (n=86)
N
Marital Status

Charedi (n=102)
N

x
3.46

Married

59

65.6

82

80.4

Unmarried

27

31.4

20

19.6

15

2.2

Measures
A questionnaire including the following 8 subscales was composed for purposes of

this study:
Demographic questionnaire - this questionnaire contained fourteen questions
about: age, family status, number of children, place of education, number of years
employed as a social worker, type of work, number of weekly work hours, religious
affiliation of co-workers, religious affiliation of clients, type of supervision, frequency of
supervision and continued education (see Appendix 1 and Appendix 2). Questionnaires
given out to Charedi social workers included two additional questions: type of custom
(Ashkenazi or Sephardi) and affiliation in the Charedi world (Chassidi, Litvak, Charedi
Leumi). Questionnaires distributed to secular social workers included a question on
religion (Jewish, Muslim, Druze, Catholic) and a question on intensity of religious
practice (secular, traditional, religious, Charedi).
Supervisory Support was measured using the supervisory support questionnaire
developed by Aviram and Katan (1989 ,) . This questionnaire consists of eleven
statements and uses a four point Likert scale (1 = not true, 4 = very true). The
questionnaire consists of statements that reflect the administrative, educational and
supportive functions of the supervisor. Examples of statements include: is meticulous
about agency procedures, imparts to me knowledge and skills that contribute to my
professional development, supports me when I encounter difficulties, gives me
independence in my work (see Appendix 3). The eleven statements are averaged into a
single measure of supervisory support. A high score on the questionnaire indicates a high
perception of supervisory support. Ezers (2003 , )study reported a Cronbach's alpha
of.92. The Cronbach's alpha score in this study was .86. Ezers study found an association

16

between organizational commitment, job burnout and supervisory support, and can be
used as proof for the validity of the questionnaire.
Extrinsic Job Satisfaction was measured using the facets of job satisfaction
questionnaire developed by Aviram and Katan (1989 ,) . The original
questionnaire contains sixteen items. Five items from the original questionnaire were used
in the current study to measure extrinsic job satisfaction, using a five point Likert scale (1
= not at all satisfied, 5 = very satisfied). Examples of items include: salary, physical
work conditions and convenient work hours (see Appendix 4). The five items were
averaged into a single measure of extrinsic job satisfaction. A higher score indicates a
high perception of extrinsic job satisfaction. The Cronbach's alpha in this study was .84.
Professional self-esteem was measured using The Professional Self-Esteem
questionnaire (Carmel, 1997). The questionnaire consists of seven items and uses a seven
point Likert scale (1 = not true, 7 = very true). The wording of items that referred to
medical personnel was changed to fit social work professionals. Seven items were used in
this study. Examples of items include: Generally, I am sure that my professional
knowledge and skills are on a very high level, "I feel that my clients respect me very
much, I feel that I am the appropriate person for my chosen profession (see Appendix
5). The final score is based on the average of the seven responses. A high score on the
questionnaire indicates a high perception of professional self-esteem. The study by
Hirsch-Rottenberg (2004 ,- )reported a Cronbach's alpha of .92. The
Cronbach's alpha in this study was .81. Various studies have used the professional selfesteem questionnaire and are proof of its validity, e.g. Weintroub-Bracha ( ,-
2006) found an association relationship between professional self-esteem and professional
experience (r=.34 p< .001).

17

Intrinsic Job Satisfaction - The Index of Job Satisfaction - IJS (Brayfield &
Rothe, 1951) contains 18 items measuring overall intrinsic job satisfaction on a 5-point
Likert scale (1 = strongly agree, 5 = strongly disagree). The final score is based on the
average of the eighteen items (see Appendix 6). Examples of items include: my job is
usually interesting enough to keep me from being bored, "I find real enjoyment in my
work, I like my job better than the average worker does. A high score on the
questionnaire indicates a high perception of intrinsic job satisfaction. In this study the
Cronbach's alpha was.90. Many studies have used the index of job satisfaction and are
proof of its validity. Among them is Abu-Baders study (Abu-Bader, 2005) that found
quality supervision to be an important predictor of job satisfaction.
Well-being - the Warwick Edinburgh Mental Well-being Scale -WEMWBS
(Tennant et al, 2007) contains fourteen items covering both hedonic and eudemonic
aspects of mental health, including positive affect (feelings of optimism, cheerfulness,
relaxation), satisfying interpersonal relationships and positive functioning (energy, clear
thinking, self-acceptance, personal development, competence and autonomy) (see
Appendix 7). The WEMWBS uses a five point Likert scale (1 = none of the time, 5 = all
of the time). The final score is based on the average of the fourteen items. A higher score
indicates a higher level of mental well-being. Items include: I feel optimistic about the
future, I cope well with problems, I feel confident. The authors of the scale reported
a Cronbach's alpha of .89 in a student sample and .91 in a population sample. In this study
the Cronbach's alpha score was .88.
Perceived Family and environmental support of the social work profession was
measured using a scale that was developed specifically for this study. The scale includes
18 items and uses a five point Likert scale (1 = strongly disagree, 5 = strongly agree). The
items are based on data gathered in four focus groups conducted by Baum Yedidya,

18

Schwartz and Aran (in press) with students and graduates of the Michlala Charedit in
Jerusalem. Items 2, 3, 7, 8, 9, 12 and 17 were used to measure family support of the social
work profession (see Appendix 8). Examples of items include: at family events I dont
say that I am a social worker, my children dont mention in school that I am a social
worker, my husband told me not to say what I do for a living. The items were averaged
into a single measure of perceived family support of the profession. A high score indicates
a high level of perceived family support towards the profession. Cronbach's alpha of .74
was found for perceived family support of the social work profession.
Items 1, 4, 5, 6, 10, 11, 13, 14, 15 and 16 were used to measure environmental
support of the social work profession. Examples of items include: Most Charedim think
that social workers do bad things, some of my friends distanced themselves from me
when I started studying social work, if asked what I do for a living I say I work in an
office. The items were averaged into a single measure of perceived environmental
support of the profession. A high score indicates a high level of perceived environmental
support towards the profession. Cronbach's alpha was .70 for perceived environmental
support of the social work profession.
Colleague support was measured using the Colleague Support Scale ( ,
1989). This scale consists of seven items and uses a four point Likert scale (1 = absolutely
incorrect, 4 = strongly agree). Examples of items include: are warm and friendly towards
me when I am stuck in difficulties, listen to me attentively when I speak about things
that are bothering me, support and encourage me when I do something well (see
Appendix 9). The items were averaged into a single measure of perceived colleague
support. Ezers (2003 , )study reported a Cronbach's alpha of .87. The Cronbach's alpha
in this study was .80. Various studies have used the colleague support questionnaire and

19

are proof of its validity. Among the studies is Ezer (2003 , )who found an association
between job burnout, organizational commitment and colleague support.
2.3

Procedure
The Michlala Charedit in Jerusalem provided a list of 116 graduates. Only 78 of

them had sufficient work experience to be considered as potential participants in this

study. These were further narrowed down by identifying those participants who resided in
Charedi neighborhoods. Each graduate was contacted by phone and upon agreement to
participate in the study was mailed a questionnaire and a stamped envelope for returning
the completed questionnaire. 43 questionnaires were mailed and 33 were returned.
Forty-eight Charedi social workers were recruited from the university affiliated
M.A. programs of social work for Charedim (Mivchar in Bnei Brak and Michlala
Charedit in Jerusalem). An additional 21 participants were recruited from social welfare
agencies in the Charedi residential areas of Beitar, Jerusalem and Modiin Illit. All 102
female Charedi social workers who participated in the study voluntarily completed the
questionnaires.
Questionnaires were distributed to secular graduate students of social work in the
Hebrew University and Bar Ilan University. Following a short explanation about the
study, students completed the questionnaires. This approach resulted in 49 completed
questionnaires. In addition, secular social workers were also recruited by direct approach
at two demonstrations during the nationwide strike of social workers in March 2011.
Twenty-four additional questionnaires were received. Seven questionnaires were
electronically mailed to secular social workers known to the researcher. Six were
returned. Seven additional questionnaires were distributed by the researcher's friends to
their co-workers. A total eighty-six questionnaires were voluntarily completed by secular
social workers.
20

3.

Results
The statistical results are presented in three parts. Part one presents the differences

in independent variables (professional self-esteem, colleague support, supervisory

support, perceived environmental and family support of the profession), professional
characteristics (institution that granted degree, participation in continued education
courses, type of supervision, religious affiliation of colleagues and clients) and job
satisfaction and well-being between Charedi and secular social workers. Part two presents
associations between the independent and dependent study variables. Correlations
between the dependent variables and certain personal characteristics (age, number of
children) and professional characteristics (number of working years, number of weekly
hours at work, role at work -managerial or worker) are also presented, as well as the
associations between the independent variables within the two groups of social workers.
Part three presents the results of a regression analysis that explains the variance of job
satisfaction and well-being. Structural Equations Models are presented to illustrate
differences between the two groups of social workers in the associations of the various
variables with well-being.
3.1

Part 1: Differences between Charedi and secular social workers

The first hypothesis relates to differences between Charedi and secular social

workers in perceived environmental and family support of the social work profession.
According to the studys first hypothesis, perceived family and environmental support of
the profession, both measures of informal support, will be lower among Charedi social
workers than among secular social workers. In order to examine this hypothesis and check
if the groups differ on professional self-esteem, colleague support, supervision, intrinsic
job satisfaction, extrinsic job satisfaction and well-being, MANOVA and one way

21

ANOVA analyses were performed. In addition, chi-square analysis was used to compare
professional characteristics between the two groups.
Statistical differences between Charedi and secular social workers in the
independent variables
The MANOVA analysis found a significant difference between the two groups:
F(5,170) = 5.79, p< .001, Eta = .15.
The means and standard deviations of the independent variables by group, and the
results of the ANOVA for each separate measure are presented in table 3.
Table 3: Mean and Standard Deviations of Independent Variables among Charedi
and Secular Social Workers
Group
Charedi

Secular

(n=102)

(n=86)

SD

SD

F (1,174)

Eta

Professional self-esteem

5.32

.80

5.22

.81

.71

.00

Colleague support

3.13

.47

3.23

.44

3.5

.02

Supervisory support

3.50

.45

3.50

.56

.00

.00

Environmental

3.80

.49

4.10

.42

20.16***

.10

Family

4.60

.54

4.80

.27

7.32**

.04

Perceived support of the profession

**p<.01 ***p<.001
Table 3 shows significant differences between the two groups in perceived family
and environmental support of the social work profession. The means indicate that
perceived family and environmental support of the social work profession are higher
among secular than Charedi social workers.
22

Differences in professional characteristics between Charedi and secular social

workers
The professional characteristics that were examined in this study include the
institution that granted the social work degree, participation in continued education
courses, type of supervision (group or individual) and religious affiliation of co-workers
and clients.
Table 4 shows the results of a comparison of professional characteristics between
the groups using chi square analysis.
Table 4: Distribution of Professional Characteristics by Group
Secular

Charedi

(n = 86)

(n = 102)

Characteristic

Values

Institution

College

15

17.4

62

60.8

36.25***

University

71

82.6

40

39.2

Continued

Yes

72

87.0

81

80.2

education

No

10

12.2

20

19.8

Personal

45

52.3

70

68.6

Group & Individual

41

47.7

32

32.4

2.3

49

48.0

84

97.7

53

52.0

0.00

46

45.5

100

55

54.5

1.91

5.22*

Supervision

Only Charedi

49.32***

Colleagues
Secular and Religious
Only Charedi

51.43***

Clients
Secular and Religious

85

*p< 05, ***p<.001

As can be seen in Table 4, significant differences were observed between the
Charedi and the secular social workers in all the professional characteristics except
23

continued education. Most secular social workers studied in universities, have co-workers
who are religious as well as secular, do not have any clients who are Charedi, and a little
over half reported having only individual supervision while the rest reported having both
individual and group supervision. On the contrary, most of the Charedi social workers
studied in one of the two Charedi colleges that are university affiliated, almost half
reported having only Charedi co-workers and clients, and most reported having only
personal supervision.
Table 5 shows the results of t- tests examining differences in work experience and
weekly work hours between the Charedi and secular social workers.
Table 5: Work Experience and Weekly Work Hours by Group (Mean and SD)

Years of work experience

Weekly hours

Secular

Charedi

(n=86)

(n=102)

SD

SD

8.55

8.01

7.63

7.38

.81

32.04

7.48

26.47

8.99

4.53***

***p<.001
Table 5 shows a significant difference between the two groups in the number of
weekly work hours. The Charedi group of social workers works fewer hours per week
than the secular group. No significant differences were found in the number of years of
work experience between the two groups.
Differences between Charedi and secular social workers in the dependent variables
MANOVA was used to test the differences between Charedi and secular social
workers in the measures of intrinsic job satisfaction, extrinsic job satisfaction and wellbeing. This analysis did not show significant differences between the two groups: F (3,
182) = .92, p > .05.
24

Table 6 shows that the one-way ANOVA found no significant differences between
the two groups of social workers in the measures of intrinsic job satisfaction, extrinsic job
satisfaction and well-being.
Table 6: Dependent Variables by Group
Charedi

Secular

(n = 102)

(n = 86)

SD

SD

F(3,182)

Eta

Intrinsic job satisfaction

3.91

.59

3.8

.60

2.77

.02

Extrinsic job satisfaction

3.67

.62

3.59

.57

.7

.00

Well-being

3.85

.40

3.81

.47

.41

.00

The means and standard deviations show that among both Charedi and secular
social workers the reported levels of job satisfaction and well-being are high (potential
scores range from 1 to 5).
In summary, perceived family and environmental support of the profession is
lower among Charedi social workers than among secular social workers. No significant
differences were found in professional self-esteem, colleague or supervisory support
between the two groups. In regard to professional characteristics, most Charedi social
workers studied in university affiliated colleges. Almost half of the Charedi social
workers reported having only Charedi clients and colleagues. They also have more
children and work less hours per week than secular social workers. Both groups reported
high levels of job satisfaction and well-being.
3.2

Part 2: Associations between the independent and dependent variables

The study hypotheses are that higher levels of professional self-esteem, colleague

and supervisory support (formal support), perceived environmental and family support of
25

the social work profession (informal support), will be associated with higher job
satisfaction and well-being. Pearson correlations were used to examine these hypotheses.
In addition, correlations are presented between the social workers personal (age, number
of children) and professional characteristics (weekly work hours, number of working
years) and the measures of job satisfaction and well-being. The correlations are presented
for the entire sample and, in instances where differences were found, for each group
separately.
Table 7 presents the correlations between the various independent variables and
the measures of job-satisfaction and well-being.
Table 7: Pearson Correlations between the Independent Variables of Job
Satisfaction and Well-being (N = 188)

Perceived environmental support of the

Intrinsic job

Extrinsic job

satisfaction

satisfaction

.15*

Well-being

.13

.31***

-.02

.03

.25***

Colleague support

.01

.04

.08

Supervisor support

.22**

.52***

.27***

Professional self-esteem

.42***

.27***

.51***

profession
Perceived family support of the profession

*p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001

Table 7 shows significant positive correlations between some of the independent
variables and the measures of job satisfaction and well-being. The correlations between
the independent variables of professional self-esteem and supervisor support, and the
dependent variables of job satisfaction and well-being stand out among these. Colleague

26

support was not correlated with any of the dependent variables, while perceived family
and environmental support of the profession were significantly correlated with well-being.
Pearson correlations were also calculated separately for the Charedi and secular
groups of social workers. Fisher's Z test was used to compare correlations between the
groups.
Table 8: Differences between Groups in Correlations of Perceived Environmental
and Family Support of the Profession with the Dependent Variables
Correlations

Secular (n=86)
r

Charedi (n=102)
r

Environmental with Intrinsic Job Satisfaction

.40***

.06

2.40**

Environmental with Well-being

.51***

.23*

2.21*

Family with Well-being

.52***

.19

2.61***

*p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001

Significant differences were found between the correlations of perceived
environmental support of the profession and job satisfaction (z = 2.40, p < .01) and wellbeing (z = 2.21, p < .05). The correlations within the secular group of social workers were
higher (r = .40, p < .001, r = .51, p < .001) than those within the Charedi group of social
workers (r = .06, p >.05, r = .23, p < .05). High perceived environmental support of the
profession contributes more to intrinsic job satisfaction and well-being among secular
than among Charedi social workers. Significant differences were also found between the
two groups with regard to perceived family support of the profession and well-being (z =
2.61, p < .001). The correlation within the secular group (r = .52, p<.001) was higher than
that within the Charedi group (r = .19, p > .05), that is to say that perceived family support
of the profession contributes more to well-being among the secular social workers than
among the Charedi social workers.
27

Associations between personal and professional characteristics and the dependent

variables
Pearson correlations were calculated to examine the association between
demographic characteristics (age, number of children), professional characteristics
(number of working years, number of weekly hours at work) and the dependent variables
of intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction and well-being.
Table 9: Pearson Correlations between Personal and Professional Characteristics
and the Dependent Variables (N=188)
Personal and professional

Intrinsic job

Extrinsic job

characteristics

satisfaction

satisfaction

Well-being

Age

.22**

-.02

.15*

Number of children

.25***

.02

.16*

Number of years working

.18*

.05

.08

Number of weekly hours at work

.04

.09

.05

*p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001

Table 9 shows significant positive correlations between age, number of children
and work experience (years) and intrinsic job satisfaction. The results show that older age
more children and more years of working experience are all associated with higher
intrinsic job satisfaction. In addition, significant correlations were found between age,
number of children and well-being, suggesting that older age and more children are
associated with higher levels of well-being.
Correlations

were

also

calculated

between

personal

and

professional

characteristics and the dependent variables separately for each group of social workers
(secular, Charedi). No significant differences were found between the groups.

28

In order to examine if the dependent variables differ as a function of work role

(managerial or worker) a 2x2 MANOVA (group x work role) was performed. A
significant difference was found regarding the dependent variables, F(4, 178) = 2.92, p<
.05, eta= .06. Extrinsic job satisfaction is higher among social workers in managerial
roles (M= 3.87, SD = .53) than among non-managerial social workers (M = 3.57, SD =
.60). A univariate analysis that was performed on each measure separately indicated a
significant difference only in extrinsic job satisfaction, F (1,181) = 8.37, p < .01, eta =
.04.
In summary, significant correlations were found in the entire sample between:
1) Professional self-esteem and the measures of job satisfaction (intrinsic, extrinsic) and
well-being. This finding supports the studys second hypothesis that higher professional
self-esteem will be associated with greater job satisfaction and well-being. 2) Supervisory
support was correlated with job satisfaction (intrinsic, extrinsic) and well-being. This
finding supports the studys third hypothesis that higher perceived supervisory support
will be associated with greater job satisfaction and well-being. 3) Colleague support was
not significantly correlated with job satisfaction or well-being. This finding does not
support the studys fourth hypothesis that stated that higher levels of perceived colleague
support will be associated with greater job satisfaction and well-being. 4) Perceived
family support of the profession was correlated with intrinsic job satisfaction and wellbeing. This finding partially supports the studys fifth hypothesis that positive family
perceptions of the social work profession will be associated with greater job satisfaction
(intrinsic and extrinsic) and well-being. 5) Perceived environmental support of the
profession was correlated with intrinsic job satisfaction and well-being. This finding
partially supports the studys fifth hypothesis that positive environmental perceptions of
the social work profession will associated with greater job satisfaction (intrinsic and

29

extrinsic) and well-being. 6) Personal characteristics (age, number of children) were

correlated with intrinsic job satisfaction and well-being. 7) Professional characteristic
(number of working years) were correlated with and intrinsic job satisfaction. 8) Work
role (managerial) was correlated with extrinsic job satisfaction.
Correlations calculated separately for the two groups of social workers were
significantly different with regard to the association of perceived environmental and
family support of the profession and the measures of job satisfaction and well-being.
Perceived environmental support of the profession contributes more to intrinsic job
satisfaction and well-being among secular than Charedi social workers. Perceived family
support of the profession contributes more towards well-being among secular than
Charedi social workers.
3.3

Part 3: Hierarchical regression analyses of job satisfaction and well-being.

Hierarchical regression analyses were performed in order to examine the effect of

the independent variables on job satisfaction and well-being.

The independent variables were entered into the regression analyses in five
steps. In the first step, three personal or professional characteristics that were significantly
correlated with at least one of the dependent variables were entered into the model. These
characteristics are age, number of children and work role. Age and number of working
years were highly correlated. Thus, only age was entered into the model, as its association
with intrinsic job satisfaction was slightly stronger (r = 0.73, p<.001). Age, number of
children and work role were entered in the first step as they are potential confounders of
the associations between the independent and dependent variables. In the second step, the
group variable (Charedi, secular) was entered. In the third step, the four measures of
perceived support were entered into the regression model. These are divided into two
types of support: formal (colleague and supervisory support) and informal (family and
30

environmental support of the social work profession). In the fourth step, professional selfesteem was added to the model, and in the final fifth step the interactions of group X the
predictors were entered. These interactions examine if the predictors' contribution is
similar in the Charedi and secular groups of social workers. The interactions of
demographic characteristics with independent variables were also entered in order to
check if the contribution of the resources (personal, organizational, community) depends
on these characteristics. The interactions were added to the regression analysis only if
they significantly contributed to the explained variance of the dependent variables.
The regression analysis of job satisfaction explained twenty-five percent of
intrinsic job satisfaction and thirty-one percent of extrinsic job satisfaction. Tables 9 and
10 present the hierarchical regressions models for these two variables.
Table 10 shows that age, number of children and work role, entered in the first
step of the regression analysis, explained 7% of the variance. Number of children was the
only significant variable in this step, indicating that having more children is associated
with higher intrinsic job satisfaction. In the second step, the group dummy variable was
entered into the analysis. This variable did not contribute to the explained variance of
intrinsic job satisfaction. In the third step, the different measures of formal and informal
support were added to the regression model. These variables contributed nine percent to
the explained variance of intrinsic job satisfaction.

31

Table 10: Hierarchical Regression Analysis of Intrinsic Job Satisfaction

(beta coefficients)
1

Age

.08

.11

.13

.05

.06

Number of children

.21*

.15

.17

.13

.10

Work role

Manager/direct service

-.01

-.03

-.04

-.06

-.06

Group

Charedi / Secular

.09

.15

.11

.10

Organizational

Supervision

.21**

.20**

.21**

Colleague support

.02

-.01

-.04

Perceived family

-.08

-.05

-.03

.21*

.10

.11

.32***

.33***

Steps

Measurements
Characteristics

resource

Community resource

support
Perceived
environmental support
Personal resource

Professional selfesteem

Interactions

Age x supervision

.16*

Family x professional

-.24**

self-esteem
R

.07**

.08**

.17***

.25***

.32***

.07**

.01

.09**

.08***

.07***

*p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001

Supervision and perceived environmental support of the social work profession
were both significant in this step. The beta coefficients of these variables indicate that
these variables have a positive effect on intrinsic job satisfaction. In the fourth step,
professional self-esteem was added to the regression model. This variable contributed
eight percent to the explained variance of the dependent variable. The beta coefficient is
positive, which indicates that higher professional self-esteem is associated with greater
intrinsic job satisfaction. The table shows that when this variable was entered into the
32

analysis, perceived environmental support of the social work profession was no longer a
significant predictor of intrinsic job satisfaction. This finding suggests that professional
self-esteem may mediate the association between perceived environmental support of the
profession and intrinsic job satisfaction. Sobel analysis of mediation found a significant
pathway, Z = 2.98, p < .01.
Two interactions were significant in the fifth step: 1) age x supervision and 2)
perceived family support of the profession x professional self-esteem. These interactions
contributed an additional seven percent towards the explained variance of intrinsic job
satisfaction. Figure 3 presents the interaction of age x supervision.
Figure 3 presents a weak negative correlation between supervision and intrinsic
job satisfaction among younger social workers and a positive correlation among older
social workers. In other words, higher levels of perceived supervisory support by older
social workers are associated with higher intrinsic job satisfaction, whereas lower levels
of perceived supervisory support by younger social workers are associated with higher
intrinsic job satisfaction.
Figure 3: Interaction of Age x Supervision in Explaining the Variance of Intrinsic
Job Satisfaction
5

Intrinsic job satisfaction

4.5
4
3.5
Younger age
Older age

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
Low supervisory support

High supervisory support

33

The second interaction showed a significant effect of perceived family support of

the profession x professional self-esteem. Figure 4 presents this interaction.
Figure 4: Interaction of Perceived Family Support of the Profession x Professional
Self-esteem
5

intrinsic job satisfaction

4.5
4
3.5

Low perceived family

support of the profession
High perceived family
support of the profession

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
Low professional self
esteem

High professional self

esteem

Figure 4 shows that social workers with high levels of professional self-esteem
have higher intrinsic job satisfaction; however, this effect exists only among social
workers with low levels of perceived family support of the profession.
Table 11 shows that work role was the only significant variable in the first step.
Social workers in managerial positions at work have more extrinsic job satisfaction than
those who are not in managerial positions. The group variable was entered into the
regression analysis in the second step, but it had no significant contribution to the model.
In the third step, the different measures of formal and informal support were added to the
regression model. Supervision was found to have a significant effect and contributed 23%
to the explained variance of extrinsic job satisfaction. The positive coefficient indicates
that higher levels of perceived supervisory support are associated with greater extrinsic
34

job satisfaction. When this variable was added to the regression, work role was no longer
a significant predictor of extrinsic job satisfaction. However, the Sobel mediation analysis
did not find a significant effect, Z = .06, p > .05. In the fourth step, professional selfesteem was entered and it added 3% to the explained variance of extrinsic job satisfaction.
That is, higher professional self-esteem is associated with greater extrinsic job satisfaction
(after controlling for demographic variables as well as community and family support).
Table 11: Hierarchical Regression Analysis of Extrinsic Job Satisfaction (beta
coefficients)
Steps

Age

-.07

-.05

-.01

-.05

Number of children

.09

.05

.05

.03

Work role

Manager /direct service

.20**

.20**

.14

.13

Group

Charedi / Secular

.08

.09

.08

Organizational resource

Supervision

.47***

.47***

Colleague support

-.01

-.03

Perceived family support

-.07

-.06

Perceived environmental

.10

.03

Measurements
Personal/ Professional
characteristics

Community resource

support
Personal resource

Professional self-esteem

.18*

.04*

.05*

.28***

.31***

.04*

.01

.23***

.03*

*p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001

35

An additional regression analysis was performed in order to examine what

contributes to the variance of well-being. The first four steps of this model are similar to
those of the two previous models presented. In the fifth step, intrinsic and extrinsic job
satisfactions were added to the model in order to check the sixth hypothesis. Table 12
presents the hierarchical regression model for well-being.
Table 12: Hierarchical Regression Analysis of Well-being (beta coefficients)
Steps

Age

.09

.11

.11

.03

.01

Number of children

.08

.05

.09

.04

.01

Work role

Manager / direct service

-.06

-.07

-.05

-.08

-.06

Group

Charedi/ Secular

.06

.18*

.14

.11

Organizational

Supervision

.15*

.15*

.10

Colleague support

.01

-.03

-.03

Perceived family support

.18*

.21**

.23**

Perceived environmental

.30***

.17*

.14

.39***

.31***

Measurements
Characteristics

Community

support
Personal

Professional self-esteem

resource
Job satisfaction

Intrinsic job satisfaction

.26***

Extrinsic job satisfaction

-.01

.03

.03

.24***

.36***

.41***

.03

.00

.21***

.12***

.05**

*p<.05, **p<.01, ***p<.001

36

Table 12 shows that the demographic and group variables do not contribute to the
explained variance of well-being in the first two steps. In the third step, supervision,
perceived family and environmental support of the social work profession contribute
significantly to well-being. The positive beta coefficients indicate that higher levels of
supervision, environmental and family support of the social work profession are
associated with greater levels of well-being. These variables add 21% to the explained
variance of well-being. In the fourth step, professional self-esteem was added to the
regression model. The coefficient of this variable is positive and it adds 12% to the
explained variance of well-being, indicating that higher professional self-esteem is
associated with a greater sense of well-being. When this variable was added to the model,
there was a reduction in the strength of the association between perceived environmental
support of the social work profession and well-being. Sobel mediation analysis showed a
significant mediation effect, Z = 2.91, p< .01. In the fifth step, the two indicators of job
satisfaction (intrinsic, extrinsic) were added to the regression model. This added an
additional five percent to the explanation explained variance of well-being. Only intrinsic
job satisfaction was found to contribute significantly to well-being. All these variables
together explain 41% of the variance of well-being.
Figure 5 presents a model of the pathways in which organizational resources
(supervisory and colleague support) and community resources (perceived environmental
and family support of the profession) affect intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction and
well-being. Intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction mediates between the informal and
formal support and professional self-esteem and well-being. Professional self-esteem also
mediates between the two types of job satisfaction and well-being. Structural analyses
were conducted for each group of social workers (Charedi and secular) separately using

37

the AMOS program in order to check if: 1) this model fits the correlations between the
various variables and 2) the model is similar for Charedi and secular social workers.
Figure 5: Structural Equation Model for the Explained Variance of Professional
Self-esteem and Well-being

Colleague
support
Supervisory
support

Extrinsic job
satisfaction
Professional
self esteem

Perceived
family support
of profession

Well-being

Intrinsic job
satisfaction
Perceived
environmental
support of
profession
AMOS utilizes four parameters in order to check the structural equation. Two
parameters, NFI and CFI indicate the level of goodness of fit. A model is considered good
when these two parameters are greater than .90. Two additional parameters, RMSEA and
x relate to deviations from the required fit and should be as close as possible to zero. The
parameter x should not be significant and the RMSEA should be lower than .05. The
AMOS analysis did not find a good enough fit for the model presented in figure four
among the Charedi social workers: NFI=.91, CFI=.94, RMSEA=.11, x=17.79 p<.05.
These parameters (RMSEA and x) are considered unacceptable. The model showed even
less goodness-of-fit among the secular social workers: NFI=.81, CFI=.82, RMSEA=.21,
x=38.09, p<.001. The AMOS analysis suggested changes that could improve the model.
The changes that were suggested were: 1) to add a direct effect from supervisory support,
38

perceived environmental and family support of the profession to professional self-esteem,

and 2) to add a direct effect from perceived family support of the profession to well-being.
These suggestions were relevant for a model that would fit both Charedi and secular
social workers. The structural analysis did not find that colleague support contributed to
the variance of the mediators or the dependent variables among Charedi or secular social
workers. A new model was examined adopting the above stated suggestions and removing
the variable of colleague support from the model. This new model had a good enough fit.
The parameters for the Charedi social workers were: NFI=.98, CFI=.98, RMSEA=.01
x=3.79, p>.05 and for the secular social workers: NFI=.98, CFI=.99, RMSEA=.05,
x=2.58, p>.05. These new models are presented in Figures 6 and 7.
Figure 6: Structural Equation Model for Charedi Social Workers
Perceived
family
support of
profession

Intrinsic job
satisfaction

.12
.22*

R=.04

.16
.53***

.06
.08

.17*
Supervisory
support

Professional
self-esteem

.16

R=.30

.50***
.01
.06
.18*
.02
Perceived
environmental
support of
profession

Extrinsic job
Satisfaction
R=.25

39

.04

.39***

Well-being
R=.29

Figure 7: Structural Equation Model for Secular Social Workers

Intrinsic job
Satisfaction

.05
.33***

Perceived
family support
of profession

R=.24

.33**
.07
.17*

.00
.30**

Supervisory
support

Professional
self-esteem

.17*

R=.32

.31***

Well-being
R=.55

.56***
.10
.33**
Perceived
environmental
support of
profession

.33***
.11

.08

Extrinsic job
Satisfaction
R=.35

A comparison of figures 6 and 7 suggests that among the secular social workers,
the percentages of explained variance of the mediators (professional self-esteem, intrinsic
job satisfaction) and the dependent variable well-being are higher than among the Charedi
social workers. Particularly large differences can be seen between the R coefficients of
the two models of well-being and intrinsic job satisfaction. These differences emphasize
that the contribution of the variables is higher among the secular social workers than
among the Charedi social workers. Among the secular social workers, perceived
environmental support of the profession and supervisory support contribute significantly
to intrinsic job satisfaction, whereas among the Charedi social workers, only supervisory
40

support contributes significantly to intrinsic job satisfaction and its contribution is lower
than among the secular social workers. Supervisory support had a similar contribution to
extrinsic job satisfaction for both groups of social workers, so that higher levels of
perceived supervisory support were associated with higher extrinsic job satisfaction.
Among the secular social workers, intrinsic job satisfaction mediated the association
between supervisory support, perceived environmental support of the profession and wellbeing. This indicates that higher perceived supervisory support and/or perceived
environmental support of the profession are associated with higher intrinsic job
satisfaction. Greater intrinsic job satisfaction is associated with a higher sense of wellbeing. The level of mediation of the variable of intrinsic job satisfaction was much lower
among Charedi social workers than among secular social workers. However, among
Charedi social workers, it significantly contributed to professional self-esteem. Among
the Charedi social workers, professional self-esteem mediated between intrinsic job
satisfaction and well-being so that the higher the perception of intrinsic job satisfaction
the higher the professional self-esteem and the higher their sense of well-being. Among
the secular social workers the measure of professional self-esteem mediated between
family perception of the profession, supervisory support, perceived environmental support
of the profession and well-being. In general, the correlations between formal and informal
support and the dependent variables were higher among secular social workers than
Charedi social workers. This is especially noted in the contribution of perceived
environmental support of the profession. Though the effect of this variable is not direct,
but rather mediated by intrinsic job satisfaction and professional self-esteem, higher levels
of perceived environmental support of the profession by the secular social workers were
associated with higher intrinsic job satisfaction and/or professional self-esteem, which in
turn were associated with a greater sense of well-being. Perceived family support of the
41

profession was found to have a direct contribution to well-being among both groups,
although it was higher among secular social workers.

42

4.

Discussion
The social work profession is developing and becoming more active in the Charedi

population in Israel (2010 ,). The addition of many Charedi social workers to the
profession in the past eight years prompted the need for this study, the goal of which was to
understand what factors contribute to the job satisfaction and well-being of Charedi social
workers, and whether these differ among secular social workers. Professional self-esteem,
colleague and supervisory support (formal support), and perceived environmental and family
support of the profession (informal support) were used to examine their influence on, or
association with, job satisfaction and well-being. In addition, certain personal and
professional characteristics such as age, number of children, years of professional
experience, number of weekly hours at work and work role (managerial, worker) were
examined in order to check their contribution to job satisfaction and well-being. The variable
of job satisfaction in this study is composed of intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction, both of
which were also used to examine their association with, or influence on, well-being.
The discussion section of the study is composed of three parts. The first part
addresses the statistical and demographic differences that were found between Charedi and
secular social workers. The second part addresses the associations between the dependent
and independent variables that were found across the entire sample, as well as associations
that were found with regard to the two groups of social workers separately. The third part
addresses: 1) the influence of the dependent variables on both types of job satisfaction and
on well-being; 2) the influence of job satisfaction on well-being; and 3) differences between
the two groups with regard to the explained variance of well-being.
4.1

Part 1: Differences between Charedi and secular social workers

A significant difference was found between Charedi and secular social workers with

regard to both measures of informal support: perceived environmental and family support of
43

the social work profession. Charedi social workers reported lower perceived environmental
and family support of the profession than secular social workers. Generally, the Charedi
community turns first to their community rabbis with their problems and, therefore, the
profession of social work is not recognized in the Charedi community as it is in secular
society. The Charedi community has developed its own independent systems to meet its
educational, cultural, welfare and medical needs, to which the community rabbis generally
have access. Therefore, the profession may simply be less known to the Charedi community
than it is to the secular community. This is similar to public perception of the profession
more than 30 years ago in the United States, when the public was not familiar with the role
of social workers or the educational requirements to be met in order to practice the
profession (Condie et al., 1978).
Another significant result was found with regard to the educational institute from
which the social workers received their academic degrees. Most Charedi social workers
(61%) received their academic degrees from Charedi colleges, whereas the majority of
secular social workers (83%) received their academic degrees from universities. The reality
of many more Charedi social workers today than in the past can be attributed to the
emergence of these university affiliated Charedi colleges (2010 ,). It appears that if
academic programs are opened that meet the Charedi communitys cultural needs, more
Charedi people can be expected to choose to study in these programs.
A high percentage of Charedi social workers reported having only Charedi colleagues
(48%) and clients (46%), whereas no secular social worker reported having only Charedi
clients and 2% reported having only Charedi colleagues. The high percentage of Charedi
social workers having only Charedi colleagues and clients may be attributed to their place of
work. Some Charedi cities or organizations may prefer hiring Charedi social workers who
have an inside cultural sensitivity to the needs of the people asking for help. The Charedi
social workers themselves may prefer working in a familiar environment that understands
44

their lifestyle and is willing to meet their work-family needs. Charedi social workers reported
working fewer weekly hours, and having more children than secular social workers. Charedi
society does not value a career over family for women, and large families are the norm. This
strong value, in addition to the demands of a large family, probably influences this result.
It is important to note that no significant difference was found between Charedi and
secular social workers with regard to intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction, and well-being.
Overall, Charedi and secular social workers reported high levels of job satisfaction and wellbeing. This result supports previous studies that found high levels of job satisfaction among
social workers (Collins, 2008; Rose, 2003; Stalker, Mandell, Frensch, Harvey, & Wright,
2007).
4.2

Part 2: Associations between the dependent and independent variables

Significant correlations were found between the various independent and dependent

variables, with the exception of colleague support.

4.2.1

Perceived environmental and family support of the profession and well-being

Strong,

significant,

positive

correlations

were

found

between

perceived

environmental support of the profession, perceived family support of the profession and
well-being. Social work is a profession that demands high emotional investment (Wharton,
2009), which can have a negative impact on a social workers sense of well-being. It appears
reasonable that if social workers perceive that their environment and family view their
profession as significant and worthwhile, and afford it positive recognition, this will
influence the social workers sense of well-being.
4.2.2

Perceived environmental support of the profession and intrinsic job satisfaction

Another significant correlation was found between perceived environmental support

of the profession and intrinsic job satisfaction. Perceived environmental support of the
profession may reflect positive recognition for the work of social workers, which can
45

influence their intrinsic job satisfaction. A quantitative study among social workers in
welfare agencies in Norway found that public approval was positively associated with job
satisfaction and that the most unsatisfactory aspects of the social workers job context arise
from not being valued by their employers and wider society (Jessen, 2010).
4.2.3

Supervisory support and intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction, and well-being
Supervisory support, a measure of formal support, had a positive, significant

correlation with intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction, and well-being. Kadushin (1985)
presents a model of supervision that encompasses three functions - administrative,
educational and supportive. These three functions of supervision appear to be congruent with
extrinsic and intrinsic job satisfaction and well-being, and may help to explain the high
positive correlations. Administrative supervision helps the social worker do her job better by
providing organizational structure and access to agency resources. If administrative
supervision is conducted successfully, it should increase extrinsic job satisfaction as it eases
the bureaucracy inherent in social work. Educational supervision provides the social worker
with the skills and knowledge required to do her job. This, hopefully, will allow the social
worker to serve her clients optimally. It appears that quality educational supervision is an
extrinsic source that influences intrinsic job satisfaction, because if the social worker
perceives that she is serving her clients as well as possible, she will feel positive about her
work. Research shows that quality of supervision is a significant factor in social workers job
satisfaction (Cole, Panchanadeswaran & Darning, 2004; Jessen, 2010; Kadushin, 1995).
Supportive supervision relates to decreasing stress and enhancing morale, an aspect of
supervision that appears to increase social workers sense of well-being.
4.2.4

Professional self-esteem and intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction, and well-being
Professional self-esteem had a strong positive correlation with intrinsic and extrinsic

job satisfaction, and well-being. Research has shown that important factors related to
46

intrinsic job satisfaction include: 1) the degree that the social worker perceives herself as
working effectively (Stalker et al., 2007) and; 2) believes that her work is making a
difference in people's lives (Landsman, 2001). It would appear that making a difference in
peoples lives and perceiving oneself as working effectively would increase positive attitude
towards ones professional worth, competence and performance and contribute towards a
social workers sense of intrinsic job satisfaction and well-being. Social workers who view
themselves as professionally competent and capable of doing their job well (performance)
also appear to have a sense of achievement, which should also contribute to intrinsic job
satisfaction and well-being. A positive significant correlation was also found between
professional self-esteem and extrinsic job satisfaction. Social workers who have a positive
perception of their professional competence are more likely to work in places that they feel
offer fair extrinsic rewards. If not, they appear to have sufficient confidence in themselves
professionally to search for a work situation that would offer these.
4.2.5

Colleague support and job satisfaction and well-being

The only independent variable that was not significantly correlated with any of the
dependent variables (intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction, well-being) was colleague
support. This result does not support the professional literature, which appears to emphasize
the contribution of colleague support to job satisfaction and well-being (Bennett et al., 1993;
Bradley & Sutherland, 1995; Catherall, 1999; Kadushin & Harkness, 2002; Koeske &
Koeske, 1989; Poulin & Walter, 1992; Smith & Nursten, 1998; Thompson et al., 1996; Um
& Harrison, 1998). Perhaps because this study was conducted in Israel, where supervisory
support may be more focused on the educational and supportive functions than on the
administrative function, colleague support is not as crucial. In the United States it appears
that greater emphasis is placed on the administrative function (Kadushin & Harkness, 2002),
or not provided at all (Schroffel, 1999). In such cases, colleague support would assume

47

paramount importance. This finding supports the study of Brough and Pears (2004) among
public sector workers, which found that supervisor support directly predicted job
satisfaction, while colleague support was not significantly predictive of job satisfaction or
work related well-being. Acker (2004), however, found that both co-worker and supervisory
support were significantly and positively correlated with job satisfaction.
4.2.6

Perceived Environmental and family support of the profession and intrinsic job
satisfaction and well-being among Charedi and secular social workers
Significant differences were found between Charedi and secular social workers with

regard to correlations between perceived environmental support of the profession, perceived

family support of the profession and intrinsic job satisfaction and well-being. Among secular
social workers, perceived environmental support of the profession was significantly
correlated with intrinsic job satisfaction and well-being, while perceived family support of
the profession was significantly correlated with well-being. Perhaps the secular public is
more informed about the difficult and stressful nature of social work practice and values the
altruistic motivation of social workers. This validation and recognition of their profession
may contribute to secular social workers perceptions of intrinsic job satisfaction and wellbeing. It is also possible that, psychologically, secular social workers themselves have a high
regard for their contribution to society, which they project onto their environment. This
projection may contribute to the secular social workers intrinsic job satisfaction and wellbeing. Perceived family support of the profession was correlated with well-being among the
secular social workers. It can be assumed that after a difficult day at work, the secular social
workers receive moral support, understanding or sympathy from their families, which
contributes to their well-being. These significant correlations were not found among the
Charedi social workers. A possible explanation for this difference could be that social work
as a profession is not a recognized employment option for Charedi women within the
48

Charedi population. In general, careers and university degrees are not highly valued goals for
Charedi women, and work is mainly viewed as a means to help support a family. Although
the profession of social work has started to make inroads into Charedi society, it is still far
from a competitive option for Charedi women to choose over the traditional tracks available
to them. Furthermore, Charedi social workers may have ambivalent feelings about practicing
their profession and may question their contribution to society. Charedi social workers may
experience more ethical dilemmas than secular social workers due to their absolute
commitment to Halacha (Jewish Law). Contradictions between the values of the profession
and/or secular law and Halacha can cause terrible inner turmoil for Charedi social workers,
which they perhaps project onto their environment. Therefore, perceived environmental
support of the profession did not contribute to their intrinsic job satisfaction and well-being.
With regard to perceived family support of the profession and well-being, it is likely that
Charedi social workers do not bring their experiences from work home as they feel
uncomfortable exposing their husbands or children to the nature of their work. In general,
there is far less exposure to difficult topics such as violence or sexual abuse, and great value
is placed on how and what is discussed. Perhaps secular families are more exposed to
difficult topics via the media and television and, therefore, discussion about what happens at
work is a less sensitive issue than it may be within Charedi families.
4.2.7

Personal and professional characteristics, intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction, and wellbeing

Some personal and professional characteristics were found to have significant

correlations with intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction and well-being. Age, number of
children and the number of years of professional experience had significant positive
correlations with intrinsic job satisfaction. Older social workers can be assumed to have had
different job experiences both within the social work field and in other fields of work. They
are likely to be employed in positions that they feel suitable to their talents, skills, education
49

and life situation, and where they feel that they are able to make a positive contribution.
Chronological age has been found to have a direct impact on job satisfaction and can reflect
processes of adaption to the work role (Kallenberg & Loscocco, 1983). The number of
children was found to have a positive correlation with well-being and intrinsic job
satisfaction. Kallenberg and Loscocco (1983) discuss structural determinants of job
satisfaction that are not restricted to the work role. They write that non-working roles, such
as gender and family structural position, affect ones expectation and returns from work.
Possibly the field of social work, which is known to be dominated by women, is more
accommodating and flexible for families. Flexibility within the workload and work-life
balance was found to be related to well-being among social workers (Shier & Graham,
2010). Perhaps social workers with children, and responsibilities towards them, work in
positions that suit their work-life balance, which contributes to their intrinsic job satisfaction
and well-being. Extrinsic job satisfaction was found to be higher among social workers in
managerial positions. Research has shown that managers have more opportunities to acquire
skills, more opportunities for self-development and have a broader scope of decision making
(Jessen, 2010). Managers in Israel enjoy a higher pay scale throughout their working life in
the public sector (2011-2012 ,) . These characteristics found in
managerial positions may contribute to extrinsic job satisfaction.
4.3

Part 3: Interactions and factors that explain intrinsic and extrinsic job
satisfaction, and well-being.
The hierarchical regression analysis contributed in three different ways to better

understanding the factors that explain intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction and well-being
of social workers by: 1) explaining the percentage of variance; 2) revealing interactions
between the variables; and 3) providing information on variables that act as mediators. The
latter will be discussed later in the structural models. Hierarchical regression analysis
50

explained twenty-five percent of intrinsic job satisfaction. Significant contributors to the

variance of intrinsic job satisfaction were number of children, supervisory support, perceived
environmental support of the profession, and professional self-esteem. An additional seven
percent was contributed by the interactions of: 1) age x supervision; and 2) perceived family
support of the profession x professional self-esteem. The first interaction showed that older
social workers who perceived supervisory support as positive had higher intrinsic job
satisfaction. When considering budgets, organizations should consider this interaction as
proper supervision may contribute towards retaining experienced staff.
The second interaction showed that social workers who perceive family support of
the profession as high have a lower correlation between professional self-esteem and
intrinsic job satisfaction, whereas social workers who perceive family support of the
profession as low show a positive association between professional self-esteem and intrinsic
job satisfaction. Perhaps because the latter group perceives family support for their
profession as low, they provide their own recognition for their achievements and find
satisfaction in their ability to do their job effectively and well. It appears that this groups
high professional self-esteem compensates for their low level of perceived family support of
the profession.
The results of hierarchical regression analysis accounted for thirty-one percent of
extrinsic job satisfaction. Work role (manager/worker), supervision, and professional selfesteem were significant contributing factors to the explained variance. Furthermore, the
results of hierarchical regression analysis accounted for forty-one percent of the variance of
well-being. Significant contributors to the variance of well-being were supervision,
perceived family and environmental support of the profession, professional self-esteem and
intrinsic job satisfaction. A fifth step was added to the hierarchal regression to check the
contribution of intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction to the well-being variance. Intrinsic job
satisfaction was found to contribute significantly to well-being, which may be explained by
51

the fact that the sample is comprised of social workers. The social work profession has a
standard of values and ethics in which social workers believe and by which they try to
practice. These include, for example, service, social justice, dignity and worth of the person,
importance of human relationships, integrity and competence. These ethics and values are
intrinsic to the social workers orientation. Social workers who enjoy intrinsic job
satisfaction may feel that they are fulfilling these values and ethics in their everyday
workload, which may contribute to their sense of well-being.
The study also examined structural equation models to explain the variance of wellbeing. Models were examined for each group separately, after Fishers Z analyses showed
differences in the correlations between the variables of perceived environmental and family
support of the profession and well-being. The structural equation models showed that the
professional self-esteem and intrinsic job satisfaction variables mediated between the formal
(supervisory support) and informal support (perceived family and environmental support of
the profession) and well-being. Similarities were found for the two groups of social workers
with regard to the significant contribution of: 1) supervisory support to intrinsic and extrinsic
job satisfaction; 2) perceived family support of the profession directly to well-being; 3) the
mediation of professional self-esteem between perceived environmental support of the
profession and well-being. Differences were found between the two groups of social workers
with regard to the mediation of the intrinsic job satisfaction and professional self-esteem
variables to well-being. Among the Charedi social workers, professional self-esteem
mediated between intrinsic job satisfaction, perceived environmental support of the
profession and well-being; that is, higher intrinsic job satisfaction and/or perceived
environmental support of the profession among the Charedi social workers were associated
with higher professional self-esteem, which in turn was associated with greater well-being.
The influence of environmental support of the profession on professional self-esteem among
Charedi social workers may indicate that the Charedi community perceives the social work
52

profession as beneficial. In recent years, there has been cooperation between community
leaders, such as Rabbis, with social services in order to address serious problems that require
professional help (2009 , ,- , ,; 2009 ,). Intrinsic job
satisfaction may influence the Charedi social workers' professional self-esteem because of
the possibility that they relate to the profession from a cultural perspective. Altruistic
behavior, kindness, charity and helping others are some of the important values within the
eco-cultural context of the Charedi community (Rosenthal & Roer-Strier, 2006). These
values are inculcated at an individual level from early childhood and are reinforced at the
environmental level. It appears that these cultural values share some common ground with
some of the values and ethics of the social work profession such as service, dignity and
worth of the person, importance of human relationships and integrity. It is possible that the
eco-cultural context itself may be a strong motivator and greatly influence intrinsic job
satisfaction. In fact, the social psychological or interactionist model of work satisfaction
reflects this approach (Mottaz, 1985). Perhaps Charedi social workers are a good personenvironment fit for the profession, whose intrinsic job satisfaction is derived from this ecocultural context and from the professions ethics and values. This in turn contributes to the
Charedi social workers professional self-esteem and ensuing well-being.
A comparison of the two models shows that the Charedi social workers have a far
lower level of well-being derived from the variables than the secular social workers. Russell
(2008) writes that job satisfaction should influence subjective well-being to the degree that
work is considered an important part of ones life. This seems to indicate that the Charedi
social workers have other variables that contribute more to their well-being. Sheleg
(2000 , )writes that although within Charedi society women are not officially part of any
formal religious forums (rabbinical or halachic), they have an equal and often greater role
than their husbands in all factors (financial, educational) pertaining to the family. This
division of roles has existed within Charedi society as far back as can be remembered. From
53

childhood, Charedi women anticipate marriage and motherhood. Frishmans (1979 ,)

study about the attitudes and beliefs of Charedi and secular girls towards marriage,
pregnancy and motherhood found that over 50% of Charedi girls reported bearing, raising
and educating children as the top three areas, roles and activities for a married woman,
whereas over 50% of secular girls reported the womans career, educating children and
personal independent development as the top three areas, roles and activities for a married
woman. The value-as-a-moderator model predicts that people gain a sense of satisfaction
from activities congruent with their values, and that satisfaction with a specific life domain
has a stronger influence on overall subjective well-being to the degree that the life domain is
personally valued (Oishi, Diener, Suh, & Lucas, 1999). It is assumed that Charedi social
workers derive a sense of well-being from factors related to their roles within their families,
as well as from the altruistic nature of the social work profession that is so well suited to
their eco-cultural context. This does not mean that Charedi social workers are not interested
in advancing in their profession, or that secular social workers have a greater sense of wellbeing from their career than from their family role. In fact, perceived family support of the
profession was directly associated with the social workers well-being in both groups.
However, the dominant cultural script among secular, educated, middle-class Israelis appears
to strive towards personal independence and autonomy, whereas the Charedi cultural script
places a high value on family life and altruistic behavior (Rosenthal & Roer-Strier, 2006).
4.4

Limitations
This study has several limitations. First, the perceived family and environmental

support of the profession questionnaire (measures of informal support) had never been used
prior to the present study and therefore its validity cannot be verified. Second, because the
sample used was not random, caution should be applied when considering the results in
context to the general population of social workers.
54

4.5

Recommendations for social work practice

This study is the first quantitative study to be conducted among Charedi female social

workers. It, thus, expands the knowledge on the transition of a minority group within Israel
into the profession of social work. The findings of this study should help raise the awareness
and cultural sensitivity of non-Charedi organizations to the values and needs of Charedi
social workers that may join their staff. Additionally, the study emphasizes the significance
of informal support, such as perceived positive family and environmental support of the
profession, for the well-being and professional self-esteem of social workers, and adds to the
existing body of knowledge on the significance of supervision.
In light of the significant findings of this study, recommendations are offered for
further research. Research should be done on factors that can contribute to perceived
environmental and family support of the social work profession among Charedi social
workers. This research should help identify factors within Charedi society that could help
foster a positive attitude towards the social work profession and encourage Charedi women
to become social workers. In addition, further research should focus on other factors that
contribute to intrinsic job satisfaction and well-being among Charedi social workers.
Research should also examine other factors that contribute to professional self-esteem in
social workers. Organizations should prioritize good supervision for their social workers.

55

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Documents&type=retrieve&tabID=T003&prodId=AONE&docId=A108910764&sou
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63

Appendix 1. Demographics Questionnaire - Charedi

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Well-Being Questionnaire

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Appendix 8. Family and Environmental Perception Questionnaire

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