MOTIVATION

Motivation is some kind of internal drive that encourages

somebody to pursue a course of action. If we perceive a goal
(something we wish to achieve) we will be strongly motivated
to do whatever is necessary to reach that goal. Goals can be of
different types. For example if we are determined to own a
new bike, we may work overtime in order to earn that
necessary money. It is important that motive that students
bring to class is the biggest single factor affecting their
success.
There is distinction between short-term goals and long-term
goals. Long term goals might have something to do with a wish
to get a better job at some future date. Short-term goals might
include such things as wanting to finish a unit in a book. In
general, strongly motivated students with long term goals are
probably easier to teach than those who have no such goals.
There are two main categories of motivation: extrinsic-which is
concerned with factors outside of classroom and INTRINSIC
motivation-which is concerned with factors inside the
classroom.
There are two types of extrinsic motivation:
1-Integrative: students wish to be integrated into the target
culture or at least to know about target culture
2-Instrumental; the language is considered an instrument for
obtaining a certain goal. This motivation is affected by the
attitude of the students parents or of the students peers.
That will also be in a powerful position to affect his or her
attitude as will other members of the students community.
2.Intrinsic motivation can be influenced by:
a)Physical conditions-teachers should try to make their
classroom as pleasant as possible. Even where conditions are
bad, it may be possible to improve the atmosphere with
posters, students work on the walls, etc.
b) Method-the method by which students are taught, must
have some effect on their motivation. Method has to be
interesting and adjusted to the learning level and the
students age.
c) The teacher-if teacher is positive personality students will
like him and there will be possibility in achieving positive
results.
d) Success-success plays a vital part in the motivational drive
of a student. To give student very high challenge activities may
have a negative effect on motivation. Much of the teachers
work in the classroom concerns setting up the right level of
challenge activities.
MOTIVATIONAL DIFFERENCEs
Not everyone in the class will have the same motivation,
because motivation is a mixture of different factors. But it is

possible to make some general statements about motivational

factors for different age groups and different levels. These are:
a) Children-are curious more than anything else. The teacher is
very important figure
for them. They need to know that teacher appreciates them
and is equal to all of them, They will not sit and listen, they
need to be involved in some active. Almost everything for
them will depend on teachers attitude and behavior.
B) Adolescents-they are perhaps the most interesting students
to teach, but they can also be problematic more than any other
age group. For them teacher is rather potentional enemy, not
the leader. They dont need teachers approval so much. The
teachers task in this age is to put language teaching into an
interesting context for the students. So getting the level of
challenge right is vital at this age.
c) Adult beginners-in some way these beginners are the
easiest people to teach. Firstly they may come to the
classroom with a high degree of extrinsic motivation. Secondly,
they will often succeed very quickly. Goals within the class are
easy to perceive and relatively easy to achieve.
d) Adult, intermediate students-they may have very positive
feelings about the way they are treated in the classroom in
which they are studying. Intermediate students already know a
lot and may not perceive any progress. Our job is to show the
students that there is still a lot to learn and then setting
realistic goals for them to achieve. A major factor seems to be
getting the level of challenge right.
e)Adult advanced students-they are often highly motivated.
Like some intermediate students they will find progress more
difficult to perceive. Much of the time they will be practising
what they already know.
CLASSROOM MANAGEMENT
The most important job is perhaps to create the conditions in
which learning can take place. The skills of creating and
managing a successful class may be the key to the whole
success of a course. An important part of this is to do with
your
attitude,
intentions
and
personality
and
your
relationships with the learners. We also need certain
organizational skills and techniques. Such items are often
grouped
together
under
the
heading
of
classroom
management. Common classroom management areas include:
GROUPING AND SEATING
-Forming groupings(singles,pairs,groups,mingle,plenary)
- Arranging and rearranging seating
- Deciding where you will stand or sit
- Reforming class as a whole group after activities
ACTIVITIES
- Sequencing activities
2

- Setting up activities
- Giving instructions
- Monitoring activities
- Timing activities ( and the lesson as a whole)
- Bringing activities to an end
AUTHORITY
- Gathering and holding attention
- Deciding who does what ( answer a question,make a
decision,etc.)
- Establishing or relinquishing authority as appropriate
- Getting someone to do something
CRITICAL MOMENTS
- Starting the lesson
- Dealing with unexpected problems
- Maintaining appropriate discipline
- Finishing the lesson
TOOLS AND TECHNIQUES
- Using the board and other classroom equipment or aids
- Using gestures to help clarity of instructions and
explanations
- Speaking clearly at an appropriate volume and speed
- Use of silence
- Grading complexity of language
- Grading quantity of language
CLASSROOM INTERACTION
Five types of students grouping are common in the classroom:
- the whole class working together with the teacher
- the whole class mixing together as individuals
- small groups ( three or eight people)
- pairs
- individual work
Its very important to mix work in classroom. Interaction
between student and teacher is very useful because in that
way students learn to speak yo a native speaker. In this way
the student gets the correct picture of language . But,if there
isnt much available time, if the teacher talks most of the
time,then the learners will get very little time to speak at all.
Thats why work in pairs or in small groups is important. In the
group work students use language to communicate with each
other and cooperating among themselves. There is greater
possibility of discussion,greater chance that at least one
member of one group will be able to solve a problem. A major
possibility for group work is the idea of flexible groups. Here
students start in set groups. There is possibility of having
group leaders. They could have two functions: one would be to
act as the group organizer-make sure that a task was properly
done or collected,and the other could be as a mini-teacher.
PAIRS WORK-this work allows the students to use languages
and also encourages students co-operation,which is important
3

for the atmosphere at the class and for the motivation.

Teacher sometimes worry about noise and indiscipline.
INDIVIDUAL WORK-is sometimes a good idea because students
can relax from outside pressure. Both reading and writing
work can be focus for individual work.
KINDS OF TEACHER
There are three kinds of teacher:
a) Explainer-this teacher knows his subject matter very
well,but has limited knowledge of teaching methodology.Done
with style or enthusiasm,or imagination,this teacher;s lessons
can be very entertaining,interesting and informative.Students
are listening,but they are mostly not being personally involved
or challenged.
B)The involver-this teacher also knews the subject matterand
he is also familiar with teaching methodology.He is able to use
appropriate teaching and organization procedures, and
techniques to help his students been about the subject
matter.This teacher is trying to involve the students actively
and puts a great deal of effort into finding appropriate and
interesting activities.
C)The enabler-this teacher knows about the subject matter
and about methodology ,but also has an a warenessof how
individuals and groups are thinking and feeling within his
class. His own personality and attitude are an active
ecourangement to learnings. He is confident enough to share
control with the learners. Decisions made in his classroom may
often be shared or negotiated. In many cases he sees them as
someone whese job is to create a conditions that will enable
students to learn for themselves.Sometimes when the
students are doing well their own,this teacher could hardly be
visible.
The effective teacher might positively affect the learning
atmosphere in a classroom. The effective teacher: really listen
to
his
students;shows
respect;gives
clear,positive
foodback;has a good sense of humour;is patient;is well
organized,paces lessons well; does not complicate things
unnessessarily;is honest;is approachable.
There are three core teacher characteristics that help to
create an effective learning environment. These are:
-respect;empathy; authenticity.
MAXIMIZING STUDENT INTERACTION IN CLASSROOM; SOME
IDEAS
-First of all, we should respect the learners
-Encourage a friendly ,relaxed learning environment. If there
is trusting ,positive supportive rapport between learners and
teacher, then there is a much better chance of useful
interaction happening.
4

-we should rather ask questions than giving explanations

-really listen to what they say
Allow time for students to listen, think and speak
Allow thinking time without talking over it
Increase opportunities for student talking time
Allow students to finish their own sentences
Make use of pairs and small groups to maximize opportunities
for students to speak
-Teacher doesnt always need to be at the front of the class
-Use gestures and facial expressions to encourage student to
speak and listen to each other
-Encourage co-operation rather than competition
-Allow students to become more responsible for their own
progress.Put them in situation where they need to make
decisions for themselves
-encourage the quiet speaker to speak louder so that the other
can hear.
POTENTIAL PROBLEMS
There are some common ways in which teachers unintenianally
prevent or hinder learning.
a)TTT (teacher talking time)-teacher should give students time
to think,to prepare what they have to say and how they are
going to say it. If teacher more talks,there is less opportunity
for the learners.
b) Echo-if teacher become aware of his/her echo and then start
to control it, he/she will find that learn is get more talking
time and that they start to listen to eachother more. Teacher
should not repeat students answer brecause one they got
used to it they stop listen to each other,they listen only
teacher.
c)Helpful sentence completion-students need to finish their
own sentences.teacher shouldnt finish students sentences.If
they cant they need help,but help to produce their own
sentences in their own words and their own ideas.
d)Not checking understanding of instructions-when teacher
wants to check learners understanding he/she shouldnt ask
question: Do you understand this? because students will
probably answer yes. Better way to check learners
understanding of instruction is to ask one or two of them to
repeat it back to you. The best way is to check their
understanding on examples through their presentation or
idea, or by repetition.
e)Fear of genuine feedback
feedback-advice or criticism about something you have done
or made.
Teacher shouldnt be afraid of students feedback but instead
open to it ,because its the only way to find out what they are
really thinking.

f) Lack of confidence in self,learners-students get bored when

activities are either too difficult or too easy.its not so hard to
recognize when the learners cant do the work. More difficult
problem is when work is not challenging enough. Teacher
should try to keep the level of challenge high, to be
demanding. Teacher should believe they can do more than
they are aware thwy are able to do, and help them to do it.
g) over-helping /over-organizing-a lot of teacher help is
actually teacher interference and gets in the way of students
working on their own. As long as you are around them they
will look to you for help. Go away and they are forced to do the
work themselves.
h) flying with the fastest-teacher should not listen only
strongest and fastest students ,its important to involve all
the students.
i) weak rapport-bear in mind the three teacher quallities that
help to enable a good working environment.
HOW TO TEACH GRAMMAR
PRESENTING GRAMMATICAL ITEMS
Presentation is the stage at which students are introduced to
the form,meating and use of a new piece of language.for
example they learn how DID works with past tense if they are
being presented with past tense questions for the first time.
Presentation is the stage at which students can learn how to
put the new syntax,words and sounds together. In this stage
they learn the grammar they will later use.
Personalization is the stage at which students use a new
piece of grammar to say things which really mean something
to them. If the teacher present them present Simple Tense,the
personalization stage is where they apply it to themselves by
saying what they like, do. Its often the first time students get
a chance to use the new language for themselves .sometimes
personalization is the final part of a presentation which is
done through the use of text or picture.
The characteristics of good presentation are:
a)a good presentation should be clear.students should have
problems or difficulties with the meaning of a new language.
b)a good presentation should be efficient the aim is to get to
the personalization stage as soon as students can manipulate
the new language
c)a good presentation should be lively and interestingstudents should be involved during a presentation stage. With
the help of a good situation and lively teaching ,it can be one
of the most memorable parts of a language course.
d) a good presen. Should be productive-in other words the
teacher should allow students to make many sentences and
questions with the new language

e)a
good
presen.
Should
be
appropriate
however,
interesting,funny or demonstrative a situation is,it should be
appropriate for the language that is being presented.
DISCOVERY TECHNIQUES
Discovery techniques are those where students are given
examples of language and told to find out how they work-to
discover the grammar rules rather than be told them.
At the most covert level this means that the students are
exposed to the new language with no focus, some time before
it is presented.
At a more conscious level,students can be asked to look at
some sentences ,where they have to find out the meaning and
differences between the sentences. In that way they acquire
new grammar rules.
The advantages of this approach are clear. By involving
students in a task of grammar we may sure that they are
concentrating on the work. Its not just the teacher telling the
students what the grammar is ,they are actually discovering
information for themselves. It is important that these
techniques are not suitable for all students on all occasions.
Disc.techn. can take a long time and can be confusing. The
teacher should decide when to use the activities ,with what
grammar and with which students.
There are four types of activity where students discover new
grammar.
a) preview-students are aware of new language.they are
exposed to the new language.they dont concentrate on it at
this stage ,but this will help them at a later stage ,when they
have to study it.
b)matching techniques-the point of matching exercises is to
get students to work things out for themselves,they have to
make choices about whast goes with what and the activity of
making choices helps them to discover correct facts about
grammar.
C)text-study-another way of getting students to discover a
new grammar is to give them a text to study and tell them to
concentrate on a way that grammar is use in it. The principle
aim is to get students to recognize the new language. The
point about this kind of activity is that the teacher asks the
students to work something out for themselves.
d)problem solving-a very good way of getting students to
discover grammatical rules is to present them with examples
of incorrect English. The teacher then encourage them to
discover what is wrong and why.
PRACTICE TECHNIQUES

There are four different types of oral practice techniques

drills,interaction activities,involving the personality and
games.
1)drills the aim of a drill is to give students rapid practice in
using a structural item. Often,this is with the whole classrather than with students in pairs and the teacher is able to
get students to ask and answer questions quickly
and
efficienlt. Advantage of this kind of technique is that teacher
can correct any mistakes that students make and can
encourage them to concentrate on difficulties at the same
time. But the problem with drills is that they can make correct
sentences with the new item,the teacher should move on to
more creative activities like the interaction activities.
2)interaction activities-one of the problem about drills is that
they are fairly monotonous. Some way must be found of
making controlled language practice more meaningful and
more enjoyable. One of the ways of doing this is by using
interaction
activities.
In
that
way
students
work
together,exchanging
information
in
a
purposeful
and
interesting way. The best way of doing this activity is to ask all
the students to stand up. When the students have finished
,they can improve their results.
3) involving the personality-recently some teachers and
materials writers have designed exercises which practise
grammar,while at the same time requiring students talks
about themselves in a more involving way than in the previous
examples. They are asked to discuss things that affect their
personality and to this subject matter as a focus for grammar
practice.
4)games have been used in language teaching for long time
and they are especially useful for grammar.
5)written practice-grammar practice is often done through
writing. Students are frequently given homework exercises
which ask them to practice specific language items.
TESTING GRAMMAR
TYPES OF TEST
We can test the students ability to speak or write.we can test
students reading or listening comprehension skills.many test
include all these elements. But because marking written tests
take less time and are easier marking oral tests-most tests are
based on the written skills.
Tests which are given in schools and classes to find out how
will students have done are often called achievement tests
and are given after four or six weeks study,or after three or
four units of a coursebook,or after a semester,or gears work.
Tests are usually written by heads of departments or by
teachers of individual classes.
WRITING ACHIEVEMENT TESTS

Writing a test is an important job that demands skill and

patience. Good tests show both teacher and students,how will
they are all doing. Teacher should give everyone a chance to
show how much they have learnt. Test can often go wrong so
when writing tests,teachers should bear in mind the following
five rules:
1)dont test what you havent taught-because the main
purpose of an achiev test is to find out how well students have
achieved what they have been studying.
2) dont test general knowledge test writers should
remember that they are testing the students knowledge of
English ,not their knowledge of the world.
3)dont introduce new techniques in tests one thing that
confuses s never tudents in tests is the presence of
techniques that they have never seen before. If students are
given a set of jumbled words and asked to reorder them to
make a sentence,we would expect them to have seen this type
of activity before in class.
4)dont just test accuracy-it is vital that an achievement test
examines the students ability to use language not just their
knowledge of grammatical accuracy. Students must be given a
chance to write a letter ,a description or an essay at some
stage in the test. Items,which only test one thing are called
discrete items. Test items which test the students whole
knowledge of the language ,like essay writing ,are called
integrative items.
5)dont forget to test the test-when you write a test,there
often can arise unforeseen problems. Perhaps you forgot to
write
clear
instructions
,perhaps
there
are
some
mistakes,perhaps the tests is too difficult,or too easy. But if
the test is important for students ,you must try to ensure that
it works. The first thingto do when you have just written a test
is to show it to colleagues. They will often spot problems that
you didnt and they may be able to suggest improvements.
TEACHING GRAMMAR
Grammar is a part of a language system where we learn how
words interact with each other.
The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines
grammar as the roles by which words change their forms and
are combined into sentences. There are two basic elements in
this definition: the rules of grammar and the study and
practice of the rules.
The rules of grammar are about how words change and how
they are put together into sentences. For example, our
knowledge of grammar tells us that the word walk changes
to walked in the past tense.
Then, grammar is the way in which words change themselves
and group together to make sentences. Also, grammar is what
happens to words when they become plural or negative, or

what word order is used when we make questions, or join two

clauses to make one sentence.
There are two ways of teaching grammar: covert and overt
grammar teaching.
Covert grammar teaching is where grammatical facts are
hidden from the students, although they are learning
language. In this kind of teaching students are given an
information, gap activity, or read a text where new grammar is
practiced or introduced, but their attention will be drawn to
the activity or to the text-and not to grammar. With covert
grammar, teachers help the students to acquire and practice
the language but they dont draw conscious attention to any of
the grammatical facts of the language.
Overt grammar teaching means that the teacher provides the
students with grammatical rules and explanations the
information is openly presented.
When people learn language they encounter a number of
problems especially with grammar, which can be complicated
and sometimes confusing.
In teaching grammar teachers should make a distinction
between form and function and meaning and use, similarities
and differences between students own language and the
language that is being learnt and various exceptions that all
languages seems to suffer from.
ERRORS AND CORRECTION (MISTAKES)
Many teachers regard students errors as an evidence of
progress. Errors often show that students experiment with
language ,try out ideas,take risks attempt to communicate.
Errors give us a clear state of what is wrong and what should
be worked on. In dealing with errors teacher look for
correction techniques rather than simply giving students the
answers on a plate. Teacher help them to make their own
correction. So,teachers aims when correcting might include :
a)building confidence
b)raising awareness
c)a knowledging achievement and progress as well as
d)helping students to become more accurate in their use of
language.
Error is a systematic mistake. Errors should be corrected and
correction practise must be done both in individual and class
work. Errors are wrongly learned language.
Mistake is an occasional wrong use of language and teacher
should give a chance to students to selfcorrection .mistakes
could happen everyone.
Exept the grammar errors there are errors in intonation. When
work with oral errors in class teacher should make some
decision: 1)what kind of error has been made
2)is it useful to correct it
10

3)when to deal with it

4)who will correct
5)use the appropriate technique to indicate an error or to
enable correction
There are two basic correction stages: showing incorrectness
and using correction techniques.
1)showing incorrectness means that we indicate to the student
that a mistake has been made and if he or she understands
this feedback he ll able to correct the mistake and this selfcorrection be helpful to him as a part of a learning process.
There are a number of techniques for showing:
a) repeating-we ask a student to repeat what he said using the
word again with a questioning intonation to indicate that
student made errors
b)echoing-we repeat what student says with a questioning
intonation to indicate that something is wrong with his answer
c)denial-we can simply just say that the respons is
unsatisfactory and ask student to repeat it again
d)questioning-we can say is that correct? asking any student
in the class to answer our question.this has the advantage of
focusing everyone on the problem but the student who made
mistake may seem exposed
e)expression-we can indicate incorrectness by expressing or
gesture. It can be dangerous if student thinks that this kind of
correction is a for of mockery.
2) using correction twchniques
a)student corrects student-we can ask if anyone else can give
the correct response. We can ask if anyone can help but if we
do this insensitively the student who may mistake might feel
humiliated.
b)teacher corrects students-when we see that the majority of
the class have the same problem,its appropriate that we make
correction.
FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATION
Whwn we talk about fluency and communication ,an important
consideration here is the aim of the activity is it to improve
learners accurate use of English? If this is the case,then
immediate correction is much more appropriate than in,an
activity,where fluency is the objective. This is very important
distinction.
There are other factors to take into account when deciding if a
correction should be made:will it help or hinder learning? What
is my intention in correcting? Next question is when to correct?
The opinion include: immediately after a few minutes ,at the
end of the activity,later in the lesson ,at the end of the
lesson,in the next lesson,later in the coure or never. The
distinction between accuracy and fluency aims is again
important here. If the objective is accuracy, then immediate
correction is more likely to be useful,if the aims is fluency
11

,then immediate correction is less appropriate and any

correction will probably come after the activity has finished or
later. While the students are working ,you can listen in
discreetly and collect a list of errors.
Who corrects is next important question. There is selfcorrection,student-student, teacher-student, small group, all
class,coursebook. There are some ideas for correcting errors:
a) tell them,eg. Theres an error in that sentence
b)facial expression: surprise,raised eyebrows
c)gesture combined with facial expression
d)finger correction
e)repeat sentence up to error
f)ask a question
g) ask a one word question
h)draw a time line on the board
i)write the problem sentence on board for discuss.
When you speak ,you have to work on two things. One is
accuracy-getting everything correct.the other is fluencyspeaking at a good speed and communicating easily with other
people. In any way both accuracy and fluency is important.
ACTIVITIES AND LESSONS
CLASSROOM ACTIVITIES
A basic skill in teaching English as a foreign language is to be
able to prepare, set up and run a single classroom activity,
for example a game or a communication task or discussion.
Teacher should prepare the activity before the lesson. he
should be familiar with the activity, the knowledge of his
students. He should know how much time the activity will take,
he should think of possible problems or questions about
possible errors, what his role is going to be.. the activities
involves students in talking and listening to one another on a
personal level. This may help students to build good
relationship within the class. Each of activities is possible by
using the same material in different ways. For example: a) the
class discuss the problems and possible solutions, b) the
students write their feelings about the situations at home or
perhaps turn them into a story, c) the teacher dictatates a
situational description to the students and then invites one
student to invent and dictate the first line of the dialogue,then
another student does line two and so on, d) students make up
dialogues in pairs and perform them.
The activity you will chose will depend on what you want youe
students to learn from it. Most coursbook material will have
clear instructions for doing a single activity with specific aims.
The teacher has a number of options in organizing the activity.
For example the giving of instructions:
a) she could simply tell the class to read the coursebook
instructions and do the activity,b)she could give instructions
oraly, c) she could demonstrate the activity in front of the
12

whole class, d) she could start with an introduction to the

activity . very important is:
a) Pre-activity: introduction and lead in to activity
b)set up the activity-teacher should organize students so that
they can do the activity. Teacher should demonstrate or give
an example rather than explain
c)run the activity-if the instructions are clear,teacher can let
the students to do it by themselves.
d)close the activity-allow it to close properly. Teacher should
try to sense when the students are ready to move on. If you
want to close the activity while many students are working
,give a time warning
e) post-activity-it may be useful to have some of feedback
session on the activity. Learners can complet opinions ,check
answers,look at problems arising,etc.
KINDS OF LESSON
There are four basic lesson types:
1. LOGICAL LINE-in this type of lesson one activity follows the
next.
A--b--c-
Activity A leads to activity B,and activity B leads to activity c.
Activity C builds on what has been done in activity B,and
activity B builds on what has been done in activity A.
In work on language skills,the sequence of activities often
move from an overview toward work on specific details. For
example,
the
learners move gradually from
general
understanding
of
a
reading
text
toward
a
tailed
comprehension. In work on grammar ,the sequence of
activities might be: a)first we understand an item of language,
b) we practice it orally in drills, c) we get practice, d) we do
some written exercise to confirm our understanding.
There is probably one clear objective to the whole lesson. The
teacher has predicted possible problems and difficulties and
has prepared ways to deal with them when they come up in the
class. This kind of lesson is well prepared and the teacher
knows the aim of it during the lesson.
2. TOPIC UMBRELLA- this type of lesson may contain more
objectives than one. In this kind of lesson ,a topic provides the
main focal point for student work. The teacher might include a
variety
of
separate
activities,eg.on
vocabulary,
speaking,grammar,etc, linked only by the fact that the
umbrella topic remains the same. The activities can often be
done in a variety of orders without changing the overall
success of the lesson. In some cases activities may be linked.
There may be a number of related or disparate aims in this
lesson,rather than a single main objective. For example:
reading,listening,speaking,grammar.

13

3. JUNGLE PATH- in topic umbrella and logical line,teachers

have already planned a lesson and activities. They feel able to
predict,what language areas will be worked on. The essential
difference between this type of lesson and two previous is that
teacher works more with the people in the room ,and less with
material or plan. The starting point might be an activity or a
piece of material ,but what comes out of it will remain
unknown until it happens. In this type of lesson teacher do not
predict or prepare for the class so much,he created a lesson
moment by moment in class. Teacher and learners work
together discussing problems and options,find new activities..
its like a group of people walking through the jungle in search
of a new experiences and learning. Sometimes the teacher
leads,sometimes the students. For this kind of lesson teacher
should know the students well,their abilities ..lessons
objectives will be stated when the lesson finishes. For
example. A) the teacher asks; How was the weekend? after
the students answer ,she chooses one of the answers and
starts discussion about that topic. B) the teacher asks: what
shall we do today? and waits while the class decides taking
take not to manipulate them into deciding,something she
wants them to do.
4.RAG-BAG
This kind of lesson is made up of a number of unconnected
activities. For example,class can start with a chat on a specific
theme,followed by a vocabulary game,work In pairs and a
song. In this type of lesson there is no overall language
objective. Each separate activity might have its own aims.

ELICITING
Eliciting means drawing out informations ideas language from
the students,rather than having the teacher give them. Itas a
technique based on the principles that:
-students probably know more than we expect
- starting with what they know is productive way to begin new
work
- involving people in discussion in making questions or giving
answers is better than simply give them lector.
Involving students in work of discovering new language items
is more effective,more interesting for students and help
teacher to find out where the problems are. There are three
steps of eliciting:
1. convey a clear idea to the student using picture or
gestures,or questions
2.then they supply the appropriate information,language,etc.
3.teacher gives them a feedback.
Teacher
can
elicit
language
idea,feelings,meaning
context,memories,but cant elicit what the students dont
14

know. With this techniques there is a reduction in unnecessary

teacher talk and a maximization of student talk. The students
take an active part in the learning being involved even in the
part of the lesson that might otherwise be only teacher
explanation., the teacher is able to state what the students
know and what should be worked on,what has to be improved.
The language is learned through a process of quided discovery
and it has bigger chances of being memorable because of
students involvement in the learning. Eliciting is when you
dont tell students the new word or form,but ask from them to
think and try to elicite the word or form for them first.
COMMUNICATIVE ACTIVITIES
The aim of a communicative activity in class is to get learners
to use the language they are learning,to interact in realistic
and
meaningful
was
usually
involving
exchanges of
information. The activities are designed to provoke spoken
communication between students and between teacher and
students.
INFORMATION GAP- exists when one person in an exchange
knows something that other person doesnt. in this example
man A speaks to a woman B at a but stop>
A: excuse me!
B: yes?
A:do you have a watch?
B:yes..why?
A: I wonder if you could tell me what the time is?
B:certuinlyits three oclock.
A:thank you.
B: dont mention it.
The men who starts the conversation may have many reasons
for speaking. He may want to get into conversation with the
woman because he thinks sle looks interesting,ask the
question about the time may simply be a pretext for this. On
the other hand he may genvinely want to know the time. In
both cases there exists an information gap between what A
and B know, and conversation between them helps to close
that gap so that both speakers have the same information.
TEACHING ENGLISH TO CHILDREN
There is a big difference between what children of five can do
and what children of ten can do. Some children develop early
some later. We have divided the children into two main groups:
five to seven year olds,and the eight to ten year olds. Five to
seven year olds are all at level one the beginner stage. The
eight to ten year olds may also be beginners or they may have
been learning the foreign language for some time.

15

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF CHILDREN FROM FIVE TO

SEVEN YEAR OLDS
-They can talk about what they are doing
-they can tell you about what they have done
-thy can plan activities
-they can use logical reasoning
-they can understand direct human interaction
-they can argue for something and tell you why they think
what they think
-they know that the world is governed by rules
-they understand situations move quickly than they
understand the language used
-they use language skills long before they are aware of them
-their own understanding comes through hand ,eyes and
ears.the physical word is dominant at all times.
-they are very logical
-they have a very short attention and concentration span
-young children sometimes have difficulty in knowing what is
fact and what is fiction.
-they can be very reluctant to share. Its often so that children
are very self-centred up to the age of six and seven and they
cannot see things form someone elses point of view
-the adult world and the childs world are not the same.
Children dont always understand what adults are talking
about
-young children cannot decide for themselves what to learn
-young children are enthusiastic and positive about learning.
EIGHT TO TEN YEAR OLDS(GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS)
Their basic concepts are formed. They have very decided views
of the world.
-they can tell the difference between fact and fiction
-they ask question all the time
-they rely on the spoken word as well as the physical word to
convey and understand meaning
-they are able to make some decisions about their own
learning
-they have definite views about what they like and dont like
doing
They have a developed sense of fairness about what happens
in the classroom and begin to question the teachers decisions
-they are able to work with others and learn from others
Eight to ten years old have a language with all the basic
elements in place. By the age of ten children are:
-understand abstracts
-understand symbols
-generalise and systematize

16

CLASS MANAGEMENT AND ATMOSPHERE

First of all,we should respect our pupils and be realistic about
what they can manage at an individual level,then our
expectations will be realistic too. As a teacher we should treat
all our pupils equally.
HELPING THE CHILDREN TO FEEL SECURE
Security is not an attitude or an ability,but it is essential if we
want our pupils to get the maximum of the language lessons.
The things which will help to create a secure class atmosphere
are:
-pupils need to know what is happening
-respect your pupils
-whenever a pupil is trying to tell you something accept
whatever he or she says-mistakes as well
-pupils shouldnt laugh at others mistakes and this had to be
one of the rules of the class
-establish routines
-give the children the responsibility for doing practical jobs in
the classroom
-avoid /organized competition,because language learning is a
situation where everyone can win
-aivoid giving physical rewards or prizes
-dont give children English names
THE PHYSICAL SURROUNDINGS
Young children respend well to surroundings which are
pleasant and familiar. Teacher should put on the walls
calendars,posters,postcards,etc. encourage the children to
bring in objects or pictures or postacards and tell the rest of
the class a little bit about them in English. Your classroom is
probably used for other subject or other classes as well ,but
try to have an English corner-you need shelves,a notice
board,etc.
ARRANGING THE DESKS
You may want to arrange the desks in different way for
different lessons,but its much simpler if you decided on the
most suitable arrangement for a lesson and stick to it. Moving
desks during a lesson is a very noisy and time-consuming
business.
GROUPING THE CHILDREN
1.PAIRWORK-is a very useful and efficient way of working in
language teaching. It is simple to organize and easy to explain.
-let pupils who are sitting near each other work together
-establish a routine for pairwork ,so that when you say now
work in your pairs ,pupils know what is expected of them. The
routine depends on how your classroom is arranged
-pairwork means that everyone in the class is occupied but
even if everyone in the class is working on the same thing, not
all pairs will finish At the same time
-be on the lookout for pupils who simply dont like each other

17

2.GROUPWORK -Children should not be allowed to choose

their groups because this takes a lot of time and because it
usually means that someone is left out. If your pupils sit in
groups all the time, then its natural for them to work most of
the time in these groups. Particulary ,with the 8-10 year olds
you might want to put them in mixed ability groups some of
time,but sometimes group them according to ability clever
pupils can help not so clever ones if the group are mixed,but
also sometimes you need to help clever pupils.
1. start by having teaching groups-groups which you teach
separately from rest of the class
2. then you can go on to introducing self-reliant groups-groups
which are given something to do on their own with the teacher
only giving help when needed
3. start with just one group. Tell them clearly what the purpose
is
4. go through this process with all the groups before you cet
the whole class work in groups at the same time.
TOPIC-BASED WORK
Topic-based teaching is not the only way to organize your
teaching ,but its useful ,helpful,practical and exciting way to
teach. The reasons are: -by concentrating on a particular topicthe content becomes more important than the language itself
-the learning process is easier if associating words
functions,structures and situations with a particular topic
-the teacher may add personal or local touch to the material.
Now you organize your material within a topic is very personal
and is dependent on the particular class that you are teaching
at that particular time
-topic based teaching allows you to go into a subject and
brings out reactions and feelings in the pupils which are not
always covered in the textbooks
-topic-based teaching allows you to rearrange your material to
suit what is happening generally at the time of teaching
-the amount of time that you spend on a topic can be as long
or as short as you like ,depending on how much interest it has,
how much time you have available and how much material you
have
-since the emphasis in topic-based work is on content the work
in the classroom naturally includes all the language skills as
well as quided and free activities.
Choosing your topic-usually the teacher will decide which topic
to work on,but if the pupils are interested in a particular
subject,and you think they can do it in English ,then try to
work it into your timetable
Collecting material-once you have some idea of possible
topics,you should start looking for material at once-all sorts of

18

written and spoken texts,pictures,object,cards,ideas. When

you find something ,make a note of it at once.
We always think well remember our brilliant ideas but we
dont unless we make a note of them. Similarly,once youve
finished with a topic,make sure that all the materials you used
go back into the relevant files and boxes even the material
which didnt work well. Next year you may have a different use
form. The teacher will do most of the collecting and all the
spelling but the pupils can often help to find pictures of
objects in connection with a particular topic.

PLANNING YOUR WORK (TEACHING)

There is very little time available during a short lesson for you
to actually think. So, if you and your pupils are going to get
the maximum enjoyment and learning, then the lesson must be
carefully planned. All good teachers plan, just as they are
prepared to adapt their plans. Why good teachers plan their
work?
1. it makes life much easier for you in the classroom
2.it saves time:
-you can adapt the plan for future use
-you get quicker at preparing work with experience
-you become aware of how much time activities takes
3. you know what you will need for each lesson
4.you can more easily see how to balance your lesson
5. it allows you to use more of your energy and enthusiasm to
enjoy what youre doing instead of worrying about what to do
next
6.you can sometimes sit back and observe whats going
instead of planning the next activity in your head
7. as pupils get older, they become more aware of how wellprepared the lesson are, and they like to have well-prepared
lessons.
WHEN,HOW AND WITH WHOM TO PLAN?
We can divide planning into three stages: long, short term and
lesson planning. Although long term planning is followed by
short term planning which is followed by lesson planning ,the
three types of planning are different.
a) LONG TERM PLANING long term planning will take place
either before or at the beginning of term, and you can do it
before you ever see your pupils. If you can discuss with other
teachers, what they think about aims methods and assessment
19

-talk to the parents about what you intend to cover if this is at

all possible
-if you are using a textbook, look through the list of contents
and the teachers guide. If the book is topic based you might
decide to change the order
-if you are not using a textbook, decide roughly what you want
to cover this term and how long it will take you for each unit
term
-if you are working in a school where other subjects are
taught, try to work with other subject teachers as well
-if you are teaching in new surroundings, you should check
where everything is and what there is at school.
b) SHORT TERM PLANNING
-once your long term planning is done, then the short term
planning is much easier. A short term plan usually coverts from
three to ten lessons. If you have another teacher doing the
same work at the same level, you can work together at this
stage, although many teachers prefer to plan alone
-if you are using a textbook, then much of the work at this
stage is done for you. Most textbook are written by
experienced teachers and the lessons are carefully thought
out. If you are new to teaching, then follow them as far as you
can.
-look at the texts which are in one unit in the nook, or which
you have collected. Note down if there is anything that you
have to make or the children have to make
-decide what language items you are going to teach
-make quite sure you know how the language items are usedassessment is part of teaching ,so write assessment into your
plan at this stage
-dont let your short term planning get too detailed .its only a
rough guide, but it should show clearly where you are going
and what you hope to cover.
c) LESSON PLANNING
-lesson planning has to be done before every lesson. If you
have done short term planning, then the lesson planning is
easier you know whats gone before and whats coming after
-most new teachers start off by writing very detailed plans,
which become less detailed with time
-here are some points to remember when making your lesson
plans:
1) decide when and how to use group work
2)link this lesson with the one before and think about the one
after
3) the time of day is important. Dont do long noisy exercises
at four oclock on Friday afternoon
4)indicate how much time you think each activity will take
5)always have more activities than you think youll need
6)
balance:
quiet/noisy
exercises;
different
skills:
listening/talking/reading/writing
;
20

individual/pairwork/groupwork/whole class activities; teacherpupil/pupil-pupil activities

TESTING
If your head teacher ask you to prepare a test for your class
you can test:
A) the students progress over the course so far(a progress
test) or
b) their general level of English, without reference to any
course( a proficiency test)
the aim of test is to see if students have learned the language
they have been studying or have been exposed to. Most
internal school tests tend to be progress tests, most external
are usually proficiency tests. When preparing progress tests
you can test anything that has been studied. It usually means
the four language systems and the four language skills. Your
students course has probably included not only reading and
writing grammar and vocabulary, but also speaking, listening,
phonology and function. There are broadly speaking two kinds
of ways to write the questions:
a) discrete item
questions(items which only test one thing) , b) integrative
questions( items which tests the students whole knowledge of
the language). These can be marked in two ways: a)
objectively ( there is a clear correct answer and marker would
give the same marks to the same question), b) subjectively
( different markers might give different marks for the same
question).
A good test: a) will seem fair and appropriate to the students
and to anyone who needs to know the results-head teachers,
parents, etc.
b) will not be too troublesome to mark
c)will provide clear results that serve the purpose for which it
was set.
When write test teacher should follow some rules:
a) dont test what you havent taught
b)dont test general knowledge
c) dont introduce new techniques in tests
d)dont just test accuracy
e) dont forget to test your test.

TYPES OF TESTS
A) multiple choice- choose a,b,c,d, or choose items as a part of
a dialogue or sentence
B) fill the gaps-you may offer the words and not
c) sentence re-ordering-put the words in right order to make a
correct sentence
d)making a story-put the sentences in right order to make a
story
21

e)transformations test of the students knowledge of syntax

and structure students have to rewrite the sentences so that
they have the same meaning but different grammatical
structure
f)sentence-writing-students are given a picture where they
have to write whats on it ,may be use some structures-there
is/are..
g)finding and correcting mistakes- students have to cross out
the incorrect word
h)rewrite sentence in correct English
i)two-option answers- true-false/correct-incorrect
j)matching (pictures, words, sentence pieces..) write the
correct word under each picture, placing words in corrects
sets, etc.
k) using given words-put one word from the list below in each
gap.
FEEDBACK
Learning teaching is a desire to move forward to keep learning
from whatever happens. It involves feedback from others and
from ourselves about what happened. Learning teaching is a
belief that creativity ,understanding, experience and character
continue growing through out ones life. Learning teaching is
an aware an active use of the experimental learning cycle in
ones own life and work. Feedback from learners; feedback
from others/colleaques; feedback from you.
LANGUAGE SYSTEMS AND LANGUAGE SKILLS
Language systems:
a)vocabulary(meaning of the individual word) lexis
b)grammar (how words interact with each other)
c) phonology (how word sounds)
d)function ( how are words used in particular situation)
language skills: speaking and writing (productive) ; reading
and listening ( receptive).
SPEAKING ACTIVITY
Speaking is perhaps the most demanding skill for the teacher
to teach students to be able to express their emotions,
communicative intentions and reactions, explore the language
and make fun of it.
Its very important to practice speaking and when speaking is
practiced its important to pay attention more on fluency than
on accurate sentences.
There are a lot of communicative activities where students can
practice speaking. The aim of communicative activities is to
have ones students become communicatively competent. A
basic procedure for a communicative activity might be:

22

a) Teacher introduces and sets up activity(teacher centrestudent)

b) Students do activity (teacher uninvolved)
c) Teacher gets feedback (teacher center-stage again).
When a teacher gives a topic for a conversation he should
choose one which the students are interested in that they
have relevant knowledge or experience about it, something
they are familiar with. Teacher should give students some
time to prepare for a speaking practice-not to write down
speeches, but maybe a few notes, perhaps to look up
vocabulary in their dictionaries and to think through their
thoughts.
FLUENCY AND COMMUNICATION
Some activities as speaking on classes are focused on
fluency and some on accuracy. When the focus is on fluency,
teacher should not interrupt the student often to correct
him, he should not interfere in students speaking because
It will bring less communication.
DRAMA AND ROLEPLAY
Drama is an excellent way to get students using language.
It can be a very good start for exciting listening and
speaking work and it can be used to provide practice in
specific grammatical, lexical or phonological areas. Success
or failure of drama activities depends on the perceived
attitude of the teachers and of the students. Six types of
drama activity classrooms:
a) Roleplay- students act out small scenes using their own
ideas and information
b) Simulation the intention is to create a much complete,
complex word
c) Drama games short games that usually involve
movement and imagination
d) Guided improvisation-a scene is improvised
e) Acting play scripts
f) Prepared improvised drama-students in small groups
invent a short scene or story that they perform for the
others.
WRITING ACTIVITY
In many classrooms writing activities are maybe less often
than the other three skills. In spite of these there are a lot of
reasons why writing is important and useful to practice.
a) Many students have specific needs that require them to
work on writing skills: examination preparation is area
where written work is still very important.
b) Writing involves a different kind of mental process. There
is more time to think, to prepare, find better solutions.
c) It can give the teacher a break.
ACTIVITIES
23

Important activities about writing activity are:

a) Picture stories-can be a starting point for writing
exercises, but also very useful for practicing speaking
and listening. The students are given a picture and they
have to make a story out of it.
b) Writing notes-individual work. Each student writes a note
and hand it to another. Notes run through the classroom
and each student has to answer or write something back
to the one that wrote him.
c) Coping-insisting on accuracy.
d) Doing exercises-preparing students for a writing activity
e) Guided writing
f) Free writing-more attention is paid on fluency.
Some ways in which guided writing exercises can help students
prepare for a writing task are:
a) Students think about the topic before they write
b) Students brainstorm ideas and approaches
c) Students discuss the topic with other students
d) Students do some preliminary writing exercises-making
notes, answering questions, etc.
There are some options available to teacher in correcting
writing:
a) Use a green or a blue pen! (not red)
b) Discuss the marking criteria with students
c) Write the corrections in the margin
d) Underline all errors of one type
e) Discuss the work with the individual students
f) Use errors from a number of different students writing to
devise an exercise, game, etc.
g) Student mark each others work
h) Give a dictation based on sentences from their way.
Ideas for writing tasks are:
a) Write real letters-to members of Parlament, to prisoners,
to fan club, etc. Send them. Get replies . Write back.
b) Publish your own newspaper, magazine, etc.
c) Advertise
d) Instant poetry you could do this as a simple dictation
e) Long-term projects
f) Computer word-processing
g) Students prepare the teachers material, etc.
READING ACTIVITY
Reading is like a listening a receptive skill and similar
teaching procedures can be used to help learners. People
read at different speeds and in different ways. There are
two basic approaches to reading:
1) EXENSIVE READING-where the aim is to gain an overall
understanding of a text or story where is less important
24

to understand every word individualy, but to caught up a

general flow of the story.
2) INTENSIVE READING(accurate read) where we have to
understand information or language use in detail.
Intensive read is often used in short sentences or
sections. This is how we might read a paragraph on
philosophy or a grammar explanation for example.
In order to make students better readerswe must help them
understand that its the most important to read fluently and
accurately and not to understand every word they read, or
even most words they read, but still achieving a specific and
useful goal.
There are many activities used to increase reading speed
but the most important are:
a) Read quickly and get the gist of a passage(gist-the main
theme of a text)
b) Read quickly and find a specific piece of information.
The first idea is also known as siziming. Siziming is
mainly concerned with finding topics, main ideas ,basics
structure, etc. the students are supposed to find answers
quickly without reading every word or phrase of the
passage. The second idea is known as scanning. Students
are supposed to find a specific piece of information. They
move they eyes quickly over the page searching for
words . Some ideas for reading tasks are:
a) Put these illustration of the text in the correct order
b) Put these cut-up paragraphs back in the correct order
c) Find words in the text that mean the same as the
words in this list
d) Read the text and find the mistakes in this illustration
e) Read the text and make a list of particular items
f) Give a headline to each section of the article
g) Write a reply
h) Look at the title and the illustrations
i) Solve the problem
j) Discuss or write the missing last paragraph of the text
k) Make notes under the following headings
l) Before you read the text make notes about what you
already know about the subject
m) Put this list of events in the correct order.

LISTENING ACTIVITY
We can use listening work in the classroom as way to
help focus on language systems( grammar or
vocabulary). Teacher need to show students that they
shouldnt worry so much if they dont understand
everything , but work on catching the bits they do
need to hear. Student wants to improve his listening.
25

When doing a listening activity,teacher should allow

some rules:
1) The activity must really demand listening,
otherwise it easily turn on for example writing and
reading activity
2) The aim mustnt be simply a memory test
3) Tasks should be realistic or useful in some way
4) The activity must actively help them to improve
their listening
5) It shouldnt be threatening
6) Help students to overcome difficulties and achieve
specific results.
If we give students questions before the tape is listened we
help them in that way that we give them opportunity to listen
what matters we give them a clear aim. If we do that ,we turn
our activity from a memory test into a listening task. This
question first technique is known as task before tape.
TASK-BASED LISTENING: some techniques
Some listening tasks are obviously more difficult than others.
An important point is that the students getting the right
answer is not necessarily the most important thing. A student
who finds all the correct answers on first hearing and with no
difficulty has simply not been challenged but the tape. It
means that the task is too easy for them. If we want to help
students listen better, we may use some techniques:
- Teacher should play tape a sufficient number of times
- Let students discuss their answers together ,in pairs
- Let them all do the task, not just one or a few best students
- Play little bits of the tape, a word, phrase or sentence as
long as it becomes clear
- Task should be difficult but achievable
- Teacher shouldnt cheat students by changing requirement
in halfway.
grade the task-not the tape means dont worry too much
about what student level the recording is suitable for-but to
make sure your task is set for the right level. It is possible to
use any tape with any level. At beginner level teacher could
ask students to watch the names of every famous person they
heard. But at much higher level teacher could expect from
students to be able to understand most of the tape and do a
more complicate tasks.
Extensive listening is listening where students should
understand the whole text and gain an overall impression.
Intensive listening is listening where students are supposed to
understand a particular word, or phrase, or sentence.
Principles of learning and teaching vocabulary
26

However many theories about vocabulary learning process

were written , it
still remains the matter of memory. Thus, there are several
general principles
for successful teaching , which are valid for any method.
According to Wallace,
1988 the principles are:
- aim what is to be taught, which words, how many
- need target vocabulary should respond students real needs
and
interests
- frequent exposure and repetition
- meaningful presentation clear and unambiguous denotation
or
reference should be assured
Learning vocabulary is a complex process. The students aim to
be reached
in learning vocabulary process is primarily their ability to recall
the word at
will and to recognize it in its spoken and written form.
Generally, knowing a word involves knowing its form and its
meaning at the
basic level. In deeper aspects it means the abilities to know its
(Harmer 1993):
1) Meaning, i.e. relate the word to an appropriate object or
context
2) Usage, i.e. knowledge of its collocations, metaphors and
idioms, as well as
style and register (the appropriate level of formality), to be
aware of
any connotations and associations the word might have
3) Word formation, i.e. ability to spell and pronounce the word
correctly, to
know any derivations (acceptable prefixes and suffixes),
4) Grammar, i.e. to use it in the appropriate grammatical form
LANGUAGE LEARNING THEORIES AND APPROACHES
LANGUAGE LEARNING BASED ON PSYCHOLOGICAL THEORIES
BEHAVIOURISM AND COGNITIVISM
No one knows exactly how people learn languages, although a
great deal of research has been done into the subject. The
idea of conditioning is based on the theory that you can train
an animal to do anything. To do this you need to follow a three
stage procedure, where the stages are: stimulus, response and
reinforcement. For example, a signal light is operated (the
stimulus),the rat goes up to a bar and presses it (the
response) and a tasty food pellet drops at its feet( the
reinforcement). If the rats behavior is reinforced a sufficient
number of times it will always press to bar when the light
comes on. Reinforcement in this example took the form of a
27

reward and therefore was positive. In a book Verbal

Behaviour ,the psychologist Skinner applied this theory of
conditioning to the way humans acquire their first language.
He said that language is a form of behaviour. Because we are
concerned with a form of behavior, this theory is called
behaviourism.
The
same
model
of stimulus-responsereinforcement accounts for how a human baby learns a
language. An stimulus such as hunger prompts crying as a
response, and this crying is reinforced by the milk that is
made available to the baby. Behaviourism was adapted for
some time by language teaching methodologists, particulary in
America and the result was the audio-lingual method, still
used in many parts of the world. This method made constant
drilling of the students, followed by positive or negative
reinforcement a major focus of classroom activity. The
language habit was formed by constant repetition and the
reinforcement of the teacher.
Congitivism is a theory that was represented by psychologist
Chomsky. He published a strong attack on Skinners Verbal
Behaviour. He asked himself if language is learnt behavior,
how is it that young child can say things, that they have never
said before?
Language is not a form of behavior, Chomsky maintained. On
the contrary, it is an rule-based system and a large part of
language acquisition is the learning of the system. It is
competence that a child graduate acquires, and it is this
language competence that allow children to be creative as
language users. The idea that language is not a set of habit
has informed many teaching techniques and methodology
students are often encouraged to use rules to create
sentences on their own.

28