3rd International Conference on Managing Rivers in the 21st Century:

Sustainable Solutions for Global Crisis of Flooding, Pollution and Water Scarcity

Flooding in Sungai Maka catchment in the town of Tanah Merah, Kelantan

RAYHANA S. PANGILAN, MSc Student, River Engineering and Urban Drainage Research Centre (REDAC),
Universiti Sains Malaysia, Engineering Campus, Seri Ampangan, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia, Email:
ersp0427@gmail.com
TZE LIANG LAU, Senior Lecturer, School of Civil Engineering, Universiti Sains Malaysia, Engineering Campus, Seri
Ampangan, 14300 Nibong Tebal, Penang, Malaysia. E-mail: celau@eng.usm.my
ABSTRACT
Flooding has been a global issue since time immemorial. Though some of its occurrences are beneficial such that it produces a natural
resource, viz., a fertile land, most flooding that has direct impact upon human beings cause destructions of properties and loss of lives.
Malaysia is one such country that experiences this phenomenon. Although Malaysia is situated in a geologically stable belt with no
earthquake and volcanic activities, large scale flooding as the combination of geographical, climatic, topographical, hydrological and
human systems has routinely affected many parts of the country to varying degrees. Heavy rainfall brought about by the monsoon
climate primarily causes several accounts of flooding in this country. Moreover, inundation in the floodplains is worsened by poor
urban drainage practices. The Sungai Maka catchment in the town of Tanah Merah, in the state of Kelantan is particularly
experiencing this setback. The town as a whole has several water issues. Foremost of which is the flooding due to the regular bank
overflowing (monsoon effect) of the Sungai Kelantan where the town is situated. Sungai Maka has a direct link to Sungai Kelantan
thereby making the flood occurrences in the catchment very crucial. A review of the causes and extent of flooding conditions in the
catchment as well as some flood mitigation measures are presented in this paper.

Keywords: Flooding; monsoon climate; urban drainage practices; Sungai Maka catchment.

Introduction

Flood, which is defined as body of water which rises to

overflow land which is not usually submerged, had
taken place in many parts of the globe and its impact
upon human lives and activities had been severe
especially in the recent decade (Smith & Ward, 1999).

In Malaysia, the states of Kelantan, Johor and Penang,

among others, experiences flooding in varying scales as
these are flood prone areas in the Peninsular Malaysia
as shown in Figure 1.

: flood prone areas

Figure 1 Flood Prone Areas in Malaysia (DID, 2011)

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The town of Tanah Merah in the state of Kelantan

is particularly distressed with annual flooding due to
Sungai Kelantan (Kelantan River) bank overflowing
which occurs at least once a year. This is an effect of a
northeast monsoon climate experienced in the country
that occurs between Novembers and February and
brings about heavy rainfall, as much as 600 mm during
intensive precipitation (DID, 2010).
The Department of Irrigation and Drainage (DID)
Kelantan reported the flooding occurrences in Tanah
Merah town in years 2003, 2004 and 2005 which were
all caused by backflow of floodwater from Sungai
Kelantan to the town areas. The highest number of
flood victims recorded was in 2003 where it reached to
as many as 2,599 individuals. This flood incidence also
claimed two lives that got drowned in the flooding
during the rigorous flash flooding. Number of flood
victims and lives lost as well as worth of damages in
properties/livelihood of the flood victims for 2003-2005
are shown in Table 1.

Sungai Maka is one of the six catchments in Tanah

Merah and the most affected part of the flooding
occurrences in the town due to its proximity to Sungai
Kelantan. This catchment commands an area of 940
hectares and covers the entire town center. Its
boundaries are delimited in Figure 2.
Sungai Maka (Maka River) is the main waterway
running in the catchment. It is 10 km in length and
flows through the southern part of Tanah Merah and
drains to Sungai Kelantan downstream. Snapshots of
this river in its different locations (natural condition),
viz. two upstreams, midspan, downstream and
confluence with Sungai Kelantan are given in Figure 3.
Flooding condition in the catchment, on the other hand
is documented in 2007 as shown in Figure 4.

Table 1 Tanah Merah Direct Loss of Floods in 2003, 2004

and 2005 (DID, 2010)
Year
2003
2004
2005

Flood
Victim
681
2599
1613

Life Lost
(No)
2
1

Flood Damage
(RM)
26,300.00
462,000.00
346,000.00
Figure 2 Boundaries of Sungai Maka Catchment in Tanah
Merah, Kelantan (DID, 2010)

F
Figure 3 Conditions of Sungai Maka (DID, 2010)

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3rd International Conference on Managing Rivers in the 21st Century:

Sustainable Solutions for Global Crisis of Flooding, Pollution and Water Scarcity

Figure 4 Flooding in Sungai Maka catchment in 2007 (DID, 2010)

Poor design and management of the urban

stormwater system also contribute to the flooding in the
catchment. In an overall assessment in the Masterplan
study (DID, 2010), the existing stormwater system in
the whole town is ineffective to contain and convey
stormwater due to insufficient drainage facilities and
fragmented urban drainage practices in the area.
Inadequacy of these drainage practices in the town is
exemplified in Figure 4. Lacking of maintenance in the
main drains while some other main roads do not have
drains, illicit discharges in the drains and presence of
stagnant water and debris in them are the factors that
worsen the flooding situation in the area.
The town is currently undergoing a rapid rate of
development which inevitably heightens the effects of
urbanization. In transforming formerly vegetated areas
into impervious roads/structures, runoff volume and
peak discharges are increased which subsequently
exacerbates the flooding condition.

Several stormwater-related issues are experienced

by the Sungai Maka catchment in particular and the
Tanah Merah town in general. These issues are chiefly
comprised of the following: water quantity issues,
effects of urbanization and management issues (DID,
2010).
2

Water quantity issues

Flooding is the main issue pertaining to stormwater

problems in the catchment. Primarily, the monsoon
flood due to Sungai Kelantan bank overflowing is the
main cause of the flooding that takes place within the
catchment due to its proximity to the Sungai Kelantan.
The whole of the town itself has a natural low and flat
terrain which compounds the flood problem. Flood
mitigation of the Sungai Kelantan is rendered
ineffective as well so much so that the inhabitants in
this region are already used to experience flooding on a
regular mode.

(a) No maintenance on main drains

(b) Effluent discharges into main drains

(c) Main roads without main drains

(d) Stagnant water and debris on main drains

Figure 5 Inadequate urban drainage practices in Tanah Merah (DID, 2010)

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In Japans Comprehensive Flood Control

Measures, basin-wide management is taken into
consideration in preservation of retention areas such as
installation of permeable pavement, seepage pit, among
others; preservation of retarding areas to conserve
urbanizing areas; and preservation of low land areas
such as construction of water-resisting architectures
(Fukami et al., 2005).
While structural measures involve engineering
based solutions, non-structural measures on the other
hand involve a broader range of disciplines, particularly
from the social sciences (Chan, 1997). It comprises of
land use planning and control, flood forecasting and
warning systems, social resettlement, disaster
management, emergency evacuation, relief and
rehabilitation, public awareness and education
programmes and effective flood control legislation to
name a few. The non-structural activities implemented
by various groups in Dhaka City, Bangladesh, after the
devastating flood hit the city in 1988 and 1998 include
emergency services, flood proofing of buildings, flood
fighting, flood shelter and recovery and reconstruction
(Faisal et al., 1999).
In the pursuit of the countrys vision for a
developed nation in 2020, Malaysia is striving to keep
up with the trend of developed countries especially with
regard to implementation of sustainable urban drainage
system. Sustainability in terms of not only alleviating
the menaces brought about by the floods but also
preserving what is left of the natural environment in the
process. This system also upgrades previous drainage
practices such as a rapid conveyance system into a
storage-at-source drainage system. It will have to
integrate structural and non-structural measures in flood
mitigation as well.
In the Stormwater Management and Drainage
Masterplan Study for the town of Tanah Merah,
Kelantan (DID, 2010), both measures have been
extensively discussed.
The structural drainage master plan particular to the
Sungai Maka catchment includes construction of
control structures, waterway upgrades, drainage
upgrades, construction of detention facilities and water
quality structures.
Since the primary issue pertaining to flooding in
the catchment is due to the Sungai Kelantan bank
overflowing which occurs on a regular mode, water
control structures are extremely needed in the
catchment for the towns protection from flood. Sluice
gates and multiple pumps comprise these structures as a
means of obstructing flood water from entering the
town and thereby reducing its susceptibility to flash
floods.
Next to the monsoon flood, the poor condition of
the existing waterways and drains in the catchment is a
factor for the flooding as well. As such, necessary
improvement to these channels shall be effected. It will
involve full construction of waterways which require
reprofiling, enhancement of other channels with slight
improvement and maintenance and preservation of

Effects of urbanization

Effects of urbanization have been serving its toll in the

quality of waters in the area. Aftermath of urbanization
such as pollution generation is one of these effects. The
growing population in the town is one factor causing the
increase in pollutant yields. As human beings generate
most waste and pollution, population increase would
entail increase in quantity of pollution yielded.
Construction activities in the area also cause
excessive erosion which is another factor for the
increased pollutant yields. This is further worsened by
rubbish dumped in waterways indiscriminately.
Apparently, proper waste disposals are not practiced in
this side of the town.
Down the line, this pollution generated is gradually
concentrating in the natural water bodies and gravely
affect the aquatic life in them. It also decreases the
volume of dissolvent in these bodies of water which
cause the potential of the water body for self cleansing
to be lost. Natural waterways create useful structures
such as pool, riffles and drops that are very useful in
doing the unique self-cleansing ability of river/stream
(DID, 2010). However, all of these will be lost when the
natural flow of such rivers/streams are altered, much
worse when they are polluted.
4

Management Issues

Regulations on maintaining and operating stormwater

system in the town are rendered poor and ineffective if
there is any. This is exemplified by illegal discharges
and heavy pollutant loads in the waterways and the poor
drainage design that was constructed in the town.
Cleanliness and good condition of the drains are not
observed at all and vegetation grows excessively on
main drains and gross pollutants are being trapped in
these drains.
Consequently, the aesthetic function of the natural
waterway is lost due to this inappropriate management
and lacking of enforcement of regulations in the
maintenance of these waterways. It is also attributable
to the lacking of public knowledge of these functions
and amenities of these natural rivers/streams that urban
dwellers have such abusive attitudes toward urban
rivers/streams.
5

Flood mitigation measures

Demands for flood mitigation have been increasingly

sought due to destructive after effects of flooding.
Existing flood mitigation measures being applied by
various countries may be generally categorized into
two, viz. structural and non-structural measures.
Structural measures are hard engineering solutions
basically aimed at controlling the flood which may
involve river channel upgrading, construction of dams,
reservoirs, embankments, levees, retention ponds,
diversion channels and the likes.

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3rd International Conference on Managing Rivers in the 21st Century:

Sustainable Solutions for Global Crisis of Flooding, Pollution and Water Scarcity

components alone was not enough to mitigate the flood

(Farouque et al., 2007).

existing waterways where drainage capacity is already

sufficient. These improvements are necessary to
facilitate proper conveyance of stormwater from
existing drains to the waterways.
Absence of detention facilities in the catchment is
another factor of the flood heightening. Floodwater is
directly routed to the waterways which causes overflow
during heavy precipitation and water backflow from
Sungai Kelantan. For that, nine units of detention ponds
are proposed in the catchment to alleviate excessive
runoff. Further exploration of the configuration/size of
these ponds for optimum usage is recommended.
For water quality enhancement, regional BMPs and
gross pollutant traps (GPTs) are proposed in the
catchment to help eliminate harmful source of
pollutants brought about by the flood water.
However, these structures alone are not sufficient
to mitigate the flooding if appropriate management and
operation and maintenance are not in place. An
emphasis on the apposite management of the
stormwater system is a highlight of the non-structural
measures in the flood mitigation since it will determine
the sustainability of the urban drainage system in the
catchment.
One such measure is public outreach and education.
This endeavour is usually given less attention by
authorities since it is considered to be an undertaking
on the sidelines. However, for urbanizing areas,
public education regarding the citizens responsibilities
towards a sustainable environment is of paramount
importance. The increase in the quantity of pollution
generated will aggravate the already deplorable
condition of the waterways which further leads to
catastrophic problems, not only flooding, but also health
problems among the urban dwellers.
Hence, there is a need to strengthen
advocacies/education regarding the role of the citizens
in the over-all operation of the urban drainage system in
the catchment as well as their involvement in flood
management process. Massive information on proper
waste disposals which include segregation of wastes
before dumping, appropriate maintenance of
waterways/drainages, preservation and appreciation of
the natural rivers/streams in the community are few
examples of these endeavours.
Further, the involvement of the general public in
the flood management processes will bring about
enhanced viability to flood mitigation measures, aside
from fostering better informed members of the society.
Non-structural methods of flood mitigation are less
expensive
compared
to
structural
measures.
Nevertheless, its impact on flood mitigation endeavours
can not be understated as they serve to augment and
reinforce the structural measures in alleviating the
hazards brought about by the flood. An example of
combining these measures in flood management is
evident in Bangladesh, where combination of both
structural and non-structural measures was promoted as
they experienced firsthand that focus on the structural

Flooding issues in Sungai Maka catchment in the Tanah

Merah town have various factors, foremost of which is
the regular bank overflowing of the nearby Sungai
Kelantan due to a monsoon climate. This is further
exacerbated by several stormwater-related issues in the
catchment such as poor management of urban drainage
system, effects of urbanization and management issues.
Mitigation measures for flood occurrences in this part
of the town are proposed which consisted of structural
and non-structural components. Structural components
proposed particularly in the catchment include
waterway upgrades, drainage upgrades, construction of
detention facilities, control structures and water quality
structures. The highlighted non-structural measure for
the catchment was on massive information
dissemination on the citizens responsibilities in the
sustainability of the urban drainage system in particular
and the natural environment in general.
Acknowledgment
The authors would like to thank the Universiti Sains
Malaysia (USM) for the financial assistance rendered
under the USM Fellowship. Deep appreciation is also
extended to the technical staff of the River Engineering
and Urban Drainage Research Centre, Universiti Sains
Malaysia (REDAC, USM) for the completion of the
Stormwater Management and Drainage Masterplan
Study for the Town of Tanah Merah, Kelantan, under
the Malaysian government funding.
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