CECW-EH-D Department of the Army EM 1110-2-1618

U.S. Army Corps of Engineers

Engineer Manual Washington, DC 20314-1000 10 July 1989
1110-2-1618
Engineering and Design

COASTAL INLET HYDRAULICS

AND SEDIMENTATION

Distribution Restriction Statement

Approved for public release; distribution is
unlimited.
 EM 1110-2-1618
28 April 1995

US Army Corps
of Engineers

ENGINEERING AND DESIGN

Coastal Inlet Hydraulics and

Sedimentation

ENGINEER MANUAL
 DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY EM 1110-2-1618
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
CECW-EH-D Washington, DC 20314-1000

Manual
No. 1110-2-1618 28 April 1995

Engineering and Design

COASTAL INLET HYDRAULICS AND SEDIMENTATION

1. Purpose. This manual describes methods for evaluating the hydraulic and associated sediment
transport problems encountered at coastal inlets. Guidance is provided in selecting and applying such
methods to support the various investigations required for U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE)
civil works activities. The manual references publications that contain the theoretical basis of the
methods and detailed information on their use.

2. Applicability. This manual applies to all HQUSACE elements, major subordinate commands,
districts, laboratories, and field operating activities having civil works project design responsibilities.

FOR THE COMMANDER:

 DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY EM 1110-2-1618
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers
CECW-EH-D Washington, DC 20314-1000

Manual
No. 1110-2-1618 28 April 1995

Engineering and Design

Coastal Inlet Hydraulics and Sedimentation

Table of Contents

Subject Paragraph Page Subject Paragraph Page

Chapter 1 Chapter 5
Introduction Design Analysis of Tidal Inlets
Purpose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-1 1-1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-1 5-1
Applicability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2 1-1 Navigation Channel Design . . . . . . 5-2 5-1
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-3 1-1 Jetties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3 5-4
Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-4 1-1 Sand Bypassing . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-4 5-9
Background and Scope . . . . . . . . . . . 1-5 1-1 Economic Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . 5-5 5-9
Overview of Manual . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-6 1-1
Chapter 6
Chapter 2 Physical Modeling of Tidal
Inlet Geomorphology and Geology Inlets
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1 2-1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1 6-1
Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-2 2-1 Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2 6-1
Classification Schemes . . . . . . . . . . . 2-3 2-4 Model Preparation . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-3 6-1
Morphology and Processes . . . . . . . . 2-4 2-8 Model Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-4 6-2
Sedimentation and Stratigraphy . . . . . 2-5 2-13 Types of Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-5 6-5
Sand Resource Potential of Example Model Studies . . . . . . . . 6-6 6-7
Inlet Deposits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-6 2-23 Listing of Physical Model
Studies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-7 6-24
Chapter 3
Hydrodynamic Analysis of Tidal Chapter 7
Inlets Numerical Modeling of Tidal
Purpose and Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-1 3-1 Inlets
Governing Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-2 3-1 Purpose and Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-1 7-1
Hydraulic Parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-3 3-4 Overview of Physical
Inlet Stability Criteria . . . . . . . . . . . . 3-4 3-7 Processes Considered . . . . . . . . . 7-2 7-1
Long-Wave Models . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3 7-2
Chapter 4 Short-Period Wave Models . . . . . . 7-4 7-7
Sediment Budget and Shoaling Rates Wave-Induced Current Models . . . 7-5 7-8
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-1 4-1 Sediment Transport . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6 7-9
Components of a Coastal Numerical Modeling Systems . . . . 7-7 7-10
Sediment Budget . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2 4-1 Numerical Model Implementation . 7-8 7-10
Example Application . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3 4-3 Design Use of Model Results . . . . 7-9 7-11
Shoaling Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-4 4-11

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Subject Paragraph Page Subject Paragraph Page

Chapter 8 Appendix B
Guidelines for Planning Tidal Notation
Inlet Monitoring
Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1 8-1 Appendix C
Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-2 8-1 Summary of General Investigation of Tidal
Phase I: Reconnaissance . . . . . . . . . 8-3 8-2 Inlets (GITI) Program Reports
Phase II: Preliminary Measurements . 8-4 8-5
Phase III: Detailed Field Study . . . . . 8-5 8-7 Appendix D
Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-6 8-11 Acknowledgement

Appendix A
Bibliography

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Chapter 1 (8) EM 1110-2-1613, Hydraulic Design of Deep-

Introduction Draft Navigation Projects.

(9) EM 1110-2-1614, Design of Coastal Revet-

ments, Seawalls, and Bulkheads.
1-1. Purpose
(10) EM 1110-2-1615, Hydraulic Design of Small
This manual provides guidance for the development, Boat Harbors.
improvement, and maintenance of navigation and flood
control projects at entrances to tidal inlets. Factors are (11) EM 1110-2-1616, Sand Bypass System Design.
presented that should be considered in providing safe and
efficient navigation facilities with the least construction (12) EM 1110-2-2904, Design of Breakwaters and
and maintenance costs. The design engineer is expected Jetties.
to adapt general guidance presented in this manual to site-
specific projects; deviations from this guidance are accept- (13) EM 1110-2-5025, Dredging and Dredged Mate-
able if adequately substantiated. As the state of the art rial Disposal.
advances, this manual will undergo periodic revision.
b. U.S. Government Publications.
1-2. Applicability
Shore Protection Manual (SPM), 4th ed., Vols I and
This manual applies to all HQUSACE elements, major II, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station
subordinate commands, districts, laboratories, and field (WES), Coastal Engineering Research Center. Available
operating activities having civil works responsibilities. from Superintendent of Documents, U.S. Government
Printing Office, Washington, D.C. 20402.
1-3. References
1-4. Bibliography
The references listed below are required to carry out the
design effort described in this manual. Bibliographic information throughout this manual is
denoted by author and date corresponding to the listing in
a. U.S. Army Corps of Engineers Publications.1 Appendix A. These documents are available for loan
upon request to the WES Technical Information Library,
(1) ER 1110-2-1404, Deep-Draft Navigation Project 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS 39180-6199.
Design.
1-5. Background and Scope
(2) ER 1110-2-1458, Shallow-Draft Navigation Pro-
ject Design. Providing systematic design guidance for tidal inlets is a
most difficult task. This is principally due to the inherent
(3) EM 1110-2-1202, Environmental Engineering for complexities in the morphology, migration patterns, and
Deep-Draft Navigation. hydrodynamics of tidal inlets. A thorough understanding
of the processes which control the inlet/back-bay system,
(4) EM 1110-2-1412, Storm Surge Analysis. however, will help assure that the design of engineering
structures, or the modification of inlet hydraulics, will
(5) EM 1110-2-1414, Water Levels and Wave result in the most efficient project design. Optimally,
Heights for Coastal Engineering Design. such designs will have minimal impact on the tidal inlet
system.
(6) EM 1110-2-1502, Coastal Littoral Transport.
1-6. Overview of Manual
(7) EM 1110-2-1607, Tidal Hydraulics.
a. Coastal engineering projects at tidal inlets often
require estimation of sediment transport, channel stability,
____________________ structure stability, and a critical assessment of project
1
U.S. Army Corps of Engineers publications available requirements. The design engineer can gain insight about
from: USACE Publications Depot, 2803 52nd Avenue, a tidal inlet project by dividing the system into
Hyattsville, MD 20781.

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components and accurately assessing or classifying each barriers, and future impacts of proposed channel deepen-
component. A thorough understanding of the complex ing on the entire inlet system.
tidal inlet system is essential for proper planning and
design of coastal structures at tidal inlets. Basic f. Engineering design of tidal inlets involves either
principles for making these decisions are presented in this improvements to an existing inlet or development of a
manual. new inlet. Structural improvements at inlets may include
construction or rehabilitation of jetties, breakwaters, or
b. This manual is general in nature and therefore sand bypassing plants. The ability to anticipate project
requires that engineering judgment be exercised when impacts and implement appropriate measures to alleviate
applying methods and procedures presented herein to adverse effects are the keys to successful design practice.
actual tidal inlets. Although a thorough understanding of It is also important that the designed features perform
the underlying concepts is not essential in performing their intended functions with minimum maintenance
tidal inlet design analysis, a basic understanding of the requirements. Chapter 5 discusses design aspects of inlet
hydrodynamic processes and their interaction with the projects, including navigation channel design, jetty design
structural and geomorphic features present in the inlet theory and principles, types of construction material,
system are required to ensure proper application. stability considerations, and studies of estimated costs and
benefits.
c. This manual contains eight chapters. Chapter 1
provides an introduction and overview of the remaining g. Chapter 6 describes the physical modeling of tidal
chapters. Chapter 2 describes the geomorphology and inlets. Physical model studies of inlets are typically
morphodynamics of tidal inlets. Because inlets interrupt designed to investigate various methods of maintaining an
the continuity of coastal processes, they exert a dramatic effective navigation channel through an inlet. Additional
influence on shoreline erosional and depositional trends, inlet-related problems that can be addressed by physical
sediment transport patterns, and sediment budgets. Suc- models include optimizing structure dimensions and loca-
cessful design and implementation of an inlet project tions, shoaling and scouring trends, tidal prism changes,
require an ability to predict the morphologic behavior of and salinity effects. Model theory, including assumptions
an inlet; this chapter provides the necessary background and limitations, is discussed. Fixed-bed and movable-bed
information for making such predictive determinations. models are described and examples of each are provided.
Various inlet classification schemes are presented and Considerations of scale, distortion, historical applications,
examples of types of information that can be gained utility of physical models, and combined numerical and
through geomorphic and geologic analysis are physical models are discussed.
demonstrated.
h. Numerical models and their application to tidal
d. Hydrodynamic aspects of tidal inlets are described inlet analysis are discussed in Chapter 7. Various types
in Chapter 3. In addition to a presentation of the govern- of numerical models and modeling systems that have been
ing equations and general hydrodynamic parameters, applied in Corps inlet studies are presented. A brief
techniques for evaluating inlet stability are discussed. description of each model is given, followed by model
Classic work by O’Brien, Bruun, Bruun and Gerritsen, input and output requirements, example model applica-
Keulegan, and Jarrett regarding relationships between inlet tions, and additional references.
cross-sectional area, tidal prism, maximum throat velocity,
and littoral transport rate are reviewed. i. Chapter 8 presents guidance related to monitoring
existing inlet projects. Criteria needed to evaluate struc-
e. Chapter 4 focuses on sediment budget analyses of ture performance, recommended equipment, instrumenta-
tidal inlets. Included are discussions of factors to be tion, and surveying techniques are outlined.
considered in an inlet sediment budget analysis and a
detailed summary of a sediment budget study performed j. Appendices A and B respectively provide lists of
for Beaufort Inlet, North Carolina by the Wilmington references and notation appearing in the text. Appendix C
District. The sediment budget analysis was used to help presents an annotated bibliography of publications from
evaluate shoaling patterns in the inlet area, bypassing the General Investigations of Tidal Inlets (GITI) program.
mechanisms, effects of earlier dredging on the adjacent

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Chapter 2 long-term morphologic trends. Thus, the best source of

Inlet Geomorphology and Geology information for predicting the behavior of tidal inlets
comes from a thorough understanding of their geomorph-
ology and sedimentation. It is the purpose of this chapter
to provide the necessary background information for mak-
2-1. Introduction ing such predictive determinations. In addition, this chap-
ter will review the general stratigraphy of tidal inlets to
a. Purpose and scope. provide an appreciation of their three-dimensional vari-
ability, ultimate sediment dispersal patterns, and utility as
(1) Tidal inlets are prevalent morphologic features a source of sediment for beach nourishment or replenish-
along the coastlines of the United States. They are most ment projects.
commonly associated with the barrier island shorelines
that typify the geomorphology of the east and Gulf of b. Objectives. The major objectives of this chapter
Mexico coasts. Recent surveys of the coast from Long are to describe and evaluate the following:
Island to Florida suggest that there are over 144 presently
active tidal inlets; another 164 inlets in this same area are (1) Specific definitions of the geomorphic features
inferred from historical maps, navigation charts, or aerial that comprise tidal inlets and the different types of inlet
photographs (McBride and Moslow 1991). Many of these systems.
inlets provide the primary navigation link between the
ocean and inland waterways, harbors, and ports. Along (2) Standard classification schemes for tidal inlets
the coasts of Maine and the western United States, tidal and the types of information gained from such
inlets are much less frequent but play equally as important classifications.
a role in coastal processes, sedimentation, and erosion.
(3) Morphology and process of deposition at tidal
(2) Tidal inlets serve as extremely important conduits inlets including the geologic controls on inlet distribution,
for the exchange of water and sediments between bays, position and migration, and inlet sedimentation patterns.
lagoons, or estuaries and the continental shelf. Because
they interrupt the uniformity and continuity of coastal (4) Sedimentology and stratigraphy of tidal inlet
processes and sediment transport, tidal inlets exert a tre- deposits.
mendous influence on shoreline erosion/deposition trends,
sediment budgets, and migration history. Many tidal (5) Sand resource potential of inlet deposits.
inlets are either ephemeral in nature or are associated with
rapid large-scale morphologic changes. Thus, the behav- 2-2. Definitions
ior of inlets can have extremely significant environmental,
social, and economic impacts. a. Inlets.
(3) For the coastal engineer, a thorough understand- (1) In the broadest sense of the term, an “inlet” is
ing of the geomorphology and sedimentation of tidal generally recognized as a relatively small-scale waterway
inlets is a critical prerequisite to successful design analy- that connects an inland body of water with the ocean.
sis. For example, any project to create or maintain an The term inlet is generally associated with those channels
inlet channel cannot be assured of success without first that serve as conduits for the exchange of waters during
acquiring a knowledge of the sediment hydrodynamics the tidal cycle between a lagoon, bay, or estuary and a
and migration characteristics of that inlet. In general, larger tidal body. These inlet channels are referred to as
successful design and implementation requires an ability tidal inlets, and are by far the most common type of inlet
to predict the behavior and performance of a tidal inlet. found on the coastlines of the United States. It is impor-
The best source of information for making such an assess- tant to realize, however, that inlets do exist in nontidal
ment comes from long-term frequent observations and site environments such as lake basins. There are numerous
monitoring. For those inlets undergoing long-term main- examples of such inlets along the shorelines of the Great
tenance programs, this may not present a serious problem. Lakes.
Alternatively, in areas where new projects are being
developed, historical navigation charts and maps may (2) On a geological level, tidal inlets can be catego-
provide the best available information. However, in most rized as one of the following three types: (a) marine,
instances, such historical information is either not avail- (b) fluvial, or (c) bedrock controlled. Marine tidal inlets
able or is reliable only as a baseline indicator of major

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are associated with barrier island coastlines and thus are approximately equal size and shape. Such situations are
common to the U.S. east and gulf coasts. Fluvial tidal rare; typically one of the two deltas is dominant in all
inlets are found in coastal areas influenced by a combina- dimensions.
tion of marine and fluvial processes, such as abandoned
river deltas. Tidal inlets along the Louisiana coastline are (2) Tidal deltas. Hayes (1969, 1980) proposed the
examples of this inlet type. As a function of the active following terminology and definitions for tidal deltas: (a)
tectonic uplift common to the western continental margin ebb-tidal delta - sediment accumulation seaward of a tidal
of North America, tidal inlets along the Pacific coast of inlet, deposited primarily by ebb-tidal currents and modi-
the United States are often bedrock-controlled. They are fied by waves and (b) flood-tidal delta - sediment accu-
also relatively rare in a coastal setting of this nature. mulation formed on the landward side of an inlet by
flood-tidal currents. Engineers often refer to these sand
b. Morphologic features. deposits as the interior shoal (flood-tidal delta) and the
outer shoal (ebb-tidal delta) (Dean and Walton 1975).
(1) General. Variations in tidal inlet geomorphology Components of typical ebb- and flood-tidal deltas have
are a function of the hydrographic and hydrodynamic been identified by geomorphologists through numerous
regime, specifically, tidal range, tidal prism, and wave field investigations and aerial reconnaissance.
energy. The balance and interaction between these
parameters in any open system dictate the relative size, (a) Ebb-tidal deltas. Hayes (1980) developed a
distribution, and abundance of inlet-affiliated morphologic model for ebb-tidal delta morphology that displays all its
features. The principal morphologic units associated with major components (Figure 2-2). By way of providing a
tidal inlets are tidal deltas, inlet channel(s), and recurved definition for these morphologic features, the following is
spits. For the sake of clarity and consistency in use, the extracted from Hayes (1980):
spatial relationships of these main morphologic elements
are illustrated in Figure 2-1 for a tidal inlet situated along • Main ebb channel - a channel which usually
a barrier island coastline. This figure depicts a hydrody- shows a slight-to-strong dominance of ebb-tidal
namic setting in which there exists a relative balance currents over flood-tidal currents.
between tidal and wave energy resulting in tidal deltas of

Figure 2-1. Block diagram displaying the depositional environments associated with a barrier island shoreline
(after Reinson (1984))

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Figure 2-2. Model of the ebb-tidal delta morphology. Arrows indicate dominant direc-
tion of tidal currents (from Hayes (1980))

• Channel-margin linear bars - flanking the main • Flood channels - channels dominated by flood cur-
ebb channel on either side, built by the interaction rents that bifurcate off the flood ramp.
of ebb- and flood-tidal currents with wave-gen-
erated currents. • Ebb shields - topographically high rims or margins
around the tidal delta that protect portions of it
• Terminal lobe - a relatively steep, seaward-sloping from modification by ebb currents.
lobe of sand at the seaward end of the main
channel. • Ebb spits - spits formed by ebb-tidal currents.

• Swash platforms - broad sheets of sand that flank • Spillover lobes - lobate bodies of sand formed by
both sides of the main channel. unidirectional currents.

• Swash bars - built by swash action of waves on (3) Inlet channel(s). The following definitions are
the swash platforms. provided for the various morphologic features of inlet
channels (Figure 2-2):
• Marginal flood channels - marginal tidal channels
dominated by flood-tidal currents; usually occur (a) Gorge - main section of the inlet channel where
between the swash platform and the adjacent primary tidal flows occur.
updrift and downdrift beaches.
(b) Flood (marginal) channels - secondary channels
(b) Flood-tidal deltas. A model for flood-tidal delta of flow during flood tide conditions, typically located on
morphology, as developed by Hayes (1980) (Figure 2-3), either side of the inlet between the barrier island beach
consists of the following morphologic features: and the ebb-tidal delta.

• Flood ramp - seaward-facing slope on the tidal (c) Throat - the narrowest part of the inlet channel
delta over which the main force of the flood cur- cross section.
rent is directed.

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Figure 2-3. Model of flood-tidal delta morphology. Arrows indicate dominant direction of tidal currents
(from Hayes (1980))

(d) Main ebb channel(s) - secondary channels of a. Geologic classification.

flow during ebb tide.
(1) The fundamental geologic classification distin-
(4) Recurved spits. The barrier beach on the updrift guishes between primary features, which are the result of
side of a laterally migrating tidal inlet is a recurved spit geologic (tectonic) activity, and secondary features, which
(Figure 2-4). The spit is characterized by a series of are the result of modifications of primary landforms by
curving beach ridges and an intertidal ridge and runnel natural processes. Primary inlets exist where tectonic
system that is welded onto the channel margin of the spit activity, such as fault block movement, or glacial activity
and fronted by foredunes. resulting in the breaching of a sill or other feature, creates
a previously nonexistent egress to the sea or other large
2-3. Classification Schemes body of water. These features are generally restricted to
fluvial outlets.
All commonly accepted tidal inlet classification schemes
are based on a recognition of the controls on morphology, (2) The more common inlet is a secondary feature
sedimentation, and stratigraphy exerted by natural envi- that is the result of marine or tidal processes that have
ronmental factors and depositional processes. The most created a breach in an island or spit and maintain the
important of these are tidal range, wave energy, tidal connection through tidal flow. Potentially, a tidal inlet
prism, and sediment supply. Varying classification may develop on any depositional shoreline where anteced-
schemes are presented in this section, all of which under- ent topography and sea level fluctuations permit such a
score the inherent relationship between tidal inlets and the geometry to develop. The maintenance of large tidal
associated barrier island shoreline. shoals is dependent on available sediment supply.

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(a) Overlapping offset. Exists where there is an ade-

quate sediment supply and unidirectional or strong net
transport, e.g., Fire Island Inlet, New York (Figure 2-5a).

(b) Updrift offset. Exists where there is an adequate

updrift sediment supply and moderate to weak net
transport.

(c) Downdrift offset. Exists where there is an inade-

quate supply of sediment and weak net transport. When
there is an insufficient supply of sediment, the updrift
beaches become the sediment source and, thus, recede at a
faster rate than the downdrift beaches. Southern New
Jersey beaches provide a classic example of the downdrift
offset, e.g., Absecon Inlet, New Jersey (Figure 2-5b).
Figure 2-4. Oblique aerial photograph of recurved spit
on the updrift margin of a laterally accreting tidal inlet, (d) Negligible offset. Exists where wave directions
Kiawah River Inlet, SC are equally distributed through the year and there is little
or no net transport. Consequently, wave energy is
b. Morphologic classification. focused equally on the updrift and downdrift island ends,
e.g., Ocracoke Inlet, North Carolina (Figure 2-5c).
(1) A morphological classification of inlets was
developed by Galvin (1971) that relates inlet geometry (2) Each of these configurations can be created artifi-
relative to the island segments it separates and net sedi- cially through the placement of engineering structures, or
ment transport. Four classes of natural inlets are defined, by altering the sediment supply along the reach of coast-
three of which are shown in Figure 2-5. line. Updrift offsets are particularly sensitive to structural

2-5. Examples of inlet types: (a) overlapping offset (Fire Island Inlet,
New York), (b) downdrift offset (Absecon Inlet, New Jersey), and
(c) negligible offset (Ocracoke Inlet, North Carolina) (after Swift (1976))

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modifications. An example of a structurally imposed c. Hydrographic classification.

updrift offset inlet is Ocean City Inlet, Maryland. Classic
examples of overlapping offset inlets occur at Fire Island, (1) Tidal inlets are intrinsic parts of the barrier
New York, and at Chincoteague Inlet, Virginia, where the shoreline in which they exist. Thus, they are subject to
distal end of Assateague Island has accreted past classification based on the hydrographic processes (wave
Chincoteague Island. Table 2-1 shows the relationship energy and tidal range) affecting the coastal system as a
between each of the inlet geometries and sediment trans- whole. Davies (1964) delineated three types of shorelines
port conditions (Galvin 1971). based on tidal characteristics, shown in Table 2-2.

Table 2-1 Table 2-2

Inlet Geometry and Sediment Transport Shoreline Classification Based on Tidal Range

Overlapping Updrift Downdrift Negligible Class Tidal Range

Offset Offset Offset Offset
Microtidal coast <2m
Availability Adequate Adequate Reach is ? Mesotidal coast 2-4 m
of Sediment updrift updrift only updrift Macrotidal coast >4m
source

Transport Relatively Relatively Relatively ? (2) Based on regional observations of coastlines from
Ratio Tidal/ equal equal less around the world, Hayes (1975) identified consistent mor-
Longshore longshore
phologic trends for each of the three classes of coast
Transport 1.0 < 1.0 < 1.0 Near 0 delineated by Davies (1964). In so doing, Hayes (1975)
Ratio Net/ and Hayes and Kana (1976) developed the classification
Gross scheme for non-deltaic coastlines which is currently the
most popular with sedimentologists and coastal geomor-
Wave 1 direction 1 direction 1 direction 2 directions
phologists. This coastal classification scheme is summa-
Direction only dominant dominant equal
rized in Figure 2-6, which illustrates the distribution of

Figure 2-6. Distribution of shoreline types with respect to tidal range (after Hayes (1975, 1979))

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major shoreline morphologies, including barrier islands - Well-developed ebb-tidal deltas.

and tidal inlets, relative to tidal range. From this associa- - Poorly developed or absent flood-tidal deltas.
tion, it can be seen that tidal inlets and tidal deltas are - Downdrift offset configuration related to wave
almost exclusively restricted to the microtidal and meso- refraction around large ebb-tidal deltas.
tidal ranges, and are inversely proportional to the density
of barrier islands within these ranges. In microtidal areas, (c) Macrotidal.
barrier islands are laterally extensive and tidal inlets are
infrequent (Figure 2-7a); however, in mesotidal areas, - Barrier islands absent.
barrier islands are shorter and occur in association with - Well-developed tidal flats and salt marshes.
more numerous tidal inlets and deltas (Figure 2-7b). A - Depositional features in the form of linear sand
summary of the shoreline morphologic characteristics that shoals or tidal current ridges.
could be expected for each of the three coastal types as - Funnel-shaped embayments.
classified by tidal range are presented below:
Through a comparison of mean wave height and mean
(a) Microtidal. tidal range, Hayes (1979) modified the Davies classifica-
tion as indicated in Table 2-3.
- Long, linear barrier islands.
- Frequent storm washover terraces.
Table 2-3
- Infrequent tidal inlets. Coastal Types - Medium Wave Energy (H = 60-150 cm)
- Poorly developed ebb-tidal deltas.
Class Tidal Range (m) Example
- Well-developed flood-tidal deltas.
Microtidal 0-1 Gulf of St. Lawrence
(b) Mesotidal. Low-mesotidal 1-2 New Jersey
High-mesotidal 2 - 3.5 Plum Island, Mass.
Low-macrotidal 3.5 - 5 German Bight
- Short, stunted (drumstick) barrier islands. Macrotidal >5 Bristol Bay, Alaska
- Numerous tidal inlets.

(a) Microtidal (b) Mixed-tide, mesotidal

Figure 2-7. A wave-dominated barrier island model (after Hayes (1979))

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(3) Each of these classifications carries connotations morphology, and migration. This section presents an
of a range of shoreline morphologies that could be formed overview of geomorphic models for tidal inlets, their
given an adequate sediment supply. Most of the tidal processes of formation, and relevance to migration and
inlets in the United States fall into the microtidal and behavior. Hayes (1967) and Pierce (1970) documented
mesotidal categories. Hubbard, Barwis, and Nummedal inlet formation by the seaward return of storm-surge
(1977) cataloged 27 inlet-lagoon systems between North breaching narrow areas along a barrier island. In this
Carolina and Florida to determine the relative geometries manner, narrow, shallow, ephemeral inlets form during
of inlet and lagoon features. The conclusions of this hurricanes and migrate in a downdrift direction. If the
study, based on the southeast coast of the United States, tidal prism is unable to maintain these hurricane-generated
were that the wave-dominated (microtidal) inlets of North inlets, landward swash-bar migration and overwash seal
Carolina and Florida have small ebb-tidal deltas close to the inlet mouth. Inlets whose origin can be attributed to
shore, wide throats with multiple sand bodies, and signifi- storm processes generally occur in microtidal (wave-
cant inner shoals (Figure 2-8a). Tide-dominated inlets dominated) settings. Price and Parker (1979) and Tye
(mesotidal) typically have large ebb-tidal deltas extending (1984) allude to paleotopographic control in the formation
offshore, well-defined deep main channels and throats, of tidal inlets and suggest that, during the Holocene trans-
and few inner shoals (Figure 2-8b). Georgia and South gression, tidal inlets were concentrated in, and confined
Carolina have an increased tidal range due to shoaling of to, Pleistocene estuaries and fluvial channels. Although
the tide over the broad shallow offshore shelf. Tide- documented examples are few, those inlets whose forma-
dominated inlets are common to these coasts of Georgia tion was strongly controlled by paleotopography most
and South Carolina. commonly occur on mesotidal (tide-dominated) shorelines.

(4) The classification developed by Hayes (1979) has a. Geomorphic models.

been accepted as a standard. The morphology character-
istic of each of the tidal regimes is of a scale sufficient to (1) The interaction of wave regime and tidal range
be well-represented on historical maps and charts. has a profound effect, not only on the morphology, but
Consequently, semi-quantitative estimates of the tidal also on the migration and behavior of tidal inlets and
regime controlling a region can be made for discrete times barrier islands. In microtidal settings, long, narrow,
in the past, and the development of an inlet system can be wave-dominated barriers extend for tens of kilometers and
traced and predicted. are separated by ephemeral, rapidly migrating tidal inlets.
The associated flood-tidal deltas, deposited by waves and
2-4. Morphology and Processes tidal currents, form large, lobate sand bodies in the
lagoon. Wave energy and flood-tidal currents exert more
Many studies in coastal geomorphology and engineering influence on sedimentation than ebb currents; therefore,
have focused on the modes of tidal inlet formation, ebb-tidal delta development is poor. Wave-dominated

(a) Wave-dominated (b) Tide-dominated

Figure 2-8. Tidal inlets (after Hubbard, Barwis, and Nummedal (1977))
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inlets migrate laterally along the shoreline in a downdrift barrier, closing the earlier inlet channel (Figure 2-10).
direction for many kilometers and at relatively rapid rates. Landward, out of the influence of wave transport, silt and
As the hydraulic efficiency of the inlet decreases, wave- clay accumulate in the former channel due to the absence
reworked ebb-tidal delta sands accumulate in the inlet of strong tidal currents.
mouth, resulting in closure of the inlet channel and aban-
donment of the flood-tidal delta. Fisher (1962) identified b. Inlet migration processes. Many tidal inlets natu-
positions of former tidal inlets in the Cape Lookout area rally migrate alongshore in the direction of net longshore
of North Carolina by locating vegetated relict flood-tidal drift. The rate and mechanisms of inlet migration vary
deltas attached to the landward side of the barriers depending on several factors including wave climate, tidal
(Figure 2-9). range, depth of the main channel, nature of the substrate
into which the channel is incised, sediment supply, and
(2) Unlike wave-dominated coasts, tidally influenced rate of longshore sediment transport. Rates of migration
mesotidal barriers often assume a stunted, drumstick- can be highly variable. Measured examples include
shaped configuration. These barriers are wider, extend for 90 m/year (300 ft/year) for Nauset Inlet, Massachusetts;
several kilometers, and are separated by numerous, more 60 m/year (200 ft/year) for Fire Island Inlet, New York;
stable tidal inlets. The backbarrier lagoon and flood-tidal 40 m/year (130 ft/year) for Captain Sam’s Inlet, South
delta of the wave-dominated shoreline are replaced by salt Carolina; and 2 m/year (7 ft/year) for Sandy Neck spit,
marsh and tidal creeks. Tidal current dominance over Massachusetts (Hayes 1980).
wave energy helps to confine these inlets, restricting
downdrift migration to less than 2 km (1.2 miles). c. Natural sediment bypassing.
Tidally influenced inlet channels are deflected downdrift
by preferential addition of sand to the updrift lobe of the (1) Inlet sediment bypassing is the transport of sedi-
ebb-tidal delta. These inlet channels lose hydraulic effi- ment (sand) from the updrift to the downdrift margin of
ciency and breach the barrier to form a shorter updrift the tidal inlet. This process is fundamental to understand-
channel. Large sediment lobes are reworked from the ing and predicting shoreline erosion and deposition trends
former ebb-tidal delta and eventually weld onto the

Figure 2-9. Morphologic evolution of wave-dominated inlet-related sand bodies (modified from Fisher (1962) in
Moslow and Tye (1985))

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Figure 2-10. Diagram illustrating the bar-bypass mechanism for inlet channel
abandonment (from Moslow and Tye (1985))

in areas adjacent to the tidal inlet. Bruun and Gerritsen (2) Extensive and/or rapid channel migration is gen-
(1959) first described the natural mechanisms of inlet erally associated with relatively shallow tidal inlets
sediment bypassing and related the variables involved in (Model 1, Figure 2-11) while deeper tidal inlets are less
this process using the equation: likely to migrate as they have a greater probability of
incising into semi-consolidated sediments (Models 2 and
r = Mmean /Qmax 3, Figure 2-11). In an historical analysis of tidal inlets
along the South Carolina coast, FitzGerald, Hubbard, and
where r equals the ratio between the average rate of long- Nummedal (1978) documented that inlets deeper than 8 m
shore sediment transport to the inlet Mmean and the maxi- (26 ft) had been stable for the previous 100 years while
mum discharge to the inlet during spring tidal conditions those inlets shallower than 3 to 4 m (10 to 13 ft) were
Qmax. In so doing, Bruun and Gerritsen defined three associated with extensive inlet migration and spit breach-
methods by which sand "bypasses" tidal inlets: (a) by ing. Migration and spit breaching are more common to
wave-induced sand transport along the outer margin of the wave-dominated tidal inlets. However, if the tidal prism
ebb-delta (terminal lobe), (b) through transport of sand by is small enough, or where the backbarrier is infilled with
tidal currents in channels, and (c) by the migration and salt marsh and tidal flats, as is characteristic of mesotidal
accretion of sandbars and tidal channels. They concluded shorelines, migration of the inlet often results in a shore-
that inlets with high ratios (r = 200 to 300) bypass sand parallel elongation of the inlet channel (Model 1,
along the terminal lobe, while inlets with low ratios Figure 2-11). In such cases, a storm or hurricane will
(r = 10 to 20) bypass sand through methods (b) and (c). breach the updrift part of the spit and establish a more
Subsequent field studies by geologists refined the original hydraulically efficient inlet. A classic example of an inlet
concepts of Bruun and Gerritsen. FitzGerald (1988) pro- that has experienced several episodes of migration and
posed three models to summarize the mechanisms of tidal breaching is the Kiawah River Inlet in South Carolina.
inlet migration through sediment bypassing on microtidal
and mesotidal coasts. These models are shown in Fig- (3) Stable inlets have an inlet throat and main ebb
ure 2-11 and are summarized below. channel that do not migrate. Migration in these inlets can

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a. Model 1 b. Model 2

c. Model 3

Figure 2-11. Models of inlet sediment bypassing for mixed energy mesotidal coasts (after FitzGerald, Hubbard, and
Nummedal (1978))

be restricted by antecedent topography or incision into landward migration and accretion of large bar complexes
semi-consolidated material. Inlets of this type can occur to the downdrift margin (Hine 1975) (Model 2,
in any hydrographic setting but are more commonly asso- Figure 2-11).
ciated with bedrock-controlled inlets or those that can
attribute their origin to ancestral distributary channels. (4) Ebb-tidal delta breaching through bar-bypass-
Sand bypassing at these inlets occurs through the ing is the major process of channel migration and

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abandonment at tide-dominated inlets (Figure 2-10). Tidal (2) Variations in flood- and ebb-tidal delta morphol-
inlets associated with this process have a stable inlet ogy are a function of tidal prism, backbarrier morphology,
throat, but the main ebb channel migrates or “pivots” with and relative wave energy. Figure 2-13 illustrates varia-
time (Model 3, Figure 2-11). Migration occurs through tions for three areas: Texas, South Carolina, and New
downdrift over-extension of the main ebb channel and England. South Carolina ebb deltas are generally more
subsequent breaching of a shorter updrift channel. Ebb- elongate and more ebb-dominated than those in New
delta breaching and bar bypassing occur rapidly at smaller England because of less wave energy and a larger tidal
inlets (Sexton and Hayes 1982), but one cycle of inlet prism. In Georgia, the increased size of ebb-tidal deltas
channel migration and abandonment took over 100 years and the near absence of flood-tidal deltas can be attributed
at Capers, Price, and Stono Inlets in South Carolina (Tye to two factors: large tidal range and small waves, which
1984). enhance the tide dominance of the inlets; and the ratio of
open water to marsh in the estuaries is such that inlet
d. Tidal deltas. flow is ebb-dominant (i.e., peak and mean ebb velocities
exceed those for flood (Nummedal et al. 1977).
(1) The overall morphology of ebb- and flood-tidal
deltas is a function of the interaction of tidal currents and (3) Patterns of sand transport on tidal deltas are quite
waves. Especially important is the phenomenon of time- complex and very difficult to measure in the field. How-
velocity asymmetry of tidal currents. As described by ever, an excellent documentation of sand transport pat-
Postma (1967), maximum ebb- and flood-tidal current terns for the ebb- and flood-tidal deltas of Chatham
velocities do not occur at mid-tide. Of critical signifi- Harbor, Massachusetts, was performed by Hine (1975)
cance is that maximum ebb currents typically occur late in (Figure 2-14) and by Imperato, Sexton, and Hayes (1988)
the tidal cycle, near low water. This means that at low for Edisto Inlet, South Carolina (Figure 2-15). Note that
water, as the tide turns, strong currents are still flowing Chatham Harbor presently does not have the configuration
seaward out of the main ebb channel. As water level shown in Figure 2-14, because of major hydrodynamic
rises, flood currents seek the paths of least resistance and morphological evolution caused by creation of a new
around the margin of the delta. This process creates the inlet through Nauset Beach (northern barrier island in
horizontal segregation of flood and ebb currents in the Figure 2-14) which was breached on January 2, 1987 (Liu
tidal channels that ultimately molds and shapes the tidal et al. 1993). Both Hine and Imperato, Sexton, and Hayes
deltas. The segregation of tidal flow around and through mapped tide- and wave-generated current transport path-
flood- and ebb-tidal deltas is shown in Figures 2-2 and ways and concluded that proximal parts of the deltas
2-3. A typical tidal current time-velocity curve for an (main ebb and flood marginal channels) are dominated by
ebb-tidal delta is shown in Figure 2-12.

Figure 2-12. Typical tidal current time-velocity curves for an ebb-tidal delta (from Hayes (1980))

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and auger drill holes from coastal North and South

Carolina, Moslow and Tye (1985) demonstrated sharply
contrasting sedimentary sequences and stratigraphy
between wave- and tide-dominated inlet-fill deposits.
This variation in inlet sequences is primarily a function of
the antipathetic relationship between wave height and tidal
range. In addition to hydrographic regime, antecedent
topography and sediment supply are important factors in
determining the sedimentologic nature of tidal inlet
sequences.

b. Sedimentation. Shore-parallel lateral migration of

tidal inlet channels erodes and redeposits significant por-
tions of the adjacent shoreline. In addition, tidal inlet
channels and tidal deltas serve as natural sinks for sedi-
ment and can through time, acquire very large dimen-
sions. Numerous coring investigations in microtidal and
mesotidal settings on the U.S. east and gulf coasts have
documented that an average of 30 to 50 percent of barrier
shoreline deposits can be attributed to tidal inlet
sedimentation.

c. Vertical sedimentary sequences.

(1) Wave-dominated tidal inlets.

(a) Sediments deposited in wave-dominated tidal

inlets form distinct fining-upward channel deposits of
fine- to coarse-grained, moderately sorted, quartzose sand
and shell. One depositional cycle of wave-dominated
inlet fill as observed in cores consists of coarse-grained
inlet floor lag deposits overlain by the active inlet channel
and capped by spit platform or overwash sands. Vertical
sequences at Johnson Creek (Figure 2-16) and Beaufort
Inlet (Figure 2-17), North Carolina illustrate this gradually
fining upward sand deposit and are presented here as
being characteristic of most wave-dominated inlet
Figure 2-13. Tidal delta variations for the shorelines sequences. Differing vertical sequences evident at these
of Texas, South Carolina, and New England (after inlets are a function of paleotopographic control, tidal
Hayes (1980)) prism, and sediment supply.

tidal currents, whereas distal portions (periphery) are (b) Structureless coarse shell and gravel lag deposits
dominated by wave-(swash) generated currents. of the inlet floor are found at the base of Johnson Creek
and Beaufort Inlet sequences. Inlet floor deposits consist
2-5. Sedimentation and Stratigraphy of relatively clean, coarse sand with thick, highly frag-
mented, and abraded shells. Cored inlet floor deposits
a. General. Sediments associated with relict (aban- range from 0.3 to 0.6 m in thickness. Coarse-grained
doned) tidal inlets can serve as large reservoirs of sand shell material, sand, and pebbles were deposited as a lag
for beach nourishment projects. Thus, an understanding in the deeper portions of the active inlet channel where
of the geometry and three-dimensional variability of inlet current velocities are greatest during tidal exchange.
deposits can be extremely beneficial in identifying proper Similar deposits have been sampled on the bottom of
sources and volumes of nourishment material. From their modern tidal inlet channels in the Cape Lookout area.
analyses of Holocene sediments in vibracore, wash bore,

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Figure 2-14. Net sand transport pattern on the ebb-tidal delta of Chatham Harbor,
Massachusetts (from Hine (1975))

Figure 2-15. Orientation of bed forms and patterns of sand transport

at North Edisto Inlet, South Carolina (from Imperato, Sexton, and
Hayes (1988))

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Figure 2-16. Fining-upward wave-dominated inlet sequence in the vicinity of Johnson Creek, Core Banks, North
Carolina (after Moslow and Tye (1985))

(c) The Johnson Creek and Beaufort Inlet sequences (2) Tide-dominated tidal inlets.
are in sharp, erosional contact with underlying dense,
compact Holocene and Pleistocene muds. The pebbly (a) Two distinct and predictable sedimentary
gravel and shell lag of the inlet floor facies grades upward sequences are deposited by tide-dominated inlet channels.
into coarse- to fine-grained active inlet channel sand. The The first of these is formed by the landward migration of
active inlet channel is the thickest sedimentary unit within large intertidal/supratidal sand ridges (bar-bypass mecha-
wave-dominated inlet sequences and is up to 6.5 m (21 ft) nism; Figure 2-10) that partially closed the inlet channel
at Johnson Creek (Figure 2-16). The depth of inlet scour mouths at Price, Capers, and Stono Inlets. Inlet bar-
and reworking of earlier channel deposits by a later inlet bypass created 8- to 12-m-thick (26- to 39-ft-thick), sand-
scour event accounts for the large range in channel thick- rich, fining-upward deposits of inlet floor, active inlet
nesses. Active inlet channel sand is quartzitic, often channel, and swash platform (ebb-tidal delta) overlain by
pebbly, and can contain an abundance of broken and foreshore and dune (Figure 2-18). Landward of the
abraded shells. Size analyses of the active inlet channel welded swash bar, cored inlet sediments on Capers Island
sediments indicate a generally fining-upward trend in reveal a fining upward mud-rich sequence of active inlet
grain size. channel and abandoned inlet channel overlain by tidal
creek and salt marsh deposits (Figure 2-19). Maximum
(d) Fine- to medium-grained overwash (Johnson sand thicknesses (combined inlet floor, inlet channel, and
Creek, Figure 2-16), and very fine- to fine-grained spit spit platform deposits) occur at the seaward extent of the
platform and dune sands (Beaufort Inlet, Figure 2-17) cap abandoned channel and interfinger landward with mud-
the wave-dominated inlet sequences. dominated, abandoned inlet channel deposits.

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Figure 2-17. Tidal inlet sequence deposited by the lateral migration of Beaufort
Inlet (after Heron et al. (1984))

(b) Sedimentary characteristics (lithology and bed- (c) Figure 2-19 illustrates the second (mud-
ding) of the sand-rich, tide-dominated deposits resemble dominated) sequence of inlet deposits from abandoned
wave-dominated inlet deposits discussed earlier. A basal channels at tide-dominated inlets. An updip lithologic
shell and pebble lag (inlet floor) is scoured into Pleisto- change from sand to mud occurs because swash bars
cene sediments. Fine- to medium-grained inlet channel closed the inlet mouths, decreasing and ultimately termi-
sand gradationally overlies the inlet floor. Active channel nating tidal flow through the channels. After inlet clo-
deposits range from 2 to 4 m (6 to 13 ft) thick, and fine sure, silt, clay, and rafted organic debris formed a dense
upwards into fine-grained inlet margin and swash platform clay plug above the active inlet sand. This clay plug
sands (Figure 2-18).

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Figure 2-18. Tide-dominated inlet sequence cored beneath the updrift end of
Kiawah Island (after Moslow and Tye (1985))

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28 Apr 95

thickens from 1.0 m (3 ft) at its seawardmost extent to (d) Greater channel scour and Pleistocene control at
4.0 m (13 ft) at the inlet throat. Johnson Creek limited the channel’s migration and pro-
duced a V-shaped inlet-channel deposit (Figure 2-21).
(d) Small tidal creeks scoured into and reworked Channel confinement by Pleistocene sediments resulted in
portions of the abandoned inlet fill while depositing thin, a 9.5-m-thick (31.2-ft-thick) wedge of fining-upward
discontinuous, poorly sorted tidal creek sand lenses. deposits preserved within Core Banks. Herbert (1978)
Subsequent tidal creek abandonment resulted in deposition described an inlet sequence of similar geometry on Ports-
of a small clay plug capping the tidal creek deposits. mouth Island, North Carolina; however, he observed four
Figure 2-19 illustrates this vertical sequence of active inlet separate fining-upward cycles of inlet deposition. Inlet
channel, abandoned inlet channel, and active and inactive sequences may be stacked or vertically exaggerated by sea
tidal creek capped by salt marsh. level rise, barrier island subsidence, or by the successive
filling of the thalweg of an old fluvial channel.
d. Tidal inlet fill stratigraphy.
(2) Tide-dominated. The depth of scouring at tide-
(1) Wave-dominated. dominated channels along the South Carolina coast is
confined by the Pleistocene substrate. Channels exhibit
(a) Stratigraphic cross sections of abandoned wave- symmetrical U-shaped shore-parallel geometries. Inlet
dominated inlet channels are lenticular to wedge-shaped throat stability and bar bypassing at the channel mouth
when viewed parallel to the shoreline. Active and relict inhibit extensive lateral migration and thus tidal inlet
channels display obvious cutbank (erosional) and accre- deposits accumulate in the updrift position of the barrier
tional margins, revealing the direction of migration. An islands. The strike-oriented cross section at Price Inlet
associated recurved spit comprised the accreting margin (Capers Island, Figure 2-22) illustrates the U-shaped inlet
and fills the inlet channel as it migrates. and the preservation of a concave-upward wedge of
inlet-channel sand overlain by fine-grained abandoned-
(b) Once abandoned, the channel fill deposited in channel deposits. Compared to wave-dominated inlets,
shallow wave-dominated inlets is lenticular in cross sec- more time is required to completely close and fill an
tion. Rapid channel migration and high sediment supply abandoned tide-dominated inlet channel. Inlet closure by
result in thin, laterally continuous sequences of inlet a landward-migrating swash bar restricts current energy in
deposited sediment. Deeper tidal inlets, entrenched in the the former channel and initiates the deposition of a fine-
Pleistocene “basement” are generally less laterally exten- grained abandoned channel-fill plug.
sive and display wedge-shaped shore-parallel geometries.
Thickness-to-width ratios reflecting maximum scour depth e. Tidal delta stratigraphy.
and lateral migration range from 1:150 for deep channels
to 1:500 for shallower channels. The high ratio for shal- (1) General. Stratigraphic studies of tidal deltas have
low tidal inlets is due to the absence of paleotopographic been relatively rare. This has been due primarily to the
control and rapid downdrift migration. severe logistical constraints imposed by the strong cur-
rents and breaking waves inherent to these environments.
(c) Captain Sam’s Inlet is a shallow, rapidly migrat- These daily processes make the positioning and operation
ing inlet at the southern terminus of Kiawah Island, South of coring equipment difficult to impossible. A few exam-
Carolina (Figure 2-20). It illustrates the way in which the ples of tidal-delta stratigraphic studies do exist, however,
balance between waves and tides influences inlet geome- and can serve as models for predicting the three-
try. Although it is located on a mixed-energy tide- dimensional distribution of sediment textures and
dominated shoreline, the combination of a very small tidal lithologies.
prism (4.0 to 6.0 × 106 m3 (140 to 210 × 106 ft3); Sexton
and Hayes 1982), constant wave energy, and intermittent (2) Flood-tidal deltas.
storm processes produces a wave-dominated inlet
sequence. A 3.5-m-thick (11.5-ft-thick) fining-upward (a) The sedimentary deposits of the Back Sound,
sequence of an active inlet channel, a spit platform, and a North Carolina, microtidal estuary/lagoon system have
dune (Figure 2-20) is scoured into easily eroded shoreface been studied in detail by Berelson and Heron (1985). A
sand. As a result of rapid channel migration and recurved number of cores were taken in the intertidal sand flats and
spit growth, this lenticular inlet deposit extends 3.0 km active and relict flood-tidal deposits of Beaufort Inlet,
(1.9 miles) downdrift.

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Figure 2-19. Vertical sequence of sediment deposited by the channel abandonment of Price Inlet (after Moslow and
Tye (1985))

landward of Shackleford Banks (Figure 2-17). The com- deposited further from the inlet or active tidal channels
posite Back Sound flood-tidal delta sequence is comprised and are a fine- to medium-grained silty sand.
of two stacked fining-upward units interbedded and over-
lain by thin layers of salt-marsh muds (Figure 2-23). (b) Cored sequences in the relict flood-tidal deltas of
Proximal flood-tidal delta sediments are fine- to coarse- Back Sound can be correlated to the inlet deposits beneath
grained sands. Distal flood-tidal delta sediments were

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28 Apr 95

Figure 2-20. Vibracore transect and cross section for inlet-fill deposits at Captain Sam’s Inlet,
South Carolina (after Tye and Moslow (in preparation))

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Figure 2-21. Vibracore transect and cross section for inlet-fill deposits at wave-dominated Johnson Creek, Core
Banks, North Carolina (after Moslow and Heron (1978))

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Figure 2-22. Strike-oriented vibracore transect across the abandoned tide-dominated inlet channel at Price
Inlet (after Tye and Moslow (in preparation))

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28 Apr 95

Figure 2-23. Composite vertical sedimentary sequence from an abandoned flood-tidal delta in Back
Sound, North Carolina (after Berelson and Heron (1985))

Shackleford Banks. Flood-tidal sand deposits thin in a 2-6. Sand Resource Potential of Inlet Deposits
landward direction and are interbedded with lagoonal and
tidal flat muds. a. Inlet channel fill.

(3) Ebb-tidal deltas. A coring study by Imperato, (1) Suitability.

Sexton, and Hayes (1988) serves as a stratigraphic model
for the ebb-tidal delta of a tide-dominated inlet. The ebb- (a) In almost all instances, relict tidal inlet deposits
tidal delta sediments at North Edisto Inlet, South Carolina represent the most suitable and viable source of sand-
(Figure 2-15) comprise a 5- to 15-m-thick (16- to 49-ft- sized sediment for beach nourishment projects. As shown
thick), lobate-shaped body of fine-grained, well-sorted in Section 2-5 of this chapter, the lateral and/or vertical
sand with an estimated volume of 1.28 × 108 m3 (45.2 × accretionary fill within inlet channels (inlet fill) is a
108 ft3). Ebb delta sedimentary sequences proximal to the generally thick, voluminous, and concentrated source of
shoreline are a fine-grained sand and mud overlying a lag coarser grained sand. The textural properties of inlet fill
of shell fragments. Distal ebb-delta sedimentary also make it ideal as a source of beach nourishment mate-
sequences are relatively thin and composed of interbedded rial. Inlet fill sediments almost always have a high sand
well-sorted, fine-grained and coarse-grained sands. to mud ratio, are moderate to moderately well-sorted, and

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typically are coarser grained than sandy environments comprised principally of clean, well-sorted sands, are
adjacent to the inlet. These characteristics hold especially several meters thick, and several hundred meters to a few
true for wave-dominated inlet deposits. Tide-dominated kilometers in length and width. For 19 tidal inlets along
inlets, on the other hand, are associated with 1.0- to the east coast of Florida, Marino and Mehta (1988)
3.0-m-thick (3- to 10-ft-thick) accumulations of fine- calculated a total of 420 × 106 m3 (150 × 108 ft3) of sandy
grained sediments (silts and clays) within the upper por- sediment residing in the ebb deltas. This represents a
tions of vertical sedimentary profiles (Figure 2-19). tremendous volume of suitable sand resources that lie in
These fine-grained accumulations, or “mud plugs,” are immediate proximity to potential nourishment sites.
difficult to predict in the subsurface without prior knowl-
edge of the historical evolution of the inlet system and/or (2) Site selection. There are inherent dangers in
drill hole data. Thus, tide-dominated inlet fill sequences dredging ebb-tidal deltas for sand resources that in most
are less attractive sources of beach nourishment material instances outweigh their positive attributes of sediment
than the wave-dominated counterparts. suitability. Any alteration of the morphology, bathymetric
relief, or sediment dispersal of an ebb-tidal delta may
(b) The extensive lateral migration and depth of result in marked alterations in local wave refraction/
scour of tidal inlet channels provide for a deeply incised, reflection patterns. Such changes are almost always asso-
laterally extensive sand body with a very high potential ciated with rapid and severe erosion of the shoreline
for preservation. As noted earlier, inlet deposits are esti- immediately updrift or downdrift of the inlet. In addition,
mated to account for 30 to 50 percent of the sediments dredging and/or removal of the ebb-tidal delta may result
found within and along barrier island shorelines. There in increased wave heights and less wave energy dissipa-
is, therefore, no shortage of potential sites for sources of tion in immediate proximity to the shoreline. Thus, ebb
relict inlet fill sediment. The large number of docu- deltas are tempting as a sand resource for nourishment
mented examples of inlet fill sediments found beneath the projects, but should only be seriously considered after
seafloor on the shoreface and inner continental shelf of detailed design analysis testing and modeling have been
the east and gulf coasts are proof of their high potential performed.
for preservation. In many instances, inlet deposits repre-
sent the only vestiges of a former barrier island shoreline c. Flood-tidal deltas.
that has been completely eroded or reworked during the
Holocene transgression. (1) Suitability. The sedimentologic and stratigraphic
characteristics of flood-tidal deltas make them relatively
(2) Site selection. The dredging and utilization of unattractive for sand resource potential. As documented
inlet fill sediments for beach nourishment reintroduces in Section 2-5, flood deltas are predominantly interbedded
sediment to the longshore transport system that would sands and organic-rich muds that are generally no more
otherwise have been permanently and completely removed than a few meters (2 to 5 m) thick. The sand deposits are
from the nearshore sediment budget. In fact, on some moderately sorted and contain a high percentage of silt,
sand-deficient coastlines, such as Louisiana, sediment clay, and shell material. Although flood deltas may cover
trapped in relict tidal inlet channels provides the only a large surface area, they often thin appreciably with
viable concentrated source of sand for beach nourishment. distance from the inlet throat.

b. Ebb-tidal deltas. (2) Site selection. Dredging of relict flood-tidal

deltas, that is, flood deltas associated with relict or aban-
(1) Suitability. Several sedimentologic and strati- doned tidal inlets, presents no immediate natural hazards.
graphic aspects of ebb-tidal deltas make them highly Since they are located in semi-protected lagoons or estu-
attractive as sources of sediment (sand) for beach nourish- aries, relict flood-tidal deltas are out of most zones of
ment projects (see Section 2-5). In most instances, and wave or current reworking. Removal by dredging of a
especially along mesotidal barrier shorelines, ebb-tidal large portion of a relict flood-tidal delta should have only
deltas are the largest, most voluminous, surface-exposed a minimal impact on the adjacent back-barrier shoreline.
deposit of sand in the coastal system. Ebb-tidal deltas are

2-24
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28 Apr 95

Chapter 3 but hydraulically wide, channel with mean depth hc, cross-
Hydrodynamic Analysis of Tidal Inlets sectional area Ac, and length Lc. The sea tide represents
the boundary condition, or forcing function, at one end of
the channel and the bay at the other. The one-
dimensional depth- and width-averaged shallow-water
3-1. Purpose and Scope (long-wave) equation for the channel is
Inlets have been the focus of intense study by hydraulic
engineers for many years (Watt 1905; Brown 1928; ∂u ∂u ∂η n 2u u
u g g (3-1)
O’Brien 1931; Escoffier 1940, 1977; Bruun and Gerritsen ∂t ∂x ∂x hc
4/3

1960; Keulegan 1967; King 1974; Ozsoy 1977; Bruun

1978; van de Kreeke 1988). Hydraulic characteristics of where
interest to the practicing engineer consist of temporal and
spatial variations of currents and water level in the inlet u(x,t) = cross-section averaged flow velocity
channel and vicinity. Depending on the degree of accu- along the channel length
racy of the type of information needed, several predictive
approaches are available. Although only approximate, t = time
relatively simple analytical procedures are commonly
employed and yield quick answers. This chapter provides η(x,t) = tidal elevation with respect to mean
a brief description of inlet hydrodynamics and presents water level
methods for performing an initial analysis of inlet stability
and hydraulics. For more detailed descriptions of inlet n = Manning’s bed resistance coefficient
hydraulics, physical and numerical modeling techniques
are widely used (see Chapters 6 and 7, respectively). g = acceleration due to gravity
3-2. Governing Equations n2u u /hc4/3 = slope of the energy grade line in the
channel
a. An idealized inlet system as shown in Figure 3-1
is considered to consist of a relatively short and narrow,

Figure 3-1. Idealized inlet channel showing contributions to head loss

3-1
EM 1110-2-1618
28 Apr 95

With ηo(t) and ηB(t) representing tidal elevations in the

d 2ηB FAB  d ηB Qf  d ηB Qf
sea and bay, respectively, integrating Equation 3-1 over
length Lc gives dt 2 2Ac Lc  dt AB  dt AB
(3-4)
gAc gAc ao
Lc ∂u  ηB sin (σt τ)
ηo ηB  ken kex Lc AB Lc AB
g ∂t 
 (3-2)
2gn Lc  u u
2
where F = ken + kex + 2gn2Lc/hc4/3. Since the quantity F

hc
4/3  2g represents the effect of all influences restricting flow,
 O’Brien and Clark (1974) referred to it as the overall
impedance of the inlet.
where η and u are functions of time only. The quantities
ken and kex are the head loss coefficients associated with e. Analytical solutions to Equations 3-3 and 3-4 that
channel entrance and exit flows, respectively. The total have appeared in the literature can be divided into two
head ηo - ηB is the sum of four contributions: entrance general groups: those in which both the freshwater inflow
loss, kenu2/2g; head loss due to bed friction, 2gn2Lc/hc4/3; and the inertia term have been ignored and those in which
head due to inertia, (Lc/g)∂u/∂t; and exit loss, kexu2/2g the middle term on the left side of Equation 3-4 has been
(Figure 3-1). simplified (Brown 1928; Escoffier 1940; Keulegan 1951,
1967; van de Kreeke 1967; Mota Oliveira 1970; Dean
b. Assumptions associated with Equation 3-2 include 1971; Mehta and Ozsoy 1978). Although these solutions
a) bay and ocean current velocities are negligible com- are of limited accuracy, they provide insight into the
pared to those in the channel, b) tidal amplitude is small response of inlet-bay systems to tidal forcing and may be
compared to mean depth, and c) change in water volume used as an order of magnitude check on more rigorous
in the channel due to tidal variation is negligible com- numerical solutions.
pared to mean volume in the channel.
f. Keulegan’s (1967) solutions are attractive because
c. To apply the momentum equation (Equation 3-2), of their relative simplicity and are frequently incorporated
a continuity expression for the bay storage volume S is in the derivation of inlet stability criteria. Assumptions
needed. The discharge Q through an inlet is related to the include a) sinusoidal ocean tide, b) vertical inlet and bank
rate of change of S and the rate of freshwater discharge Qf walls, so that the water surface area remains constant,
from any upstream sources by Q = Qf + dS/dt where c) small tidal range compared to water depth, d) small
Q = uAc, S = ηBAB, and AB is the surface area of the bay. time variation of water volume in the channel compared
Assuming that the tide propagates rapidly through the bay to mean channel volume, e) horizontal water surface of
(i.e. the bay is relatively small and deep) so that spatial the bay, f) mean water level in the bay equal to that of
gradients in the water surface at any instant may be the ocean, g) negligible flow acceleration in the channel,
ignored, continuity may be described in terms of the and h) no freshwater discharge. The head difference,
velocity u as therefore, is due to bed frictional dissipation, and entrance
and exit losses and Equations 3-3 and 3-4 can then be
A B d ηB Qf solved for the channel current velocity and bay tide.
u (3-3) Keulegan’s results include the phase lag between bay and
Ac dt Ac ocean tides and dimensionless values of bay amplitude.
Both of these can be related to the dimensionless param-
eter K introduced by Keulegan as an expression for the
d. Additional simplifying assumptions are needed to hydraulic and geometric characteristics of an inlet and
solve Equations 3-2 and 3-3 analytically. First, it is referred to as the coefficient of filling or repletion (Equa-
assumed that the bay surface area and freshwater dis- tion 3-5, Figure 3-2).
charge are independent of time. Also, the ocean tide is
considered to be sinusoidal, ηo = ao sin(σt - τ) where ao    A   ga 
1/2

is the tidal amplitude, σ is tidal frequency, and τ is the  T  

 C 2 o  (3-5)
K  2π a   A  F 
angular measure of the lag of slack water in the channel  o  B  
after midtide in the ocean. Combining Equations 3-2
and 3-3 by eliminating u and substituting for ηo yields

3-2
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28 Apr 95

Figure 3-2. Relationship between the repletion coefficient and tidal phase lag and the ratio of bay to ocean tidal
amplitude (after O’Brien and Dean (1972))

g. Keulegan also presented the relationship between Amplitudes increase with increasing values of the reple-
K and dimensionless maximum velocity in the inlet V’max1 tion coefficient. This is expected since K increases with
as shown in Figure 3-3. The maximum velocity Vmax increasing values of cross-sectional area, hydraulic radius,
through a specific inlet is given by and decreasing values of energy loss and friction.
Because of the absence of inertia, the bay tidal amplitude
2π A is never larger than the ocean tidal amplitude.
Vmax V ′max ao B (3-6)
T Ac
i. Another approach to solving Equations 3-3
and 3-4 has been presented by Mehta and Ozsoy (1978)
h. A set of tidal curves obtained by Keulegan’s and Walton and Escoffier (1981) where the inertia term is
method is shown in Figure 3-4. Inherent in the result is not dropped. In Mehta and Ozsoy’s (1978) method, the
that slack water corresponds to the time of maximum (and system of equations themselves is not linearized; however,
minimum) elevation in the bay. Maximum velocity the generation of higher harmonics is neglected in obtain-
occurs at midtide in the bay when ηo - ηB is a maximum. ing a first-order solution. Assuming a sinusoidal variation
in the flow velocity, results are obtained as shown in
_______________ Figures 3-5 and 3-6. Dimensionless parameters incorpo-
1
In presenting Keulegan’s work, the symbol V is used to rated in the solution are: bay amplitude α ^B = aB/ao,
denote channel velocity because the V is carried over in channel velocity α ^m = umAC/aoσAB, tidal frequency
the derivation of various stability criteria.

3-3
EM 1110-2-1618
28 Apr 95

Figure 3-3. Relationship between repletion coefficient and dimensionless maxi-

mum velocity (after O’Brien and Dean (1972))

α = σ(LCAB/gAC)1/2, and bed dissipation coefficient β =- to bed friction be equal in the two cases. Escoffier
aoFAB/2LCAC. Bay water level amplification is predicted (1977) introduced the hypothetical quantity Lc, the equiva-
under a certain range of α and β conditions and lag great- lent length of a channel, as
er than 90 deg. Also, the time of slack water does not
necessarily coincide with high or low tide in the bay; at
2 4/3
i m
∆ xi
slack, the bay and ocean tide elevations differ by an Lc Ac hc (3-7)
4/3 2
amount equal to the head from flow inertia. Results i 1 hi Ai
compare well with those obtained by King (1974).

3-3. Hydraulic Parameters In using the equation, the real inlet channel is divided into
m sections of lengths ∆xi. Each section is chosen of such
a. Ocean tidal amplitude. The ocean tidal amplitude a length that over this length, the cross-sectional area Ai
ao may be obtained from published National Ocean and mean depth hi may be assumed constant. A basic
Service (NOS) tide tables or field measurements. To assumption in deriving Equation 3-7 is that Manning’s n
minimize influence from the inlet and any associated is assumed to be independent of depth and is considered
structures, gauges should be positioned away from areas to characterize the channel bed roughness. O’Brien and
directly affected by inlet currents and values obtained Clark (1974) obtained a similar representation for Lc
from tables should be interpolated from outer coast values assuming the Darcy friction factor f to be constant rather
on either side of the inlet (Mehta and Ozsoy 1978). than Manning’s n. An equivalent channel cross-sectional
area, rather than length, was used by Keulegan (1967).
b. Equivalent length. The length of the idealized
equivalent inlet channel Lc used in the preceding develop- c. Equivalent bay area. The condition of hydraulic
ment is related to and may be obtained from the real bay filling is reasonably met only in relatively small bays
length of the channel by requiring that the head loss due

3-4
 EM 1110-2-1618
28 Apr 95

Figure 3-4. Ocean tide, bay tide, and current velocity through a channel as functions of dimension-
less time (radians) (from Mehta and Joshi (1988))

(O’Brien and Clark 1974). Spatial water surface gradients sufficient to estimate the bed resistance coefficient on a
due to inertia and bed friction in larger bays can be esti- tide-averaged basis. Using the Chezy coefficient C
mated using a simple approach involving the continuity (which is related to Manning’s n according to C = hc1/6/n),
principle (Escoffier 1977). If these gradients are not Bruun and Gerritsen (1960) introduced an approximate
small compared to the bay tidal amplitude, Equation 3-3 empirical relationship: C = α1 + α2logAc, based on mea-
is not applicable unless ηB is considered to be the tide at surements at sandy inlets with maximum velocities on the
the bayward end of the inlet and AB is redefined as an order of 1 m/sec (3.3 ft/sec). Proposed representative
equivalent bay area corresponding to this tide. Equivalent values of α1 and α2 were 30 m1/2/sec and 5 m1/2/sec, re-
bay area can be derived by dividing the tidal prism by the spectively, when Ac is in square meters and C is in m1/2/-
tidal range or by solving for it using Figure 3-5 and sec (or α1 = 44.3 ft1/2/sec and α2 = 9.4 ft1/2/sec when Ac is
appropriate measurements of bay tidal amplitude aB in square feet and C is in ft1/2/sec). In terms of Mannin-
and ao. g’s n, the relationship between C and Ac can be written as

d. Bed resistance and loss coefficients.

1/6
hc
(1) Bed resistance in an inlet channel varies with n (3-8)
fluctuations in depth and bed form type that occur with α1 α2 log Ac
changing tidal stage. For many engineering purposes, it is

3-5
EM 1110-2-1618
28 Apr 95

************************************* EXAMPLE PROBLEM 3-1 **************************************

GIVEN: A bay with a surface area, AB = 1.86 x 107 m2 (2 x 108 ft2) and an average depth of 6.1 m (20 ft) is located on
the Atlantic coast. The tide is semidiurnal (T = 12.4 hr), with a spring range of 1.34 m (4.4 ft), as given by the National
Ocean Survey Tide Tables (available from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration). An inlet channel,
which will be the only entrance to the bay, is to be constructed across the barrier beach which separates the bay from the
ocean. The inlet is to provide a navigation passage for small vessels, dilution water to control bay salinity and pollution
levels, and a channel for fish migration. The channel is to have a design length, Lc = 1,097 m (3,600 ft) with a pair of
vertical sheet-pile jetties that will extend the full length of the channel. The channel has a depth below mean sea level
(msl), hc = 3.66 m (12 ft), and a width Wc = 183 m (600 ft).
FIND: The bay tidal range, maximum flow velocity Vmax, and volume of water flowing into and out of the bay on a tidal
cycle (tidal prism) for a tide having the spring range.
SOLUTION: Assume entrance and exit loss coefficients, ken = 0.1, kex = 1.0, respectively, and n = 0.027.
Ac = Wc hc = (183 m)(3.66 m) = 669 m2 (7,200 ft2)
F = ken + kex + 2gn2/(hc4/3)
= 0.1 + 1.0 + (2)(9.81 m/sec2)(0.027)2/(3.66 m 4/3
)
= 3.88
ao = 1.34 m/2 = 0.67 m (2.2 ft)
Then by Equation 3-5,
K = [(12.4 hr)(3600 sec/hr)/(2)(3.14)(0.67 m)] [669 m2/(1.86 x 107)]
[(2)(9.81 m/sec2)(0.67 m)]1/2 /(3.881/2)
= 0.7
From Figures 3-2 and 3-3, with K = 0.7
V’max = 0.58
and
ab/ao = 0.69, therefore
ab = (0.69)(0.67 m) = 0.46 m (1.5 ft), and the bay tidal range is 2(0.46 m) = 0.92 m (3.0 ft)
From Equation 3-6, the maximum flow velocity is
Vmax = 0.58 [(2)(3.14)/(12.4 hr)(3600 sec/hr)] (0.46 m)
(1.86 x 107 m2)/669 m2)
= 1.04 m/sec (3.41 ft/sec)
The tidal prism is
(2)(ab)(Ab) = (2)(0.46 m)(1.86 x 107 m2) = 1.7 x 107 m3 (6.0 x 108 ft3)
If the average depth of the bay is 6.1 m (20.0 ft) and the distance to the farthest point in the bay is 6.4 km
(4.0 miles), the time t* it will take for the tide wave to propagate to that point is
t* = Lb/[(g)(db)]1/2 = 6400 m/[(9.81 m/sec2) (6.1 m)]1/2
= 827 sec, or 0.23 hr
Since this time is significantly less than 12.4 hr, the assumption that the bay surface remains horizontal is quite
satisfactory.

*****************************************************************************************************

3-6
 EM 1110-2-1618
28 Apr 95

ocean tide, the tidal prism can be approximated by

2 Qm/σCK where Qm = umAc is the maximum discharge
and CK is a parameter that varies with the repletion coeffi-
cient. The term CK essentially accounts for the nonlinear-
ity in the variation of discharge Q with time as a result of
the quadratic head loss. At K = 1, CK = 0.81 and at
K = 4, CK = .999 (Keulegan 1967). For simple calcu-
lations, an average value of 0.86 has been recommended
by Keulegan and Hall (1950) and O’Brien and Clark
(1974).

(2) For sandy inlets, the cross-sectional average

velocity at the throat is on the order of 1 m/sec
(3.3 ft/sec). For very small inlets, the velocity may be
lower and for those with rocky bottoms, the velocity may
be higher. To accurately determine the flow field, in situ
measurements at several elevations across the flow section
using current meters are recommended. It is important to
keep in mind that typically well-defined ebb-and flood-
dominated channels are present and flood flow is usually
dominant near the bottom, while ebb flow is dominant
near the surface.

3-4. Inlet Stability Criteria

Figure 3-5. Dimensionless bay tidal amplitude or chan-
nel velocity as functions of dimensionless frequency
(from Mehta and Ozsoy (1978))
a. Some inlets are permanent and remain open with
relatively small changes in location, cross-sectional area,
and shape; others are ephemeral or subject to intermittent
Manning’s n can be approximated using Ac = hcWc and openings and closings. The ability of an inlet to maintain
empirical relationships between throat depth and width in itself in a state of stable equilibrium against wave activity
the form of hc = pWcq, where p and q are coefficients, and and associated littoral transport depends on the availability
Wc is the width at the inlet throat (Graham and Mehta of littoral material and the tidal prism. Many attempts at
1981). For structured inlets, n ranges from 0.026 to describing inlet stability have concentrated on empirical
0.029, and from 0.025 to 0.027 for those without jetties relationships between the tidal prism and inlet throat
(Mehta and Joshi 1988). cross-sectional area (LeConte 1905; O’Brien 1931, 1969;
Nayak 1971; Johnson 1973). Jarrett (1976) reviewed the
(2) Flow coming from a channel can be compared to previously established relationships and performed a
that of a separated jet expanding from a narrow channel regression analysis on data from 108 Pacific, Atlantic, and
into a very large basin. Most of the energy dissipation gulf coast inlets in various combinations in an attempt to
occurs in the expanding part of the flow due to turbu- determine best-fit equations. Results of his analysis indi-
lence. Since the kinetic head is usually lost as the flow cated that the tidal prism-inlet (P) cross-sectional area (A)
enters the basin, kex = 1. For flow entering a channel, relationship is not a unique function for all inlets, but
energy loss is not very significant and ken ≤ 0.05. varies depending on inlet location and the presence or
absence of jetties. Jarrett confirmed the original relation-
e. Tidal current and prism. ship established by O’Brien (1969) for inlets with two
jetties
(1) The tidal prism is the volume of water that is
drawn into the bay, from the ocean and through the inlet, A 4.69 10 4
P 0.85 (3-9)
during flood tide. Aperiodicity of the tide, freshwater
discharge, and the presence of other openings in the bay
are some of the reasons why the prism in not always and concluded that natural inlets and single-jettied inlets
equal to the volume of water that leaves during the ebb. on the three coasts exhibit slightly different P versus A
In the case of a single inlet-bay system with sinusoidal

3-7
EM 1110-2-1618
28 Apr 95

Figure 3-6. Lag as a function of dimensionless frequency (from Mehta and Ozsoy (1978))

relationships due to differences in tidal and wave charac- c. Escoffier (1940) introduced a hydraulic stability
teristics (Figure 3-8). curve, referred to as the Escoffier diagram, on which
maximum velocity is plotted against cross-sectional flow
b. The Ω/M criteria for inlet stability, where M is the area (Figure 3-9). A single hydraulic stability curve
total annual littoral drift, and Ω is the tidal prism, were represents changing inlet conditions, when ocean tide
introduced by Bruun and Gerritsen (1960) and elaborated parameters, and bay and inlet plan geometry conditions
on by Bruun (1978). The stability of an inlet is rated as remain relatively fixed. If these conditions are drastically
good, fair, or poor according to the following: altered, a new stability curve is established. Each position
on the curve represents a different value of Keulegan’s
Ω/M > 150 Good repletion coefficient K, the ratio of bay to ocean tidal
100 ≥ Ω/M ≤ 150 Fair amplitude, and tidal phase lag between ocean high or low
50 ≥ Ω/M ≤ 100 Fair to poor tide and slack water in the inlet.
Ω/M < 50 Poor

3-8
 EM 1110-2-1618
28 Apr 95

*************************************** EXAMPLE PROBLEM 3-2 *************************************

GIVEN: Information provided in Example 3-1.

FIND: Potential stability of the proposed channel cross section. Remember the channel has vertical sheet-pile walls, so
its cross section can only change in the vertical.

SOLUTION: By varying the cross-sectional area of the channel A assuming that the channel width Wc remains constant
and varying the channel depth hc and recalculating the tidal prism as described in Example 3-1, the effect of channel area
on the bay tidal prism can be evaluated and compared with Equation 3-9.

hc (m) 0.91 1.8 2.4 4.9 7.6 10.7

K 0.11 0.29 0.44 1.1 2.0 2.7

V′max 0.12 0.35 0.50 0.81 0.95 0.98
ab/ao 0.12 0.38 0.59 0.97 1.0 1.0
ab 0.08 0.25 0.40 0.65 0.68 0.67
Vmax (m/sec) 0.15 2.5 1.4 1.9 1.3 0.9
P (x106)(m3) 3.0 9.3 14.9 24.2 25.3 24.9
2
Ac (m ) 167.0 329.0 439.0 897.0 1,391.0 1,958.0
(=2abAb)
Ac (m2) 150.0 393.0 587.0 886.0 920.0 908.0
(Eqn 3-9)

Graphical results are presented in Figure 3-7. The common point on the two curves is the solution to the problem. In
this case, however, two common points occur, indicating that the channel may either close at the lower point (approxi-
mately 220-m2 (2,370-ft2) cross-sectional area, and 1.2-m (4-ft2) depth), or scour to the upper stability point (approxi-
mately 890-m2 (9,600-ft2) cross-sectional area, and 4.9-m (16-ft) depth). This indicates that the 183- by 3.7-m (600- by
12-ft) design channel would be unstable.

Where the hydraulic response curve lies above the stability curve, the tidal prism is too large for the inlet channel area
and erosion will likely occur until a stable channel develops. If the hydraulic response curve crosses the stability curve
twice, as in this example, the lower point is an unstable equilibrium point from which the channel can either close or
scour to the upper stability point. If the hydraulic response curve is substantially below the stability curve at all points, a
stable inlet channel is unlikely to develop and the channel should eventually close.

The stable inlet cross-sectional area depends on other factors (e.g., wave climate, monthly tidal range variations, surface
runoff) besides the spring or diurnal tidal prism. As a result, the tidal prism - inlet area relationships (Figure 3-8) serve
only as indications of the approximate stable cross-sectional area. The analysis performed in the example demonstrates
that the design channel will most likely shoal or erode; however, the actual equilibrium depth will fluctuate with time,
and can vary substantially from the indicated depths of 1.2 m (4 ft) or 4.9 m (16 ft).

*****************************************************************************************************

3-9
EM 1110-2-1618
28 Apr 95

Figure 3-7. Graphical results for example problem 3-2

d. According to the Escoffier diagram, an inlet is e. In a later paper, Escoffier (1977), using Keulegan
hydraulically stable if its cross-sectional area is larger and O’Brien formulations, presented a variation of his
than the critical flow area Ac*. An induced change in the original diagram that allows for the equilibrium value of
cross-sectional area of a stable inlet will result in a Vmax to vary with the repletion coefficient K. Dimension-
change in inlet velocity that attempts to return the inlet to less velocity values ν and νE (where ν = Vmax/(2gao)1/2 and
its equilibrium size by appropriate deposition or scour. νE is the equilibrium value of ν), are plotted as functions
An inlet having a cross-sectional area smaller than the of K (Figure 3-10). The letter A represents an unstable
critical flow area is termed hydraulically unstable. The equilibrium point and B represents a stable equilibrium
Escoffier diagram illustrates that any change in flow area point. A small deviation from conditions represented by
is accompanied by a change in flow velocity that will point A sets into operation forces that tend to reinforce
perpetuate the induced change. Since any initial change that deviation. A similar deviation at B results in changes
in flow area is accentuated, the hydraulically unstable that tend to restore the inlet to its equilibrium point.
inlet will either continuously scour until the critical flow Figure 3-11 shows several possible relative positions for
area is attained, or continuously shoal until inlet closure. the two curves. The first ν curve plots high enough to
Escoffier’s hydraulic stability model has been applied in intersect the νE curve in two places, one stable and one
describing the behavior of “hydraulically stable” inlets by unstable. The second ν curve has only one point of
O’Brien and Dean (1972); Defenr and Sorensen (1973); tangency with the νE curve, an unstable point. The third
and Mehta and Jones (1976). curve fails to reach the νE curve and therefore,

3-10
 EM 1110-2-1618
28 Apr 95

Figure 3-8. Tidal prism versus cross-sectional area for Pacific, Atlantic, and Gulf coast inlets (after Jarrett (1976))

3-11
EM 1110-2-1618
28 Apr 95

Figure 3-9. Generalization of Escoffier’s hydraulic stability curve (after O’Brien and Dean (1972))

stability is not possible. Escoffier presented the idea of incorporates the buffer storage area available in the inlet
translating the height of the ν curve into a measure of cross section, prior to deposition, and also includes the
stability, represented by the dimensionless parameter λ capability of the inlet to transport excess sand from its
(Figure 3-12). The value of λ is equal to the ratio of ν throat.
to νE for the value of K that makes ν a maximum. The
value of λ can be taken as a measure of the degree of ACE

stability; λ greater than 1 indicates stability. β ⌠V VT 3 d AC (3-10)

⌡ max
AC
f. O’Brien and Dean (1972) proposed a method of
calculating the effect of deposition on stability of an inlet.
Their method is based on earlier contributions by O’Brien where
(1931), Escoffier (1940), and Keulegan (1967), and
assumes that a critical cross-sectional throat area Ac* β = stability index (units of length5/time3)
exists with a corresponding critical velocity Vmax. A
stability index β represents the capacity of an inlet to ACE = cross-sectional area of throat
resist closure under conditions of deposition. It

3-12
 EM 1110-2-1618
28 Apr 95

Figure 3-10. νE and ν versus repletion coefficient (from

Escoffier (1977))

Figure 3-12. Definition diagram for the stability

parameter λ (from Escoffier (1977))

Inlets with an equilibrium area much larger than the criti-

cal area have more storage area, and therefore, will be
more resistant to change.

g. This method requires knowledge of existing inlet

conditions, assumed to be equilibrium conditions. Mini-
mum data needed include a survey of the inlet throat
cross section and the lag between high water in the ocean
and the following slack water in the inlet. Czerniak
(1977) found that the O’Brien and Dean stability theory
was quite successful in explaining observed behavior at
Moriches Inlet, New York. Interpretation of inlet history
provided qualitative verification of the hydraulically
unstable portion of the inlet hydraulic curve (Escoffier
diagram) in both the scour and shoaling modes as well as
semi-quantitative verification of the unstable scour mode.
Figure 3-11. νE and various values of ν versus reple- Results suggested that the theory could be applied to a
tion coefficient (after Escoffier (1977))
broad range of inlet-related problems including those
dealing with hydraulic design, sand bypassing design,
Vmax = maximum velocity in the throat control of bay tidal conditions, and effects of jetties on
inlet stability.
VT = threshold velocity for sand transport

AC* = critical cross-sectional area (value of AC at

peak of Vmax curve)

3-13
 EM 1110-2-1618
28 Apr 95

Chapter 4 entitled Review of Geologic Data Sources for Coastal

Sediment Budget and Shoaling Rates Sediment Budgets (Meisburger 1993). Although none of
these specifically focuses on inlet systems (i.e., the inlet
system is usually the unknown portion of the sediment
budget), most of the information presented in these docu-
4-1. Introduction ments is applicable to any coastal setting.
a. Inlet systems represent a primary natural boundary 4-2. Components of a Coastal Sediment Budget
or sink for transport of littoral and nearshore sediment.
Geomorphic features associated with inlets separate adja- a. Sources and sinks.
cent beach and backshore environments and act as con-
duits for exchange of water and sediment between lagoon (1) A sediment budget reflects an application of the
or estuarine environments and the nearshore. As such, principle of continuity or conservation of mass to coastal
characteristic shoal deposits form in response to wave and sediment. The time rate of change of sediment within a
current interaction as water and sediment ebb and flood system is dependent upon the rate at which material is
through primary and secondary inlet channels (see Chap- brought into a control volume versus the rate at which
ter 2). Depending on the dominance of wave processes sediment leaves the same volume (Komar 1976). The
versus tidal currents, sediment deposition from cross-shore budget involves assessing the sedimentary contributions
and longshore sources varies spatially, from within the and losses and equating these to the net balance of sedi-
lagoon or estuary (flood shoal) to seaward of the entrance ment in a coastal compartment. Any process that results
(ebb shoal), and temporally as shoal migration in response in a net increase in sediment in a control volume is called
to seasonal shifts in wave height and direction, and storm a source. Alternately, any process that results in a net
events. Regardless of feature characteristics within the loss of sediment from a control volume is considered a
inlet system, in most cases, this environment is a natural sink. Some processes can function as sources and sinks
sink for coastal sediment. Consequently, the application for the same control volume (e.g., longshore sediment
of a sediment budget to inlets and adjacent environments transport).
is an effective approach for evaluating the relative signifi-
cance of various sediment sources contributing to shoal (2) The balance of sediment between losses and
growth and the relative importance of sediment bypassing gains is reflected in localized erosion and deposition.
from the shoals to adjacent beaches. Table 4-1 summarizes possible sources and sinks of sedi-
ment for a coastal sedimentary budget. In general, long-
b. Assessing the sediment budget is particularly shore movement of sediment into a coastal compartment,
important where engineering activities, such as jetty con- onshore transport of sediment, additions from fluvial
struction and dredging, have fixed the position of the transport, and dune/bluff/cliff erosion provide the major
channel. This analysis assists scientists and engineers sources of sediment. Longshore movement of sediment
with quantifying the dynamic response of inlet systems by out of a coastal compartment, offshore transport of sedi-
identifying relevant coastal processes and estimating vol- ment, and aeolian transport and washover that increase
ume rates of littoral transport. Engineering design, con- beach/island elevation produce losses from a control vol-
struction decisions, and management plans affect, and are ume. Further discussion regarding the type and impor-
affected by, sediment budget considerations. Predicting tance of sources and sinks for evaluating a coastal
downdrift shoreline response and channel shoaling rates is sediment budget are discussed in detail in Komar (1976),
crucial to efficient system maintenance efforts. This the Shore Protection Manual (SPM 1984), and
chapter reviews the components of a coastal sediment Meisburger (1993).
budget and presents an example of a sediment budget for
engineering application. Shoaling rate prediction methods (3) All elements of sediment budgets do not neces-
will also be discussed. Channel shoaling is an important sarily have the same spatial characteristics. For instance,
component of the inlet system, and its prediction is criti- tidal inlets often function as point sinks or features that
cal to effective maintenance of the navigation channel. decrease the transport of sediment across a limited portion
of a control volume boundary. Conversely, a line sink
c. Primary references on coastal sediment budgets causes a decrease in sediment transport across an extended
include Beach Processes and Sedimentation (Komar portion of a control volume. Net transport of sediment
1976), the Shore Protection Manual (SPM 1984), offshore and out of the control volume along the entire
Engineer Manual (EM) 1110-2-1502 entitled Coastal
Littoral Transport, and Instruction Report CERC-93-1

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Table 4-1
Sources and Sinks for a Coastal Sediment Budget (after Bowen and Inman (1966))
Sources Sinks

· Longshore transport of sediment into a control area · Longshore transport of sediment out of a control area
· Onshore transport · Offshore transport
· Fluvial transport · Washover deposition
· Dune/bluff/cliff erosion · Aeolian transport out of control area
· Aeolian transport onto beach · Sediment storage in offshore shoals
· Biogenous and hydrogenous deposition · Deposition in submarine canyons
· Beach replenishment · Solution and abrasion
· Dredging

offshore boundary is an example of a line sink. Unlike and an example of a sediment budget for engineering
point sources or sinks that are quantified in units of vol- application is presented in Section 4-3.
ume per year, line elements of a sediment budget are
calculated relative to the total length of shoreline over b. Sediment budget boundaries. Boundaries for
which the source or sink operates. Table 4-2 provides a coastal sediment budgets are determined by the area under
classification of elements in a coastal sediment budget in study (control volume), the time scale of interest, and the
terms of point and line sources or sinks. In a complete purpose of the study. For a given area, adjacent sediment
sediment budget, the difference between the addition of compartments may be needed, with shore-perpendicular
all source components and sediment removed from the boundaries at significant longshore changes in the coastal
control volume must total zero. However, in general system. At inlet systems, compartment boundaries are
applications, a sediment budget calculation is made to needed regardless of the magnitude and direction of
estimate an unknown erosion or deposition rate; the dif- shoreline response in adjacent compartments due to signif-
ference resulting from equating known sources and sinks. icant differences in processes affecting sediment transport.
Detailed discussions on how gains and losses can be Although inlet systems can exchange sediment between
evaluated are given in SPM (1984) and EM 1110-2-1502, updrift and downdrift beaches via shoal bypassing, most

Table 4-2
Classification of Elements in a Coastal Sediment Budget (after SPM (1984))
Location of Source or Offshore Side of Control Onshore Side of Control Longshore Ends of
Sink Volume Volume Within Control Volume Control Volume

Point Source (volume/unit Offshore shoal or island Rivers, streams Shoal erosion Longshore transport into
time) control volume

Point Sink (volume/unit Offshore shoal; submarine Inlets Dredging Longshore transport out
time) canyon of control volume

Line Source (volume/unit Onshore transport Coastal erosion of dunes, Beach erosion; calcium NA
time/unit length of coast) bluffs, and cliffs carbonate production

Line Sink (volume/unit Offshore transport Washover; coastal land Beach accretion; beach NA
time/unit length of coast) and dune storage nourishment; calcium
carbonate losses

NA - not applicable.

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of the time this environment responds as a point sink for engineering design depends on the time scale and the
sediment, resulting in well-defined natural boundaries for locality involved; impacts should be evaluated on a
a control volume. Shore-parallel boundaries also are project-by-project basis. In terms of its impact on a coas-
needed on the seaward and landward sides of the control tal sediment budget, relative sea level change does not
volume. The landward boundary is generally defined as a directly enter the evaluation procedure; however, the net
position representing the landwardmost extent of shoreline effect of elevation changes may be landward (rising water
position for the temporal extent of the study, whereas the level) or seaward (falling water level) displacement of the
seaward boundary is established at or beyond the limit of shoreline. Thus, relative changes in sea level can result in
sediment movement initiation (seaward edge of nearshore the appearance of a gain or loss of sediment volume.
zone) or the limit of significant sediment movement due However, any changes in sediment volume would be
to steady wave action (closure depth) (Hallermeier 1981). balanced within the control volume because the seaward
Boundary criteria vary depending on study objectives. boundary of the compartment generally is defined by the
Therefore, it is critical that factors used to determine seaward limit of significant sediment transport.
compartment boundaries be explicitly defined, such that
the selection may be evaluated and compared with previ- e. Summary. The range of significance for sinks,
ously established sediment budgets. sources, and convective processes in a coastal sediment
budget is described in Table 4-3. The relative importance
c. Convection of littoral material. The magnitude of elements in the sediment budget varies with locality
and direction of coastal processes affect the classification and with the boundaries of a particular control volume.
of gains or losses to or from a control volume. For For most beach environments, gross longshore transport
example, the net rate of sediment deposition or erosion in rates significantly exceed other volumetric rates in the
the littoral zone is controlled by differences in the rate of sediment budget, but if the beach is approximately in
longshore transport into and out of a control volume. If equilibrium, this may not be noticeable. Erosion of
sediment export is greater than import, erosion results and beaches, dunes, bluffs, and cliffs, as well as river contri-
the compartment is a net source of material to adjacent butions, are the principal natural sources of sediment in
compartments. Some processes may subtract at the same most locations. Human influences, such as beach nourish-
rate they add sediment to a control volume, resulting in ment, may provide major sources in local areas. Inlets,
no net change in material volume. The most important lagoons, and environments seaward of the depth of initia-
convecting process is longshore sediment transport. tion of sediment motion comprise the principal natural
Along most coasts, gross longshore transport rates exceed sinks for coastal sediment. However, sediment transport
net rates, and it is possible to have gross sediment trans- or shoal migration from ebb-tidal deposits at inlets to the
port rates in excess of 500,000 m3 (650,000 yd3) annually beach (Fitzgerald 1984), and erosion and offshore trans-
with no apparent beach changes. In other words, the port of sediment from estuaries and lagoons during major
same net rate of longshore sediment transport can be storm events (Isphording and Ismand 1991) illustrate the
produced by widely varying rates of gross transport in and varying importance of sources and sinks for specific study
out of a control volume. Other convecting processes that areas. Of potential importance as either a sink or source
may produce large rates of sediment transport with little is the offshore zone between closure depth and the point
noticeable change include tidal flows, especially around of initiation of sediment movement. Detailed analyses of
inlets, wind transport in the longshore direction, and historical bathymetric change on this portion of the conti-
wave-induced currents in the offshore zone. Because any nental shelf indicate significant sediment movement
structure that interrupts longshore sediment transport will (Knowles and Gorman 1991; List, Jaffe, and Sallenger
normally result in erosion or accretion, it is important that 1991; Byrnes and Hiland 1994), suggesting greater impor-
the sediment budget quantitatively identify all processes tance to the coastal sediment budget than originally
convecting sediment through the study area. anticipated.

d. Relative sea level change. Relative changes in sea 4-3. Example Application
level are the result of fluctuations in eustatic sea level
(global water level adjustments) and regional or local a. General.
changes in land level. Although eustatic sea level is
rising worldwide, land levels are rising and falling due to (1) Coastal sediment budgets are particularly useful
tectonic forces, compactional subsidence, and human in assessing the possible impacts of engineering activities.
activities (i.e., subsurface fluid withdrawal). The impor- For example, once a budget has been established for
tance of relative change in sea level on coastal natural conditions at a study site, one can assess the

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Table 4-3
Importance of Contributions to a Coastal Sediment Budget Relative to the Gross Longshore Sediment
Transport Rate (after SPM (1984))
Sources
Fluvial input · Major source in limited areas where rivers carry sediment to the littoral zone; may
contribute several times the gross longshore sediment transport rate during floods.
Dune, bluff, and cliff erosion · Generally the major sources where river contributions are insignificant. Approxi-
mately 3 to 10 m3/year (4 to 13 yd3/year) per meter of beach.
Onshore transport · Quantities uncertain. Net contributions can be estimated from historical
bathymetric change data.
Aeolian transport · Relatively unimportant as a source.
Beach replenishment · Varies from 0 to greater than the gross longshore transport rate.
Calcium carbonate production · A significant source in tropical climates. Approximately 0.5 m3/year (0.7 yd3/year)
per meter of beach in temperate climates.

Sinks
Inlets and lagoons · May remove from 5 to 25 percent of the gross longshore transport rate per inlet.
Depends on inlet size, tidal flow characteristics, and engineering influences.
Washover · Less that 2.5 m3/year (3.2 yd3/year) per meter of beach, and limited to low-profile
beach environments.
Offshore transport · Quantity uncertain. Net contributions can be estimated from historical bathymetric
change data.
Submarine canyons · Where present, may intercept up to 80 percent of gross longshore sediment
transport.
Aeolian transport · Usually less than 5 m3/year (6.5 yd3/year) per meter of beach.
Dredging · May equal or exceed gross longshore transport in some localities.

Convective Processes
Longshore transport (waves) · May result in accretion of gross longshore sediment transport, erosion of net long-
shore sediment transport, or no change depending on conditions of equilibrium.
Tidal currents · May be important at mouth of inlet and vicinity, and on irregular coasts with a high
tidal range.
Wind · Longshore wind transport is important only in limited regions.

impact of nearshore sand mining on beach response, sea- The time period covered by the analysis was 1980 to
wall placement on adjacent shoreline change, or jetty 1988, and overall results of the budget were compared
construction, which interrupts the longshore transport of with previous studies to determine the impacts of a chan-
sediment, on downdrift reaches of coast. Many examples nel deepening project (1978) on adjacent shoreline
of coastal sediment budget analyses exist (e.g., Bowen response. The study area was divided into three reaches
and Inman 1966; Caldwell 1966; Pierce 1969; Stapor (Bogue Banks, Beaufort Inlet, and Shackleford Banks)
1973; Jarrett 1977; Headland, Vallianos, and Sheldon (Figure 4-1). For each reach, average annual volume
1987; Jarrett 1991; Simpson, Kadib, and Kraus 1991; and change rates due to coastal processes and dredging pro-
others), however, the sediment budget presented below is cedures were quantified. Longshore transport rates were
of particular significance because an inlet system is a then calculated using volume change rates in combination
critical component of the analysis in the study area. with relative energy flux values determined at the bound-
aries of the reaches through a wave refraction analysis.
(2) As part of a feasibility and environmental assess- Although significant effort goes into developing a sedi-
ment report for evaluating the impacts of harbor improve- ment budget, it must be remembered that it is an estimate
ments at Morehead City, North Carolina, on regional that can be in error by a factor of two or more depending
coastal response, the U.S. Army Engineer District, on the detail of knowledge of coastal processes in the
Wilmington, summarized shoreline processes in the study study area and historical rates of shoreline and
area and performed a coastal sediment budget analysis to bathymetric response. In addition, sediment budgets are
quantify the volumes of material moved by coastal pro- determined for varying periods of time and represent
cesses (U.S. Army Engineer District, Wilmington 1990). average rates of change for those time intervals. They

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Figure 4-1. Study area showing the three sediment budget reaches

may not be indicative of changes in any one year. The As such, the predominant direction of wave approach is
following discussion is a summary of a revised sediment from the southwest. Wave data used in the study were
budget for the Beaufort Inlet area performed as part of a derived from Atlantic Coast Hindcast, Phase II Wave
feasibility study for the Morehead Harbor Improvements Information compiled by the Coastal Engineering
project (U.S. Army Engineer District, Wilmington 1990), Research Center for the period 1956 through 1975 (Sta-
illustrating the practical use of this technique for assessing tion 42). Average significant wave height for this station
the potential impacts of engineering activities. is 1.3 m (4.3 ft); however, maximum wave heights of
4.7 m (15.5 ft) were predicted for the 20-year record.
b. Environmental conditions. Wind-generated waves Mean tide level at Beaufort Inlet is 0.5 m (1.7 ft) with a
and currents, as well as tidal currents, are the primary mean tide range of 0.9 m (3.1 ft). The mean maximum
processes affecting change in the study area. The study flood current speed at the inlet channel entrance near Fort
area is oriented east-west and predominant winds come Macon (Figure 4-1) is 1 m/sec (2 knots), whereas the
from the southwest to south-southwest direction. Approx- mean maximum ebb speed is 0.9 m/sec (1.8 knots). Note
imately 35 percent of the time, wind is blowing onshore that these tide values are only averages; storm tidal
with a mean speed of approximately 12 km/hr (7.5 mph). heights and velocities can be four to five times higher.

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c. Study site. The study area is located along the (2) For the analysis period (1980-1988), profile data
northeast margin of Onslow Bay (an open-ocean embay- were available for quantifying volume changes associated
ment between Cape Lookout and Cape Fear, NC), with shoreline position change along Bogue and Shackle-
seaward of Morehead City, NC, and west of Cape ford Banks. Onshore and offshore sediment volume dif-
Lookout. The three study reaches are included within an ferences were calculated separately from the shoreline to
area approximately 21 km (13 miles) long (Figure 4-1) an average depth of 10.7 m (35 ft) msl (≈1,370 m
and contain fine sand barrier island beaches. Control (4,500 ft) from baseline). The offshore length of the pro-
volumes extend approximately 1,370 m (4,500 ft) offshore file included the active littoral zone, such that differences
from the shoreline to an average depth of -10.7 m (-35 ft) calculated would indicate total volume changes. Rates of
MSL. The Bogue Banks reach extends 7,380 m shoreline position change also were calculated from the
(24,200 ft) in an east-west orientation, whereas the beach profile data and compared favorably with existing
Shackleford Banks reach extends 7,100 m (23,300 ft) in a change rates (see U.S. Army Engineer District,
northwest-southeast direction. A groin constructed along Wilmington (1990)). However, volume change informa-
eastern Bogue Banks at Fort Macon in the early 1850s is tion compiled prior to the interval 1980-1988 relied on
the only coastal structure present along the outer coast. comparisons of historical shoreline position for estimating
The Beaufort Inlet reach is the largest control volume in volume rates of change. Consequently, sediment budget
the sediment budget study, encompassing the inlet chan- calculations performed for earlier time intervals may yield
nel, the Morehead City Harbor area, the ebb-tidal shoal, different results relative to variations in technique, regard-
the Fort Macon beach area, and Shackleford Point. less of natural changes.

d. Shoreline position and beach profile volume (3) The onshore and offshore portions of the active
changes. beach profile on Bogue Banks showed accretion for the
period 1980-1988. Shoreline movement averaged 22.0 ft/
(1) The first component of a strategy for quantifying year, while onshore and offshore volume change averaged
the sediment budget is to determine average annual vol- 132,000 and 255,000 m3/year (172,000 and 334,000 yd3/
ume change rates for each part of the study area. For the year), respectively (Figure 4-2). Overall, approximately
study at Beaufort Inlet and vicinity, volume changes were 387,000 m3/year (506,000 yd3/year) of sediment accumu-
divided into two categories based on changes along the lated in Reach 1 for the study period. Most of this
barrier island shorelines and changes associated with inlet increase in sediment volume was related to a beach
and harbor areas. replenishment project at Atlantic Beach in 1986 totaling

Figure 4-2. Shoreline position and volume change, Bogue Banks, NC

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28 Apr 95

3.0 million m3 (3.9 million yd3). Annualized for the study volume changes in Reach 2 because shoreline movement
time period, this volume of material amounts to a in this area is influenced by inlet processes and responds
373,000 m3/year (488,000 yd3/year) addition to the area. differently than open-coast shorelines in Reaches 1 and 3.
Beach profile data were supplemented using aerial
(4) For Shackleford Banks, the magnitude of change photography digitized to determine area changes for Fort
was quite different. For the same time period, average Macon and Shackleford Point.
shoreline movement showed net retreat (-0.70 m/year;
-2.3 ft/year), and onshore volume change reflected this (2) For the period 1978 to 1988, the Fort Macon
change (-23,000 m3/year; -30,000 yd3/year) (Figure 4-3). region accreted at an average rate of 9,900 m3/year
However, offshore profile volume change illustrated net (13,000 yd3/year). Because only area and shoreline posi-
accretion (95,500 m3/year; 121,000 yd3/year), resulting in tion change can be quantified using photography, volume
a net addition of sediment to Reach 3 of 69,600 m3/year change associated with shoreline adjustments had to be
(91,000 yd3/year). Overall, the barrier island littoral zone estimated based on change rates multiplied by the vertical
compartments in the study area are stable for the time distance between the shoreline and closure depth times the
period of analysis. longshore distance covered by the control volume (SPM
1984). The estimated amount of change for the area was
e. Sediment volume changes near Beaufort Inlet. partially the result of deposition of 920,000 m3
(1.2 million yd3) of material in 1978.
(1) Shoreline changes within 610 m (2,000 ft) of
Beaufort Inlet were included in the analysis of sediment

Figure 4-3. Shoreline position and volume change, Shackleford Banks, NC

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EM 1110-2-1618
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finite-difference numerical model RCPWAVE (Ebersole,

(3) The western end of Shackleford Island Cialone, and Prater 1986) was used to generate informa-
(Shackleford Point) was analyzed for area change using tion on breaker wave height, breaker angle, and wave
aerial photography for the same time period as the Fort number. This information was used to predict wave
Macon shoreline. Using the same conversion procedures energy flux at the break point so that potential sediment
listed above, sediment volume change was estimated at transport rates in and out of a sediment budget compart-
-14,500 m3/year (-19,000 yd3/year), the opposite trend ment, as well as at discrete longshore positions within a
shown for the beach at Fort Macon. reach, could be calculated.

(4) Sediment volume change on the offshore bar (2) Results from the analysis for the reaches along
(ebb-tidal shoal) was considered one of the most critical Bogue and Shackleford Banks indicated a relatively even
components of the sediment budget because previous distribution of wave energy. The eastern side of Bogue
analyses indicated that the shoal was deflating at a rapid Banks is most influenced by waves out of the southwest,
rate. Comparisons using digitized bathymetric data were whereas the western portion of the island is more influ-
made for the period 1974 to 1988 for an approximate enced by waves out of the east-southeast. Conversely, the
3.2-square-km (1.25-square-mile) area limited by the shoreline response along Shackleford Banks primarily is
extent of the 1988 survey. After making adjustments for controlled by waves from the south-southeast. Results
overlap with dredging activities and prorating net volume obtained for areas near the margin of Beaufort Inlet show
change to cover the same area included in the 1976 greater wave variability than those found along open-
General Design Memorandum (GDM) sediment budget, it ocean beaches, likely the result of rapidly changing
was determined that the net annual volume loss from the bathymetric contours that influence wave transformation
ebb-tidal shoal was 210,000 m3 (274,000 yd3). This value and energy flux.
is slightly less than but consistent with that from the 1936
to 1974 sediment budget analysis. It was stated that if (3) Numerical model results also suggest that wave
shoal deflation continued at its then current rate, it was energy entering the inlet from the west is three times that
possible that the wave climate impinging on the shoreline coming from the east. For Bogue Banks, the energy flux
might change, causing increased wave energy and erosion. from the west is relatively constant near the central por-
Volume changes for deposits in Back Sound were taken tion of Reach 1 and then increases significantly towards
from the 1976 GDM and assumed representative for the the inlet. Along Shackleford Banks, very little energy is
period 1980 to 1988. This is supported by the fact that propagated from the east, due in part to sheltering by
dredging volume in the inner harbor had not increased Cape Lookout. These trends are supported by inlet shoal-
substantially since the harbor was deepened in 1978. ing patterns which indicate that approximately 70 percent
of sediment dredged from the Beaufort Inlet channel
(5) Channel dredging is a large component of sedi- comes from the west. Total wave energy flux values at
ment movement in the inlet reach. Annual pipeline and reach boundaries are used in the sediment budget equa-
hopper dredging volumes for this area are provided in tions presented in the next section to determine longshore
U.S. Army Engineer District, Wilmington (1980) for the sediment transport rates into and out of the inlet reach.
shoal, channel, and back-barrier navigation channel.
From these data, the average annual dredge volume from g. Sediment budget. After determining all the aver-
the ebb-tidal shoal was determined to be approximately age annual volumetric change rates and the relative
550,000 m3 (716,000 yd3). Pipeline dredging volumes energy flux at reach boundaries, the parameters were
from interior channels behind the islands averaged combined by reaches to calculate three unknown annual
137,000 m3/year (179,000 yd3/year) for the period 1980 to volumetric rates: longshore transport rate (QE), volume
1988. rate bypassing to the east (BE), and volume rate bypass-
ing to the west (BW). Table 4-4 provides a summary of
f. Wave energy flux analysis. known sediment budget volume change rates for each
reach for the 1980 to 1988 time period. One sediment
(1) Estimating the distribution of wave energy, par- budget equation was established for each reach based on
ticularly at the boundaries of coastal compartments, is an the information provided above. Coefficients for the
important component of any sediment budget analysis. longshore sediment transport (QE) values represent the
To encompass the impacts of variable nearshore bathyme- relative energy flux values at reach boundaries. Fig-
try on wave transformation along the coast, the ure 4-4 shows the volume relationships between the

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Table 4-4
Sediment Budget Volume Change Rates (after U.S. Army Engineer District, Wilmington (1990))
Volume Change

Parameters m3/year yd3/year

Reach 1 - Bogue Banks

Beach Replenishment (REPL) +373,000 +488,000
Total Volume Change (VC1) +387,000 +506,000

Reach 2 - Beaufort Inlet

Channel Dredging Near Ebb-Shoal (DRED) -548,000 -716,000
Dredging in Back Sound (BSND) -137,000 -179,000
Back Sound Loss (from 1976 GDM) (BSND) -44,000 -58,000
Fort Macon Volume Change (FMVC) +9,900 +13,000
Shackleford Point Volume Change (SPVC) -14,500 -19,000
Volume Change on the Ebb-Tidal Shoal (VC2) -210,000 -274,000

Reach 3 - Shackleford Banks

Total Volume Change (VC3) +70,000 +91,000

Figure 4-4. Sediment budget reaches and volumes (numbers × 765 m3/year (1000 yd3/year))

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28 Apr 95

reaches. The following equations can be solved simul- h. Results of the analysis. Using measured volume
taneously to determine the three unknowns. They are: change rates in combination with wave energy flux esti-
mates provided a means of assessing the magnitude of
Reach 1 - Bogue Banks longshore sediment transport and sediment bypassing at
Beaufort Inlet. Two critical findings evolved from this
1.43 QEWI - 0.29 QEWO + REPL + BW analysis: 1) sediment was only bypassing the inlet from
- 1.0 QEEO = VC1 west to east, potentially providing material to beaches on
(4-1) Shackleford Banks, and 2) the ebb-tidal shoal area was
0.14 QE - 17 + BW = 0 deflating at a fairly rapid rate. Both of these observations
were consistent with conclusions from previous studies.
Reach 2 - Beaufort Inlet From these results, one can infer that certain human-
induced processes may be adversely impacting the evolu-
0.29 QEEI + 1.0 QEWI - BSND - DRED tion of this coastal system relative to natural conditions.
- BE - BW = TVC2 (4-2) With this information, appropriate actions can be taken to
alleviate future problems. Without performing a sediment
where budget analysis, pertinent findings may have been inad-
vertently missed.
TVC2 = VC2 + FMVC + SPVC
i. Alternate approach. Increased capabilities in the
1.29 QE - 673 - BE - BW = 0 areas of shoreline position change simulations (Grosskopf
and Kraus 1994) and surface modeling software for ana-
Reach 3 - Shackleford Banks lyzing temporal trends in cut and fill for integrated shore-
line and bathymetry data sets (Byrnes and Hiland 1994)
-0.65 QEEO + 0.25 QEEI + BE provide an automated approach for assessing coastal sedi-
- 0.29 QEWO = VC3 ment budgets. In the analysis performed by the
(4-3) U.S. Army Engineer District, Wilmington (1990), volume
-0.69 QE - 91 + BE = 0 change data for the ebb-tidal shoal were estimated by
calculating differences among discrete areas represented
where by an average of a number of bathymetric data points
rather than using the entire data set and subtracting sur-
QEWI - transport into the reach, west side. faces. Analysis of change associated with entire data sets
using recently developed surface modeling software pro-
QEWO - transport out of the reach, west side. vides a more accurate estimation of change, particularly in
an area as critical as a navigation entrance. Of course
QEEI - transport into the reach, east side. beach profile data, integrated with shoreline position data,
could be analyzed in a similar manner. Probably the most
QEEO - transport out of the reach, east side. critical estimated parameter in a sediment budget analysis
is the longshore transport rate. For the study at Beaufort
After inserting the values in Table 4-4 into the above Inlet and others (e.g., Headland, Vallianos, and Sheldon
equations and solving simultaneously, longshore transport 1987), wave energy flux is calculated at the boundaries of
(QE), transport bypassing to the east (BE), and transport sediment budget compartments for determining the poten-
bypassing to the west (BW) were determined as: tial rate of longshore sediment transport. Shoreline
change numerical models provide a more realistic assess-
QE = 806,700 m3/year (1,055,000 yd3/year) ment of these rates because model calibration is depen-
dent upon historical shoreline position data. In other
BE = 610,200 m3/year (798,000 yd3/year) words, potential sediment transport rates must be consis-
tent with shoreline change data to produce reliable model
BW = -100,200 m3/year (-131,000 yd3/year) output. Consequently, if model calibration is successful,
longshore sediment transport rates at sediment budget
The negative value for bypassing to the west indicates reach boundaries would be more reliable than calculated
that the transport direction assumed in Figure 4-4 was potential transport rates from wave energy flux measure-
opposite of the actual direction, suggesting that no sand is ments that cannot be tested for accuracy.
bypassing Beaufort Inlet from east to west.

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4-4. Shoaling Rates with sparse data coverage, the prediction technique would
decrease in reliability with proportion to data availability.
As noted in the previous discussion, two primary compo- Clearly, a universal prediction technique based on
nents of the sediment budget analysis were channel dredg- dynamic processes influencing sedimentation at entrances
ing and maintenance associated with Back Sound and the would be most useful for any inlet system. However, the
ebb-tidal shoal at Beaufort Inlet. Because sediment from complexity of sediment-flow interaction at inlet channels
these types of areas often represents large annual volume has limited the effectiveness of analytical techniques.
changes within the budget, measurement and prediction of
shoaling is critical to planning and design of navigation (3) The offshore and surf zone sections of the harbor
improvements. Economic feasibility of any navigation will be discussed herein. For additional discussion of
project depends to a large extent on future channel dredg- wave and tidal flow-controlled stability conditions at
ing needs, and accurate prediction of sedimentation rates inlets, the reader is directed to Bruun (1978), Escoffier
is a critical part of project planning. Due to the signifi- (1977), Jarrett (1976), and Sorensen (1977). Gole,
cance of this parameter related to sediment budget deter- Taraport, and Gadre (1973); Lin and Mehta (1989);
minations and operation and maintenance procedures, a Marine Board (1983); and McDougal and Slotta (1986)
brief discussion is presented below regarding techniques discuss sedimentation in interior channels and docking
used for predicting shoaling rates. Portions of the follow- slips.
ing discussions are taken directly from Sorensen (1992).
b. Example application - offshore (nonbreaking
a. Prediction techniques. conditions).

(1) There are many analytical and empirical methods (1) Kadib (1970, 1976, 1991) developed a simple and
for shoaling rate prediction (Sorenson 1992), but there are rational method based on theory and laboratory studies for
no widely accepted techniques. Many of the empirical describing shoaling in dredged channels given nonbreak-
methods are site-specific, and the theoretical methods ing wave and current data in the vicinity of the channel.
often contain simplifying assumptions which limit their The method was field verified by monitoring the sedimen-
applicability. Calculation of shoaling rates depends on tation rates at a test trench at Morro Bay Harbor entrance
assumptions in the method applied and coastal processes in California (Kadib 1993). Kadib’s method first assumes
in the region of interest. For the purpose of classifying that the basic flow field near a channel may be described
sedimentation processes, a navigation channel from off- with two primary processes: 1) a steady current with an
shore into the back bay or harbor region may be sub- average velocity u1 at water depth d1 (by continuity, this
divided into four sections. The first is the offshore current will have a velocity u2 at d2), and 2) a maximum
section located seaward of the surf zone; and the second oscillatory current at the bed due to wave action. These
is the offshore section in the surf zone, but seaward of the processes were considered the most important factors
region in which significant inlet-induced ebb/flood tidal contributing to sediment movement near a channel. Kadib
currents control sediment movement. Depending on inlet took this basic premise and, given wave height, wave
entrance geometry and wave climate, the second section period, and wave length, calculated bed load and sus-
may not exist. The portion of the inlet in which sediment pended load transport rates using transport relationships
transport and resulting channel conditions are dominated developed by Einstein (1950, 1972) and Abou-Seida
by flow through the entrance is the third section. The (1965). The bed-load transport rate Qb was determined as
fourth section is in the harbor interior in which turbulence a function of the sediment concentration in the bed layer
levels and current velocities are reduced and net deposi- Ca and the local current velocity near the bed uc.
tion of sediment transported into the back bay or harbor Assuming that bed load takes place within a certain bed
takes place. layer, the concentration of suspended sediment Ch at a
distance h above the bed can be determined (Einstein
(2) In the sediment budget example presented herein, 1950). Once this value is determined, the total suspended
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Wilmington District load Qs on the updrift side of the channel and inside the
(1990) used historical data to assess the magnitude and channel can be estimated.
rate of shoaling for the Beaufort Inlet entrance channel by
evaluating dredging records and bathymetric surveys. (2) To calculate the rate of sediment deposition per
This procedure works well; however, its applicability is unit width of channel (Qd), Kadib assumed two primary
limited to one area with an excellent record of historical processes would take place as sediment transported in the
information. If a study were being undertaken in an area direction of a channel encounters the channel. First, the

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channel will act as a sand trap for bed load, and second, across the bar offshore of a tidal inlet. A regression
the current carrying suspended load on the updrift side of analysis of field data from four North Carolina inlets was
the channel will reduce its capacity across the channel due conducted to relate the bar cut siltation rate with three
to a decrease in the steady flow velocity, depositing sedi- influencing factors; ebb tidal flow energy, incident wave
ment in the channel. Thus, the channel shoaling rate can energy, and sediment entrapment potential, which depends
be represented as the difference between the rate of trans- on channel depth.
port of suspended load reaching the channel (Qs1) and the
transport rate across the channel (Qs2), plus the rate of d. Empirical methods.
bed-load transport at the channel edge (Qb), or
(1) Purely empirical methods available for sedimen-
Qd = (Qs1 - Qs2) + Qb (4-4) tation prediction do not consider wave and current condi-
tions or local sediment characteristics, but make projec-
Although rather simplified in context, this approach pro- tions based on historic dredging records for the existing
vides a reasonable analytical technique for estimating channel. These methods relate previously dredged vol-
channel shoaling rates for noncohesive sediment. In umes to time elapsed and pertinent channel geometry
addition, it is not specific to a given inlet environment features.
and thus has greater utility towards understanding and
predicting rates of shoaling in channels. (2) Vincente and Uva (1984) present a method that
assumes the siltation rate is proportional to the difference
c. Example applications - surf zone (breaking between the existing bottom elevation in the channel
conditions). section and the equilibrium bottom elevation in the chan-
nel section for which no deposition will occur. Trawle
(1) The SPM (1984) summarizes procedures for and Herbich (1980) applied the "volume of cut" procedure
predicting longshore sediment transport rates in the surf to six Atlantic, gulf, and Pacific coast harbor entrance
zone. Given representative wave conditions for a period channels where adequate historic dredging records were
of time, the longshore transport rate can be calculated as a available. The analysis related percent increase in the
volumetric transport rate, or as an immersed weight rate. volume of cut from the previous channel dimension to the
The SPM energy flux method empirically relates the wave new channel dimension, which therefore indicated a sub-
power and longshore transport; however, the mechanics of sequent increase in the dredging requirement.
sediment transport are not considered. Komar (1977) uses
a relationship that considers both wave action to suspend (3) The U.S. Army Engineer District, Portland
sediment and wave-induced longshore current to transport (Hartman 1977) developed a method from historical sur-
sediment. Although equivalent to the SPM approach, veys and dredging records. The empirical method pre-
Komar’s method does have an advantage since it sepa- dicts controlling dimensions in a navigation channel which
rates out wave and current effects which may be individ- result from dredging activities at different times and
ually evaluated at points adjacent to and in the channel to depths. It assumes that a structurally controlled entrance
calculate respective transport rates and resulting net chan- will have infill or scour rates for a specific depth under
nel deposition rate. The Komar and SPM methods similar ocean and river conditions, and that ocean and
require similar information: knowledge of the incident river conditions are constant during any one month, year
wave height, period, and angle with respect to the shore- to year. A table of shoaling rates is developed, and a
line at the breaker point; water depths in and adjacent to “typical” natural channel control dimension curve is
the channel; sediment density; and an estimate of the generated.
in-place porosity of the sediment.
e. Concluding remarks.
(2) Galvin (1979) developed a simple procedure to
examine shoaling at Moriches Inlet, New York. The (1) Accurate analytical predictions of channel shoal-
method estimates the portion of the approaching longshore ing rates are difficult. This difficulty arises primarily for
surf zone sediment transport that will deposit in a channel two reasons: sedimentation processes in navigation chan-
cut across the bar. The channel cut is assumed to be nels are complex, and thus development of accurate ana-
around an inlet entrance whose ebb tidal flow affects the lytical techniques is difficult; and reliable estimations
deposition rate in the bar channel. The U.S. Army Engi- require a significant amount and variety of input data. An
neer District, Wilmington (1980) also developed a method alternate approach to analytical predictions is to employ
for predicting the shoaling rate in a channel dredged purely empirical techniques using historic data on

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deposition at the project channel or a nearby channel with the Coastal Engineering Research Center. The reader is
similar characteristics. cautioned that, although a given method may be very
accurate at one inlet, its application to other locations may
(2) Several methods were discussed herein for the result in unreliable predictions. For a more detailed
purpose of giving the reader a brief overview of shoaling description of the methods, their development and
rate prediction techniques. The broad applicability of assumptions, the reader is directed to Sorenson (1992).
these and other methods is presently under investigation at

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Chapter 5 impacts on natural littoral processes within the tidal inlet

Design Analysis of Tidal Inlets system. These data include: tidal elevations and currents,
freshwater inflows, winds and waves, water quality
parameters, bathymetry, and geological information. In
addition, weather data related to visibility and ice infor-
5-1. Introduction mation may also be needed for the design analysis.

a. Design considerations. d. Sources of information. A substantial quantity of

environmental data is available in the public domain and
(1) Engineering design of coastal inlets typically can be obtained from public or university libraries, Gov-
involves either improving an existing inlet or developing a ernment agencies, and data retrieval and referral centers.
new inlet. In either case, engineers must realize that the Tidal data are readily available from the publications of
design project is in a dynamic environment where natural Tide Tables, Tidal Current Tables, and Tidal Bench
processes are not completely understood. Extreme care Marks by the NOS. Field measurements of tidal currents
should be exercised with any alteration to existing shore- should be planned for engineering analysis. River flows
line and bathymetric configurations. Not necessarily all into the tidal basin, sediment loads, and other water qual-
physical changes will upset the natural environment; the ity parameters are provided in the Water Resources Data
ability to anticipate project impacts and implement appro- published annually by the U.S. Geological Survey. Nauti-
priate measures to alleviate adverse effects is the key to cal charts and bathymetric maps published by NOS are
successful design practice. Mathematical and physical usually adequate for preliminary engineering design and
models are important tools to be applied in inlet design analysis. Baseline bathymetric surveys should be sched-
analysis. uled for planning and design purposes. Coastal geologic
data, and wind and wave data generally are scarce, but
(2) It is equally important that the designed features Chu, Lund, and Camfield (1987) provide a listing of
perform their intended functions with minimum mainte- useful data sources for design analysis.
nance requirements. Design criteria should be established
to guide the design of each feature for both functional 5-2. Navigation Channel Design
performance and structural integrity under adverse envi-
ronmental conditions such that project benefits will be a. General. Engineering analysis of navigation chan-
maximized. A net-benefit optimization analysis is nels involves identifying appropriate design criteria,
required to determine the economic optimum design. determining the most economical channel dimensions,
analyzing of dredging requirements, and determining
b. Design features. Most designs for tidal inlets are dredging effects on overall inlet stability. Only entrance
navigation or navigation-related projects but consideration channel design analysis is discussed in this manual.
is also given to water quality improvement, sediment EM 1110- 2-1613 and EM 1110-2-1615 should be con-
control, and recreation. Structural improvements for sulted in the formulation of channel features. The
navigation projects may include the construction of jetties, following factors influencing channel design need careful
breakwaters, or bulkheads and revetments. Jetties and evaluation: design vessel; tides and design water levels;
breakwaters have similar structural configurations but winds, waves, currents, and sedimentation.
differ in performance functions. Jetties are designed
mainly to prevent navigation channels from shifting and b. Design vessel. The design vessel or vessels are
shoaling while breakwaters are built to reduce wave selected from comprehensive studies of the various types
energy in sheltered areas. With these objectives in mind, and sizes of vessels expected to use the project during its
the alignment, layout, and length of the structure elements design life. Channel dimensions should be selected to
must be analyzed for optimum performance. Bulkheads safely and efficiently accommodate the amount and type
and revetments are shoreline erosion protection structures. of traffic anticipated. The design vessel is selected by
Nonstructural navigation improvements include channel evaluating trade-offs of the delay cost incurred by larger
dredging and sand bypassing. vessels and cost of increased channel dimensions. The
maximum size vessel and least maneuverable vessel in the
c. Physical environmental data. Physical fleet must be able to make a safe transit; however, the
environmental data are required for better understanding following special conditions may be important
of natural transport processes at inlet systems, develop- considerations:
ment of design criteria, assessment of functional
performance of designed structures, and determination of

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28 Apr 95

(1) Suitable wind, wave, and current conditions and normally used to determine available and needed depths
visibility. for various size vessels and designs for structure toes.
High-water levels are used to determine wave penetration,
(2) Use of high tide for additional water depth. structure height, and armor layer design.

(3) Speed restrictions to reduce squat, ship-generated d. Winds, waves, and currents.
wave heights, and shore damage.
(1) Estimates of winds, waves, and currents are
(4) One-way traffic. needed to determine their effects on vessel motions and
controllability, and to estimate sediment movement in the
(5) Tugboat assistance. project area. Wind data are available from the National
Climatic Data Center (Federal Building, Asheville, NC
(6) Provision of anchorage area. 28801). Estimates of wind waves and vessel-generated
waves are needed for various elements of project design.
c. Tides and design water levels. The NOS publishes Predictions of wind-generated waves can be made by
tide height predictions and ranges. Figure 5-1 shows using the techniques presented in EM 1110-2-1414.
spring tide ranges for the continental United States. His- Vessel-generated waves can be estimated with methods
torical records on tidal elevations, including extreme high presented in EM 1110-2-1615. Coastal currents are
water, mean higher high water, mean high water, mean affected by tides, river discharges, seiche motions, wind
tide level, mean low water, mean lower low water, and waves, and coastal structures. Tidal currents published by
extreme low water, may be found from Tidal Bench NOS may be adequate for preliminary project analysis.
Marks published for each NOS tide station. Cumulative Improvements such as dredging and jetty or breakwater
probability of tidal elevations prepared by Harris (1981) construction will affect current conditions in the project
can be useful in the analysis of frequency and duration of area. Mathematical or physical model simulations of
ship delays. In addition to ocean tides, water level is also current as well as wave distributions may be necessary for
affected by storm surges, seiches, and river discharges. detailed design analysis. Simulations of ship transits may
Design water level may vary with design functions of be required to ensure that the channel design is in compli-
specific project features. Lower low water levels are ance with functional design criteria.

Figure 5-1. Ocean spring tide ranges

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28 Apr 95

(2) One design problem of note, particularly of con- (2) Dredging tolerance. Dredging tolerance is taking
cern to small boat harbors, is the breaking of waves in the into account the inaccuracies of dredging operations in
entrance channel during higher wave energy and/or higher marine environments in relation to the theoretical design
flow discharge events. The following guidance is summa- channel cross section. Usually a value ranging from
rized by the Members of the Task Committee on Marinas 0.3 to 0.9 m (1 to 3 ft) is used in contract specification.
2000 (American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
1992). Linear wave theory can be used to calculate a (3) Advanced maintenance. Channel maintenance
minimum breaking wave depth (SPM 1984) based on the usually consists of removing sediment deposits from the
design wave (or waves) to establish a minimum safe channel bed. In channels where shoaling is continuous,
channel depth. Analytical methods are available to calcu- overdredging is a means of reducing the frequency of
late the effects of ebb tidal flow and/or river flow given dredging while providing reliable channel depth over
incident wave conditions (SPM 1984). By then adding longer periods of time. Advance maintenance consists of
allowances for design vessel motions such as roll, pitch, dredging deeper than the safe channel design depth to
and heave (EM-1110-2-1615) a minimum depth for safe provide for accumulation and storage of sediment. Justifi-
navigation can be specified. Adverse entrance conditions, cation for advance maintenance is based on channel depth
caused by waves, can be minimized through the follow- reliability and economy of less frequent dredging. Esti-
ing: greater entrance depths, which will allow higher mates of channel shoaling rates are used in the justifica-
storm waves before breaking; channel widths widened to tion for advance maintenance dredging. Several depths
allow more maneuvering room during higher sea condi- should be considered to optimize the advanced mainte-
tions (EM 1110-2-1615); structures such as jetties can be nance allowance; however, deeper channels will tend to
extended offshore to reach deeper depths thus allowing be more efficient sediment traps and could shoal more
higher unbroken waves across the ebb bar; and offshore rapidly. Overdepth advanced maintenance eliminates the
structures such as breakwaters can be constructed to pro- need for a dredging tolerance allowance.
vide shelter to the entrance (EM 1110-2-2904). Many
small boat harbor designs have been evaluated and g. Channel width. Factors to be considered in chan-
improved based on physical model tests (Bottin 1992). nel width design are discussed in EM 1110-2-1613. Cer-
tain shoaling patterns may warrant the consideration of
e. Sedimentation. Aspects of sedimentation that must advanced maintenance in the form of a channel widener.
be considered include the characteristics and transport of Such sediment traps are also justified based on the reduc-
native sediment as well as that of sediment introduced tion of dredging frequency and increase in channel reli-
into the project area by littoral drift and river flow. Sedi- ability. Navigation in the entrance channel is often
ment budget and shoaling analyses should be performed affected by strong and variable tidal currents, rough seas,
before and after construction. These studies provide the breaking waves, wind, fog, and other difficulties. Chan-
basis for maintenance dredging requirements, and shore- nel width, including advanced maintenance channel
line erosion and inlet stability control measures. Detailed wideners in the entrance, should be judiciously selected
discussions of sediment budget methodology are presented based on an analysis and evaluation of conditions at each
in Chapter 4, EM 1110-2-1502, and the SPM (1984). project. A review of methods for determining channel
widths as presented in Corps of Engineers reports is
f. Channel depth. included as Appendix B of EM 1110-2-1613.

(1) Wave conditions. Allowance for wave action is h. Channel side slope.
required for design depth determination. For small craft,
one half of the design wave height is generally adequate. (1) Significant factors in the design of side slopes for
Pitch, roll, and heave should be evaluated for larger ves- navigation channels include bottom soil type, slope loca-
sels that use the channel. Large vessel motions can be tion, seismic activity, and ease of construction. Most
determined by physical or mathematical model simula- noncohesive soils will not stand at a slope angle greater
tions or data from prototype observations. The effect on than 45 deg. Cohesive soils will stand initially at much
wave heights and directions in the channel due to depth higher angles, but over a period of time, they tend to
change (shoaling and refraction over the ebb tidal delta) degrade. Table 5-1 shows various side slopes for
and the effect on wave period due to currents should be underwater channels.
analyzed in the study of vessel motions and determining a
safe entrance channel depth.

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EM 1110-2-1618
28 Apr 95

thereby promoting higher channel velocities. Jetties stabi-

Table 5-1
Typical Side Slopes for Various Soil Types (Bray 1979) lize an inlet entrance by intercepting the littoral drift and
preventing or minimizing deposition in the inlet channel.
Soil Type Side Slope (V:H)
Jetties also minimize the effect of wave action and cross-
Rock Nearly vertical
currents on vessels transiting an inlet. As a permanent
Stiff clay 1:1 coastal structure protruding into the active littoral zone,
Firm clay 1:1.5 jetties alter natural sediment transport processes. Con-
Sandy clay 1:2 struction of a jetty system includes features or provisions
Coarse sand 1:3
to mitigate any significant adverse effects, such as
Fine sand 1:5
Mud and silt 1:8 to 1:60 downdrift beach erosion or removal of valuable sand from
the littoral system. EM 1110-2-2904 provides the
structural design aspects of jetty systems.

(2) In practice, it usually is found that characteristics b. Design theories.

other than inherent slope stability are the controlling fac-
tors. Consideration should be given to the slope location (1) General. Existing jetty systems can be grouped
and whether the slope is totally or partially submerged. A into two basic designs, single jetties and twin jetties. The
partially submerged slope acts as a beach and therefore, is following discussion addresses the design theory and
liable to assume a beach slope. Side slopes must be functional design criteria of each. (Note: In most cases,
constructed by dredges in a manner which suits the dredg- two jetties are needed to keep littoral drift from entering
ing operation. In certain cases, very steep slopes are dif- the channel. Because single-jetty systems have been
ficult and expensive to construct. In these circumstances, found to be unsatisfactory, single-jetty construction is no
savings in dredging quantities may be completely offset longer recommended; however, the design theory of such
by increase in unit cost of dredging. Generally slopes of systems will be presented as an aid in evaluating those
1:3 or less do not cause major dredging problems. already in existence.)

i. Channel dredging. Channel dredging involves (2) Single jetties.

initial construction to provide the design depth, with pro-
visions for advance maintenance dredging, dredging toler- (a) A single straight jetty or curved jetty may be
ance, and periodic maintenance. Cost estimation for both oriented perpendicular to the shoreline or may be placed
construction and maintenance dredging should be made at an angle with the shoreline depending on predominant
for various channel alignments and dimensions. wave direction, channel alignment of the natural inlet, and
Deep-draft channels usually are dredged by hopper desired alignment of the improved inlet. A single updrift
dredges in areas exposed to wave action or where disposal jetty is attached to shore on the updrift side of the channel
is in exposed offshore or estuarine areas. Pipeline entrance to act as a barrier to the movement of littoral
dredges are usually more economical with greater produc- drift alongshore from the net transport direction, as shown
tion with soft material but are restricted to protected or in Figure 5-2.
semi-protected areas. Dredged material can be disposed
of in open water or behind confined dikes. Contaminated (b) Two variations to the basic single updrift jetty are
material is generally disposed of behind containment dikes the addition of a weir section and the Haupt jetty. A weir
with careful monitoring of return water quality. If the section is a low section with a crest elevation near mean
dredged material is of reasonably good quality, it should sea level at the shore end. Sediment is transported over
be considered for beach nourishment or landfill purposes. the weir by waves and currents into a deposition basin
EM 1110-2-5025 provides guidance on dredging, disposal, that is periodically dredged. With this design, the littoral
and beneficial uses of dredged material. drift from the updrift direction is trapped and localized in
the basin before it reaches the navigation channel. Meth-
5-3. Jetties ods of deposition basin storage analysis, weir section
design, and updrift beach profile design are provided by
a. Design principles. A jetty system helps to deepen Weggel (1981). Figure 5-3 is a schematic of such a jetty
an inlet channel and reduce required dredging by concen- system constructed at Masonboro Inlet, North Carolina.
trating and directing tidal currents to optimize scouring (Note: Due to unsatisfactory performance of the single-
action. This is accomplished by confining discharge areas jetty system, Masonboro Inlet now has two jetties.)
and making flow channels more hydraulically efficient,

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 EM 1110-2-1618
28 Apr 95

Figure 5-2. Schematic of single updrift jetty

(c) The Haupt jetty is a single curved jetty which is (3) Twin jetties.
detached from the shoreline and located on the updrift
side of an entrance channel. The jetty is concave to the (a) The two jetties of a double-jetty system may be
main ebb-tidal currents to force the ebb current against placed perpendicular to or at an angle with the shoreline;
the jetty and scour a well-defined channel. Being may be curved or straight and converging, diverging, or
detached from shore, the system, as shown in Figure 5-4, parallel; and may be equal or unequal in length, depend-
readily admits flood currents to increase the tidal prism, ing on the local conditions at the entrance. Figure 5-6
thus permitting greater discharge through the channel shows a typical twin-jetty system. A double-jetty system
during ebb tide. may be the original design or the later addition of a
second jetty to a single-jettied entrance. Twin jetties are
(d) Single jetties located on the downdrift side of an normally aligned parallel with the selected channel align-
inlet entrance permit the net longshore transport of sand ment; this design most effectively controls channel flow
from the updrift direction to force the channel against the velocities. Converging alignments (arrowhead type) are
jetty as shown by Figure 5-5. In this case, the ebb generally not satisfactory since they are more costly to
current controls channel scour activities. Kieslich (1981) construct due to greater length, they do not reduce wave
discusses the response of entrance channel behavior action more than parallel jetties, they trap more sediment,
following the construction of 13 tidal inlets in the United and they often allow channel meandering.
States. The study concluded that the construction of
single jetties resulted in migration of the channel thalweg (b) The distance between jetties should be designed
towards the jetty regardless of the inlet-bay orientation, by considering channel width, maximum current speed
angle of the jetty to the shoreline, position of the jetty within the inlet entrance, and stability of bottom material,
relative to the direction of net longshore transport, the as well as overall inlet entrance stability. Jetty lengths are
ratio of net-to-gross transport, or the gross transport. determined by the channel project depth and

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EM 1110-2-1618
28 Apr 95

Figure 5-3. Schematic of a weir section in a jetty system

characteristics of the local littoral system. Although each resist expected wave conditions. Methods of stability
project must be analyzed independently, a general rule analysis for rubble-mound structures are presented in
suggests that jetties extend to the ocean contour equiva- EM 1110-2-2904. Rubble-mound jetties are adaptable to
lent to the dredged channel depth. Hydraulic model tests any water depth and to most foundation conditions. Chief
are generally advisable for jetty layout to optimize align- advantages are: structure settling readjusts component
ment and lengths. Additional information on jetty and stones that increase stability, damage is repairable, and the
channel layout can be obtained from EM 1110-2-2904, rubble absorbs rather than reflects much of the wave
EM 1110-2-1613, and Committee on Tidal Hydraulics energy.
(CTH) Report 3 (CTH 1965).
(3) Sheet-pile. Steel, timber, or concrete sheet piles
c. Types of material. are often used for jetty construction in areas where wave
conditions are not severe. Various formations of steel
(1) The principal materials for jetty construction are sheet-pile jetties include a single row of piling with or
stone, concrete, steel, and timber. Asphalt has occasion- without pile buttresses; a single row of piling arranged to
ally been used as a binder. Various jetty structure types function as a buttressed wall; double walls of sheet piles
are presented in EM 1110-2-2904. held together with tie rods, with the space between the
wall filled with stone or sand; and cellular-steel sheet-pile
structures, which are modifications of the double-wall
(2) Rubble-mound. The rubble-mound structure is a type. Cellular-steel sheet-pile jetties require little mainte-
mound of stone of different sizes and shapes, either nance and are suitable for construction in depths to 12 m
dumped at random or placed in courses. Side slopes and (40 ft) on all types of foundations. Corrosion is the prin-
armor unit sizes are designed so that the structure will cipal disadvantage of steel in water.

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 EM 1110-2-1618
28 Apr 95

Figure 5-4. Schematic of a Haupt jetty system

d. Stability analyses. For sheet-pile jetties, appropriate wave forces under

design wave conditions should be calculated according to
(1) General. Jetty construction at inlet entrances will procedures outlined in EM 1110-2-2904 and EM 1110-2-
restrict the movement of tidal flows and nearshore sedi- 1614 to assure structure stability. Protection of structure
ment. Prediction of effects on structure stability and the toes, particularly at the channel side, is extremely impor-
nearby littoral environment, due to the changes in hydro- tant. Current scour at the toe area is a common cause of
dynamic processes, becomes an important step in the failure to jetty structures. The procedures of design and
process of coastal structure design. analysis of structure toe protection also are outlined in
EM 1110-2-2904.
(2) Structure stability. Stability analysis of structure
elements for rubble-mound jetties follows the Hudson (3) Inlet stability. Overall stability of the inlet
formula outlined in EM 1110-2-2904. Design wave con- entrance channel should be analyzed using the
ditions of wave height, period, and direction should be methodology in Chapter 3 and for final design the mod-
selected based on long-term data, measured or hindcast. eling techniques presented in Chapters 6 and 7 may be

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EM 1110-2-1618
28 Apr 95

Figure 5-5. Schematic of a single downdrift jetty

required. The analysis should incorporate alterations techniques. EM 1110-2-1616 presents sand bypassing
designed for the inlet including jetty structures. If the theory and technologies.
entrance is unstable, bottom erosion may be expected and
extreme caution is needed in the design of toe protection. e. Other considerations.
If the entrance becomes unstable due to dredging, then
excessive siltation may occur at the channel and, possibly, (1) Jetty length. Jetty length should be determined
the bay area as well. Redesigning jetty alignment, by economic analysis of alternative plans. The maximum
increasing or decreasing the distance between twin jetties, length will be the longer of either that producing a
or changing channel dimensions may be necessary for year-round design channel depth considering jetty and
optimum tidal current patterns and magnitudes to improve maintenance dredging cost on an annual basis, or that
inlet stability and to reduce maintenance requirements which extends the jetties beyond the breaker line of waves
after the channel is improved. likely to be encountered by the design vessel. The two
benefits will be evaluated on an average annual basis and
(4) Shoreline changes. Effects on updrift and down- will be compared with annual cost of the jetties required.
drift shorelines due to the presence of coastal structures Shorter jetties then should be considered at the expense of
should be thoroughly studied. Erosion control measures year-round navigation if the maximum length jetties result
of sand bypassing should be considered if adverse impacts in an uneconomical project. Provisions for jetty extension
are expected. Chapters 6 and 7 discuss modeling at a later time should be included in a short jetty plan.

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Figure 5-6. Schematic of a twin jetty system

(2) Permeability and overtopping. Rubble-mound interrupt the natural sand bypassing at the unimproved
jetties usually are not sand tight. The jetty function in inlets. The resulting starvation of downdrift beaches may
littoral drift control can be reduced significantly due to cause serious erosion unless measures are taken to bypass
structure permeability. Sand-tightening measures by con- sand from the updrift side of inlets to downdrift beaches.
structing an impervious core layer, using geotextile fabric Mechanical techniques may be used for sand bypassing,
for leakage control, or asphalt to seal the pores, can be not only to minimize the shoreline erosion problem but
considered in the cost analysis. Leakage of littoral drift also to reduce the potential of shoaling at the navigation
into the navigation channel also can occur through water channel. EM 1110-2-1616 discusses basic sand bypassing
overtopping low crested jetty structures. The design crest concepts and principles, presents advantages and
elevation should consider structure settlement and wave disadvantages of various techniques and equipment, and
overtopping. A step-down type jetty may be designed provides guidance on developing technically feasible
when the offshore section is located in deeper water bypassing systems.
where littoral transport is at a minimum.
5-5. Economic Analysis
5-4. Sand Bypassing
a. General. Optimum design of a coastal inlet
The construction of jetties or breakwaters for navigation improvement project requires studies of estimated costs
improvement at tidal inlets creates littoral barriers that and benefits of various plans and alternatives considering

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28 Apr 95

safety, efficiency, and environmental impacts. These project economic life; construction cost for various design
studies are used to determine the most economical and levels; maintenance and repair cost for various design
functional channel alignment and design considering con- levels; replacement cost for various design levels; benefits
struction, maintenance, and replacement costs for various for various design levels; and probability of exceedance
design levels. Economical optimization analysis should for various design levels.
consider various elements involved in the development
and maintenance of the project. (2) The project economic evaluation period for most
coastal projects is 50 years. The design level or level of
b. Channels. The economic optimization of a chan- protection can be related to wave heights and water levels.
nel requires selection of several alignments and channel The severity of these events may be represented by the
dimensions. Costs, which include initial construction, probability of exceedance. Figure 5-7 shows the general
replacement, and annual maintenance, are developed for relationship of exceedance probability versus the design
the various alignments and a series of dimensions are level. Initial construction costs are estimated and
developed for each alignment. Benefits are developed annualized. Annual maintenance and repair costs can be
from transportation savings with consideration of vessel estimated by multiplying the construction cost by the
trip time and tonnage, delays for tides, weather conditions, probability of exceedance of the design level. This cost
and effects of reduced depths in channels that have rapid estimate should compare with the actual cost of existing
shoaling tendencies. The optimum economic channel is structures in similar coastal environments. Replacement
selected from a comparison of annual benefits and annual cost should be annualized with the present worth of
costs for initial construction, maintenance, and replacement cost considering appropriate interest rates and
replacement. project life. Total cost as a function of design level is
illustrated by Figure 5-8. A comparison of total costs and
c. Structures. benefits as a function of design level is shown in Fig-
ure 5-9. Normally, the design level associated with the
(1) Optimization of structures such as jetties is maximum net benefit will be selected for project design.
accomplished by estimating the annual initial construction, If the net benefit point is not well-defined, it may be
replacement, and maintenance costs, and annual benefits prudent to select a higher design level.
for various design levels. Elements to be considered are:

Figure 5-7. Exceedance probability versus design level

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Figure 5-8. Project cost curves

Figure 5-9. Benefits and cost versus design level

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Chapter 6 maintaining a vertical scale in the range of 1:50 to 1:100;

Physical Modeling of Tidal Inlets typical horizontal scales used range from 1:200 to 1:500.

e. Section model. Rather than distorting the model, a

smaller section of the inlet is selected for modeling so
6-1. Introduction that larger scales of 1:40 to 1:75 may be used; boundary
conditions of the section model must be accurately
Fluid-flow problems associated with tidal inlet studies reproduced.
generally involve a large number of variables, and there-
fore are not readily solved by simple mathematical 6-3. Model Preparation
approaches. As a result, physical hydraulic models are
often used to determine the significant kinematic and a. Type of study. Physical model studies of inlets
dynamic features of the prototype inlet system. In any typically are designed to investigate various methods of
hydraulic model study, the physical phenomena observed maintaining an effective navigation channel through the
in the model should represent those phenomena occurring inlet. Additional inlet-related problems that can be
in the prototype, so that prototype behavior can be pre- addressed by physical model studies include:
dicted by operating the model. A model is then, by defi-
nition, a device which is so related to a physical system (1) Stabilization of navigation channel dimensions
that observations of the model may be used to accurately and location.
predict the behavior of the physical system. A true physi-
cal model requires the accurate simulation of all phenom- (2) Optimizing structural dimensions, location, and
ena active at a particular inlet. Such a simulation is not configuration of jetties and other engineering structures.
only beyond the capability of present physical modeling,
but beyond the capabilities of any known simulation (3) Sand-bypassing techniques.
technique. However, the physical model does provide a
means of investigating the effects of a significant number (4) Shoaling and scouring trends on adjacent beach,
of dominant phenomena and in many cases allows an inlet, and bay.
effective understanding of physical processes occurring at
a tidal inlet. (5) Tidal prism changes.

6-2. Terminology (6) Navigation conditions due to waves and currents.

The following is a list of definitions of terms that will be (7) Salinity effects.
used throughout this chapter:
(8) Effects of storm surge.
a. Fixed-bed model. Bathymetry molded in concrete;
a thin layer of concrete is molded to templates over a b. Model design.
sand base.
(1) After the purpose of the model study has been
b. Movable-bed model. Model molded to a given defined, the actual design of the model can proceed. The
bathymetry in sand (or some other suitable granular significant steps are: acquisition of prototype data to
modeling material) which is fully movable; scaling rela- assure model accuracy, establishment of model limits, and
tionships for bed movement are not fully defined and definition and acquisition of model appurtenances.
sometimes lengthy testing is necessary to adequately
verify the model for predictive use. (2) The importance of accurate prototype data cannot
be overemphasized in model operation. The accuracy of
c. Undistorted-scale model. Model is scaled by one the model is dependent on the use of proper field data.
length scale ratio for the three dimensions; normally the Although the similitude of fixed-bed, undistorted-scale
maximum vertical scale used to obtain accurate results models indicates that good approximation of bed form
should not exceed a scale ratio of 1:100. losses can be derived in the model, assurance of accurate
model results can be achieved only through a comparison
d. Distorted-scale model. Used when area to be of model and prototype results. To assure that the model
modeled is extensive, horizontal scales are changed to is an accurate geometric reproduction of the prototype,
make the size of the model more manageable while

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hydrographic and topographic surveys must include the (a) Basic site preparation.
inlet and pertinent ocean and bay approaches that influ-
ence the inlet. The complete model requires a detailed (b) Installation of buried features (i.e., pipelines,
definition of the entire bay, whereas the section model required bases for instrumentation support systems).
only requires definition of that part of the bay of impor-
tance to the study. A critical need is topographic infor- (c) Installation of control templates.
mation for land flooding by the highest expected water
levels, particularly when investigating storm surge (d) Installation of base material.
conditions.
(e) Placement of material (normally concrete) form-
(3) Because bed form plays an important role in ing the model.
boundary losses through an inlet, attention must be given
to this feature. Although more research is needed on this (f) Finishing the model for the desired surface
subject, existing knowledge can guide the successful texture.
design of a physical model. With the physical character-
istics of the prototype known and similitude as a guide, (g) Fabrication and installation of tide-generating
the required bed form of the model can be estimated. capabilities.

(4) The final proof of model effectiveness in repro- (h) Installation of wave generators, velocity recording
ducing system hydrodynamics is a comparison of current systems, tide recording systems, wave recording systems,
velocities and water surface elevations in both the model and photographic capabilities.
and prototype. Requirements for a particular inlet model
can vary extensively; however, a limited number of criti- (2) Among the details that must be planned in model
cally placed tide gauges and wave gauges, along with construction are the various inlet changes to be evaluated
carefully located velocity stations, can provide enough during the model study. If the effects of dredging a
information for confidence in the model operation. The feature are evaluated, the construction of the model should
appurtenances required for an effective model study be based on this information. Templates prepared from
include: detailed hydrographic and topographic maps to assure the
model is a true representation of the prototype should be
(a) A tide-reproducing system for the ocean. modified to include the deepest possible navigation chan-
nel, deposition basin, turning basin, etc. This would
(b) A tide-reproducing system for the bay if the bay allow the study of these features in later stages of the
is not completely modeled. model testing program. A second set of templates can
then be installed in the molded model to allow features of
(c) Spectral wave generator or generators. lesser depth to be incorporated into the model. Tests can
then be conducted with the conditions of a lesser depth in
(d) Tidal height measuring and recording system. the model. When tests are completed, conversion of the
model to evaluate a proposed change to the inlet can be
(e) Velocity measuring and recording system. easily accomplished.

(f) Wave measuring and recording system. 6-4. Model Theory

(g) Photographic capabilities. a. The general theory of model design is based on

the fundamental principle that a functional relationship
Each of these systems requires proper planning in design- (similitude) exists among all variables associated with the
ing the model as construction of the model depends on system. Further, the number of variables can be signifi-
advanced knowledge of the specific requirements of each cantly reduced by forming a complete set of dimension-
system. less variables for which a new function expressing the
relationship between the dimensionless terms exists. If
c. Model construction. the model is designed so that each of the dimensionless
terms of the complete set is the same in the model as in
(1) Initial steps involved in model construction the prototype, the nature of the unknown function is iden-
include: tical for the model and the prototype. If all these

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conditions are satisfied, the model is considered a “true” the other component forces must also be the same
model which provides accurate information concerning the between model and prototype. Therefore:
behavior of the prototype.

b. Although space limitations for the construction of (Fi)p (Fpr)p (Fg)p

Fr
the model may sometimes dictate that the model be dis- (Fi)m (Fpr)m (Fg)m
torted, a physical model can usually be operated with the (6-2)
same linear scale in all three dimensions (i.e., an (Fµ )p (Fst)p (Fe)p
undistorted-scale model). This dictates that geometric (Fµ )m (Fst)m (Fe)m
similarity exists, as the ratios of all homologous dimen-
sions on the model and prototype are equal.
where r is ratio, p is prototype, and m is model.
c. In addition to geometric similarity, a true Equation 6-2 can be considered as indicating five inde-
undistorted-scale model requires that kinematic similarity pendent conditions that must be satisfied for complete
and dynamic similarity also exist. Kinematic similarity dynamic similitude. This can be reduced to four by using
exists when the ratios of all homologous velocities and Equation 6-1 and letting one of the forces be a function of
accelerations are equal in the model and prototype. the others. Taking the pressure force as the dependent
Dynamic similarity requires that the ratios of all homolo- variable:
gous forces be the same in the model and prototype.
Since force is related to the product of mass and
acceleration, dynamic similarity implies the existence of (Fpr)p (Fi)p  (F ) (Fµ )p
 gp
kinematic similarity which, in turn, implies the existence (Fpr)m (Fi)m  (F ) (Fµ )m
of geometric similarity.  gm
(6-3)

d. For an inlet model, the forces influencing the (Fst)p (Fe)p 

physical phenomena include pressure, gravity, viscosity, (Fst)m (Fe)m 
surface tension, and Coriolis (to a lesser extent). On a
regional scale, the Coriolis force has a significant effect
on wind-driven and tidal circulations, and water surface Therefore the pressure force will be scaled correctly if the
elevations in large tidal estuaries, bays, and lakes. How- other four forces are scaled correctly. Using Equation 6-2
ever, for a localized system such as a tidal inlet, Coriolis and equating the inertial force as F = Ma = p(volume)a,
force is considered insignificant. Elasticity is negligible or as prototype to model ratio,
in either case.

ρ rL r
4
e. Each force is related to the geometry and motion Lr
ρ rL r
3
(Fi)r M ra r (6-4)
of the flow. In Newton’s second law of motion, the 2
Tr Tr
2

inertial force Fi equivalent to the product of mass and

acceleration, is equal to the sum of all external forces
applied to a body. This inertial force can be considered
as the vector sum of all the others, or where Mr = ratio of prototype to model mass and
ar = ratio of prototype to model acceleration and equating
the inertial force ratio to the other force ratios individu-
Fi Fpr Fg Fµ Fst Fe (6-1)
ally, the following equations result:

where Fpr, Fg, Fµ, Fst, and Fe are the forces due to pres-
ρ rV r
2
sure, gravity, viscosity, surface tension, and elasticity, (ratio of Euler (6-5)
1
respectively. These forces usually suffice to describe pr numbers 1)
hydraulic phenomena.

f. For dynamic similarity, the ratio of the inertial 2

force between model and prototype must be the same as Vr (ratio of Froude
1 (6-6)
the ratio of the individual force components between the gr Lr numbers 1)
model and prototype. The ratios of the inertial force to

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stresses are primarily determined by form drag. When

ρ rV rL r (ratio of Reynolds Manning’s formula is used in an undistorted-scale model,
1 (6-7)
µr numbers 1) and assuming similarity for velocity,

ρ rV r L r
2
(ratio of Weber Lr 2/3
1 (6-8) Vr (6-10)
σr numbers 1) nr

ρ rV r
2
(ratio of Mach (6-9) where nr = Lr1/6 and n is Manning’s roughness
1
Er numbers 1) coefficient.

k. The use of Manning’s formula as a similarity

where ρ is mass density, V is velocity, p is pressure, g is criterion requires that the flow be fully rough turbulent in
the acceleration due to gravity, L is a representative both the model and the prototype. When a bulk Reynolds
length, µ is dynamic viscosity, σ is surface tension, and number defined as Vd/γ is greater than about 1,400 (where
E is elasticity. d is the depth of flow and γ is the kinematic viscosity),
fully rough turbulence will normally exist.
g. It can be demonstrated that no single model fluid
will permit all of these equations to be satisfied at once; l. A surface gravity wave is essentially a gravita-
therefore, true dynamic and kinematic similarity tional phenomenon; therefore, the controlling criterion of
apparently cannot be achieved between a model and the similitude is the Froude number, and waves may be repre-
prototype. However, one or more of the specific forces is sented correctly in undistorted-scale models.
often found to be negligible, and the number of equations
to be satisfied can be reduced accordingly. In fact, the m. Based on the Froude criterion of scaling, and
phenomena in a particular instance often involve the considering an undistorted-scale, fixed-bed model, the
effect of only one force ratio, and the others are geometric, kinematic, and dynamic scaling ratios may be
negligible. expressed in terms of the model-prototype length ratio
used for scaling Lr when the same fluid is used in the
h. The use of water as a model fluid is usually nec- model and the prototype (Table 6-1).
essary in coastal engineering models. Surface tension, the
least important term if the depths of the fluid are not n. Several physical interpretations may be given of
excessively small, will have a negligible effect on the the Froude number. Fundamentally, it is the ratio of iner-
flow of water more than 8 cm (0.25 ft) deep, or on waves tial to gravitational forces acting on a particle of fluid. It
with lengths exceeding about 0.3 m (1.0 ft) in the same can be shown that this ratio reduces to V/(gL)1/2, where V
water depth. By ensuring that the flow and waves exceed is a characteristic velocity, and L is a representative
these limiting values, the effect of surface tension can be length. Here the velocity is taken to be a horizontal
neglected. length divided by the time parameter. However, any
representative velocity and any representative length can
i. When both viscous and gravity forces are impor- be used in the Froude number as long as dynamic
tant, as in open channel flow on mild slopes, the Froude similarity is maintained and corresponding regions are
and Reynolds numbers should both be satisfied simulta- considered in the model and prototype. For an
neously. This requirement can only be met by choosing a undistorted-scale model, the scaling ratios in Table 6-1
special model fluid. Since water is the only practical are appropriate; here the time and velocity ratios are equal
model fluid, an approximate similarity requirement may to the square root of the linear scale ratios, where the
be used, based on empirical relationships which include horizontal and vertical linear scale ratios are identical.
the major effects of frictional forces (such as Manning’s The Froude number, defined as V/(gd)1/2, is related to the
equation). This approach is used in studying inlet vertical scale (depth) so that the velocity ratios are equal
problems. to the square root of the depth ratios; consequently, for a
distorted-scale model, the time ratios are equal to the
j. Since fairly high Reynolds numbers are usually horizontal length ratios divided by the vertical length
associated with tidal flow through an inlet, the shear ratio. Symbolically, for a distorted-scale model

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Table 6-1
Froude Criteria Scaling Relationships (for same fluid in model and prototype)
Undistorted Scale Distorted Scale
Geometric Similarity
===========================================================================================================
Length Lr
(horizontal) (Lh)r
(vertical) (Lv)r
Area Lr2
(horizontal) (Lh)2r
(vertical) (Lh)r (Lv)r
Volume L3r (Lh)2r (Lv)r

Kinematic Similarity
===========================================================================================================
Time L1/2
r (Lh)r /(Lv)1/2
r

Velocity L1/2
r (Lv)1/2
r

Acceleration 1 1
5/2
Discharge Lr (Lh)r (Lv)3/2
r
3/2
Kinematic Viscosity Lr (Lv)3/2
r

Dynamic Similarity
===========================================================================================================
Mass L3r (Lh)2r(Lv)r
Force L3r
(horizontal) (Lh)3r
(vertical) (Lh)2r (Lv)r
Dynamic Viscosity L3/2
r (Lv)3/2
r

Surface Tension Lr2 (Lh)2r

Pressure Intensity Lr (Lv)r
Impulse and Momentum L7/2
r (Lh)2r (Lv)3/2
r

Energy and Work L4r (Lh)2r (Lv)2r

Power L7/2
r (Lh)r/(Lv)5/2
r

fraction requires scaling the wavelength by the horizontal

(Lh) scale. If the model is distorted, these phenomena cannot
r
Vr ( Lv ) 1/2
and Tr (6-11)
r
(Lv) 1/2 be simultaneously scaled correctly. However, if the influ-
r
ence of one of the phenomena is considered to be insig-
nificant relative to the other, the scale effect can be
where Lv = vertical length ratio and Lh = horizontal length determined for a distorted scale model.
ratio, which shows the significance of distortion. These
and other pertinent ratios required for geometric, kine- 6-5. Types of Models
matic, and dynamic similarity are easily developed.
a. Fixed-bed, undistorted-scale models.
o. Scaling of refraction and diffraction of dispersive
waves cannot be correctly achieved simultaneously in a (1) General. Fixed-bed models often can be easily
distorted scale model. Refraction phenomena are gov- developed to provide kinematic and dynamic responses
erned by a change in depth (vertical scale) while diffrac- indicative of the prototype conditions. Specifically,
tion relates to wave energy spreading in the plane of the fixed-bed models reveal information regarding velocities,
water surface (horizontal scale). Refraction requires the discharges, flow patterns, water surface elevations, energy
wavelength to be scaled by the vertical scale while dif- losses between points in the prototype, reflection and

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transmission by structures, and the transformation of wave the model was verified. These data then form the base
spectra. In the superposition of surface gravity waves on conditions to which all future tests are compared to evalu-
fixed-bed flow conditions, an undistorted-scale model ate the effects of changes to the inlet. Data obtained from
provides greater insight on refraction and diffraction the model for the base conditions should include: (a)
phenomena than does a distorted-scale model. Accord- detailed current velocities at critical locations throughout
ingly, the fixed-bed, undistorted-scale model can be effec- the model for a complete tidal cycle, (b) detailed surface
tively used for the analysis of kinematic and dynamic current patterns of the entire area of interest at incremen-
conditions associated with waves, current intensities and tal times throughout the tidal cycle, and (c) detailed wave
patterns, discharges, and forces existing along coasts and characteristics throughout the inlet for an array of
in inlets. expected prototype conditions. Complete documentation
of a particular proposed change to an inlet can then be
(2) Additional uses. A fixed-bed model (although accomplished by installing the proposed change in the
not its primary purpose) may also be useful in studying model, duplicating the procedure followed in obtaining a
shoaling of entrance and interior inlet channels. Saltwater base set of data, and comparing the results of each set of
intrusion and the effects thereon of proposed changes in data.
the physical or hydraulic regimes of the system can be
effectively studied by fixed-bed models. The diffusion, b. Fixed-bed, distorted-scale models.
dispersion, and the flushing of wastes discharged into
inlets and the hydraulics of the inlet as related to the (1) Tidal inlet physical models can be distorted.
location and design of channels suitable for navigation Models of large inlets with shallow flood- and ebb-tidal
can be expediently studied. Tidal flooding by hurricane deltas experience problems related to significant model
surges or other unusual tidal phenomena can also be energy attenuation and viscous friction scale effects on
readily analyzed. waves. Use of a distorted scale can minimize these
effects and at the same time decrease model costs. In
(3) Model verification. Verification of a fixed-bed, some cases, it is advantageous to design a distorted-scale,
undistorted-scale model involves conducting tests in the complete model rather than an undistorted-scale, sectional
model using realistic boundary conditions (i.e.; ocean model to allow reproduction of the entire estuary. Incor-
tides, ocean waves, bay tides, and current velocities). poration of the tidal estuary results in the flexibility to
Model data are then compared with prototype data for study the effects of proposed improvements on the tidal
duplicate locations in the model and prototype to define prism, tidal circulation, tidal flushing, and salinity of the
the accuracy with which the model reproduces the proto- estuary. Inclusion also results in the correct nonlinear
type. If reproduction of the prototype is not achieved, the energy transfer from various tidal constituents to higher
differences are evaluated for possible sources of error. order harmonics. Deletion of a major part of the estuary
Frequently, the differences can be attributed to either leaves reproduction of this phenomenon more uncertain.
incorrect location of roughness in the model or improper
magnitude of model roughness. If the comparison shows (2) Distorted-scale models for use in the study of
isolated stations to differ, the differences are usually inlets have been widely accepted. The horizontal scale
related to incorrect model results or erroneous prototype ratio is often dictated by the size of the facility in which
data. Repeating the model test will indicate whether the model is placed or the construction cost. The vertical
model data were in error; if so, new model data can be scale ratio need not be larger than the ratio of model
obtained. Model verification can also include definition measurement accuracy to prototype measurement accu-
of the model operating characteristics required to achieve racy. Accuracy of laboratory measurements of the water
reproduction of shoaling patterns throughout the inlet. surface is generally within 0.03 cm (0.001 ft). Thus, a
This consists of a trial-and-error operation until the model vertical scale ratio, model-to-prototype, of 1:100 will fully
operating conditions required to reproduce known changes utilize the capabilities of the model in simulating the
in prototype shoaling are developed. prototype. Models of larger vertical scale are often used
to simplify operational techniques and to assure model
(4) Model tests. Tests in undistorted-scale, fixed-bed depths large enough so that surface tension does not affect
models can provide useful information on not only the flow.
hydrodynamics of an inlet, but the expected variations due
to changes in inlet configuration. An effective model test (3) A second factor to be considered in the selection
program should initially include a complete set of tests to of scales is “distortion.” Distortion is the ratio of the
define the conditions that exist in the model for hydro- horizontal scale to the vertical scale, and its value relates
graphic, topographic, and hydraulic conditions for which the order all slopes of the prototype are steepened in the

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model. In the study of tidal inlets, particularly with scaling relations to an empirically selected one which
movable-bed models, efforts are made to design models reproduces the sedimentology (referred to as the sedimen-
with distortion values of five or less. Otherwise, the tological time scale). These are empirical solutions based
slopes required in the movable-bed model for accurate on the clever application of scale modeling and the expe-
reproduction of the prototype may be steeper than the rience of the researcher; however, the mechanism of most
angle of repose of the model material, thus creating a sedimentation phenomena is still not well understood.
difficult scale effect to overcome. This point is intro- Several investigators have attempted to derive formal
duced in this section because inlets often have been mod- scaling laws resulting in a variety of modeling formulas.
eled with both a fixed bed and a movable bed and with a The reader is referred to “Coastal Hydraulic Models,”
distorted scale. Vertical scale ratios, model-to-prototype, (Hudson et al. 1979, pp. 473-480) and Hughes (1993) for
are generally on the order of 1:40 to 1:100; horizontal more detailed information on movable-bed models.
scale ratios are generally on the order of 1:100 to 1:500.
6-6. Example Model Studies
(4) Distorted-scale inlet models have been con-
structed for multiple purposes; for example, an investiga- Inlet model studies that have been performed by the
tion of an inlet may be necessary where a jetty is to be U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Waterways Experiment
installed. A prediction will be required of the effects of Station fall into one of four categories (fixed-bed,
the jetty on tidal currents and water levels near the inlet undistorted-scale; fixed-bed, distorted-scale; movable-bed,
and also the degree to which the jetty interrupts the litto- distorted-scale; or a combination of fixed- and movable-
ral drift and affects deposition patterns near the inlet. In bed, distorted-scale). To demonstrate the applicability of
this case, a multipurpose model is needed. This model each, four inlet studies have been selected as examples.
would first be built with a distorted-scale, fixed-bed Frequently, the inlet to be investigated is a component of
design and then adjusted and tested to determine the a much larger bay or estuary model and, therefore, is
effects of the jetty on tidal heights and currents. A seg- probably distorted in scale. In other cases, the inlet may
ment of the fixed part of the model surface would then be not presently exist as a prototype or may not be allied
carefully removed and replaced with movable material to with an existing model; the opportunity then occurs for
evaluate effects of the jetty on the littoral drift. construction of an undistorted-scale model. The scales of
inlet movable-bed models are typically distorted, primarily
(5) Model verification and testing in a distorted- for economy and due to the fact that the main forces
scale, fixed-bed model follow essentially the same proce- driving sediment movement at inlets (unidirectional cur-
dures discussed for an undistorted-scale, fixed-bed model. rents and long waves) can be properly scaled (see Hughes
However, because of distortion effects, the transference (1993)).
equations from the model to a prototype situation are, in
general, completely different. A major limitation of dis- a. Shrewsbury Inlet, New Jersey.
torted-scale models is that in cases where both wave
refraction and diffraction are important, true similitude (1) Project description and background. The
cannot be achieved simultaneously. Shrewsbury Inlet project involved construction of a chan-
nel connecting Sandy Hook Bay with the ocean. A new
c. Movable-bed models. Movable-bed models are small boat channel across the peninsula was needed to
potentially the most effective type of model to investigate shorten the distance boats had to travel from the
shoaling and scouring trends within the inlet. Limitations Shrewsbury and Navesink River region to the Atlantic
include the requirement that extensive prototype data be Ocean. Serious questions were raised concerning the
obtained for purposes of verification. Accepted practice effect of this new entrance on water surface elevations,
at many hydraulic laboratories is to construct the model to current velocities, and flow patterns, and transmission of
a manageable size, based on space limitations and instru- wave energy.
mentation ability, and to use a readily available material
for construction (usually sand) which constitutes a model (2) Purpose of model study. The model study was
scale distortion. The empirical process of verifying the conducted to determine the effects of the inlet on
model to reproduce prototype phenomena such as scour (a) water quality in Sandy Hook Bay and the Shrewsbury
and deposition results in distortion of a second parameter. and Navesink Rivers from the viewpoints of public health,
This is usually accomplished by altering the wave climate, recreation, and fish and wildlife; (b) flooding within the
increasing or decreasing tidal flow, or by changing the areas as a result of normal tides and hurricane surges;
time scale from that resulting from the hydrodynamic (c) recreational boating and commercial navigation;

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(d) general shoaling characteristics and maintenance waves generated in the Atlantic Ocean and propagated
requirements in the inlet channel; (e) the optimum loca- through the inlet. Details of the new inlet model are
tion and length of jetties at the ocean end of the proposed shown in Figure 6-3.
inlet; and (f) transmission of wave energy through the
inlet into Sandy Hook Bay. Because of the complicated (4) Plan configurations. Four plans were tested in
phenomena to be investigated, an existing comprehensive the model. Plan 1 involved a channel with a bottom
model of the New York Harbor area was used to study width of 61 m (200 ft), beginning at the -5.2-m (-17.2-ft)
the effects of the inlet on water quality. Only parts of the depth msl in the Atlantic Ocean and continuing at that
study concerning the new inlet model are presented here. depth to the approximate center line of Sandy Hook
Peninsula; a 1 on 20 transition slope of the bottom to a
(3) The model. Figure 6-1 is a location map illus- depth of -3.4 m (-11.2 ft) msl; and a bottom elevation of
trating the region reproduced by the New York Harbor -3.4 m (-11.2 ft) msl until the inlet channel intersected the
model. The area reconstructed for tests of the proposed existing Federal navigation channel from Sandy Hook Bay
inlet (Figure 6-2) was a 1:100 scale, undistorted, fixed- up Shrewsbury River. The channel sides had transition
bed model including the inlet and adjacent portions of the slopes of 1 on 3. The ocean end of the channel was
ocean and Sandy Hook Bay. This model was used to flanked on each side by protection jetties, each about
provide calibration data for various inlet plans constructed 183 m (600 ft) long. The width and depth of the Plan 2
in the New York Harbor model, to study flow patterns inlet were the same as in Plan 1; however, the alignment
and velocity distributions for various channel alignments of the bay part of the Plan 2 channel was straight from
and jetty locations, and to define the amount of wave the ocean to the existing Shrewsbury River channel.
energy reaching the Highlands Marina area from storm Alignment of the Plan 3 inlet was identical to that of

Figure 6-1. New York Harbor model limits

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Figure 6-2. Shrewsbury Inlet and adjacent parts of Sandy Hook Bay

Plan 1; however, the depth of the Plan 3 channel was model. Calibration data described above were used to
-5.2 m (-17.2 ft) msl for its entire length. Depth of the adjust the hydraulic resistance of the inlet so that both
Plan 4 inlet was also -5.2 m (-17.2 ft) msl for its entire flood and ebb discharges were reproduced accurately over
length, and the alignment was identical to that of Plan 2. the full range of head differentials and water surface
elevations to be encountered during actual tests.
(5) Model tests.
(c) Tests were conducted in the New York Harbor
(a) The New York Harbor model is an estuarine model to determine the effects of the Plan 1 inlet on
model operated with salt water. The new model of the normal tides, tidal current directions, and velocities, salini-
proposed inlet was operated with fresh water because the ties, and the dispersion of dye tracers from simulated
required information was independent of salinity effects. pollution sources in Raritan Bay, Upper New York Bay,
and the Shrewsbury and Navesink Rivers (Figure 6-3).
(b) The Plan 1 inlet (Figure 6-3) described in the Test results suggested that Plan 1 should be modified in
authorizing document, was first modeled to an undistorted the interest of improving flow conditions at the bay end
scale of 1:100, and steady-state tests were made for both of the inlet, and possibly improving shoaling characteris-
flood and ebb flows over the full range of head differen- tics. Consequently, Plans 2, 3, and 4 were devised. Each
tials and water surface elevations to be expected during plan was calibrated in the undistorted-scale model of the
later tests. From these test results, discharge through the new inlet and then reproduced in the New York Harbor
inlet as a function of head differential and water surface model. All plans were subjected to the above-mentioned
elevation was determined, and these data provided a basis series of tests; as a result, Plan 3 was selected as the
for calibration of the model. The Plan 1 inlet was then optimum design.
constructed in the distorted-scale New York Harbor

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Figure 6-3. Details of plans of Shrewsbury Inlet physical model

(d) Plan 3 was tested in the New York Harbor model and spacings would result in a satisfactory distribution of
to determine effects on the temperature regime of Sandy flow through the inlet.
Hook Bay and the Shrewsbury and Navesink Rivers.
Tests were also conducted to determine the effects on (b) Results of tests to define wave conditions in the
flooding for conditions of the November 1950 hurri- Highlands Marina area showed that waves generated in
cane storm surge. Finally, tests were made in the the Atlantic Ocean and propagated through the inlet are
undistorted-scale model to determine the optimum loca- dissipated in Sandy Hook Bay to such an extent that
tion of the jetties, the wave climate between and adjacent essentially no wave energy reaches the Highlands Marina
to the jetties during storm wave action in the ocean, and area. Maximum wave height recorded during these tests
wave transmission through the inlet and its effects on the was 9 cm (0.3 ft), well below wave heights resulting from
Highlands Marina shoreline. waves generated within Sandy Hook Bay. Thus, it
appears certain that energy passing through the inlet from
(6) Results. waves generated in the Atlantic Ocean will not signifi-
cantly affect wave conditions in the Highlands Marina
(a) Three jetty plan locations were tested in the area.
model of the new inlet (Figure 6-4). Comparison of test
results showed that jetty Plan C produced the most desir- (c) Results of tests to define wave conditions in and
able tidal flow conditions. High currents which attacked near the inlet showed that the maximum increase in wave
the end of the south jetty in Plan A were minimized in height occurred with an ebb flow approximately 40 per-
Plan C; eddies which developed between the navigation cent of the maximum spring tide ebb flow. Increases in
channel and both jetties for Plan B did not occur with wave heights of 60 to 70 percent, as compared to wave
Plan C. Therefore, it appears that Plan C jetty alignments heights measured about 183 m (600 ft) seaward of the

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• None of the plans tested would have significant

effects on water surface elevations during normal
tides or during hurricane surges.

• Current velocities and flow patterns would not

change appreciably except in the immediate
vicinity of the inlet.

• Current velocities in the new inlet for normal tides

should not be excessive for safe navigation.

• None of the plans tested offered a unique advan-

tage over the other plans in relation to the cross-
currents during certain periods of the tide phase;
however, the alignment of Plans 1 and 3 appeared
to be better than that of Plans 2 and 4.

• For pollution sources in Raritan Bay, the influx of

pollution into Sandy Hook Bay, Shrewsbury River,
and Navesink River would be reduced slightly.

• For pollution sources in Upper New York Bay, the

influx of pollutants to Sandy Hook Bay and the
Shrewsbury and Navesink Rivers would be
increased.

• For pollution sources in Shrewsbury and Navesink

Rivers, the flushing rate would be improved by
construction of the inlet.

• Plan 3 would be less expensive to maintain than

the other plans tested.

• Wave energy originating in the ocean and passing

through the new inlet would have insignificant
Figure 6-4. Details of jetty plans, Shrewsbury Inlet effects on wave heights along the Highlands
Marina shoreline.
jetties, were observed just inside the ends of the jetties.
Significant increases in wave heights between the jetties • The wave climate between the jetties should not
were not observed for tests with flood currents or for be difficult to navigate, except possibly under
high-water slack conditions. The alignment of the pri- certain combinations of ocean wave conditions and
mary wave was generally perpendicular to the center line critical ebb discharges in the inlet.
of the navigation channel during all tests. Wave condi-
tions within the inlet apparently would not cause signifi- b. Fire Island Inlet, New York.
cant navigation problems except possibly for certain
ocean wave conditions combined with a critical ebb dis- (1) Project description and background.
charge in the inlet.
(a) The Fire Island Inlet project consisted of stabili-
(d) Conclusions based on test results in the zation of the navigation channel and construction of a
undistorted-scale model and in the New York Harbor littoral drift trap and rehandling basin in the inlet, a
model, relative to Shrewsbury Inlet were:

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connecting channel for a loaded hopper dredge, and a from Fire Island light on the east to beyond Gilgo on the
305-m (1,000-ft) extension to the existing Federal jetty. west, along with a part of the Atlantic Ocean (Figure 6-5).
The Atlantic Ocean portion of the model extended 8.1 km
(b) Fire Island Inlet is located on the south shore of (5 miles) to the east and 12.1 km (7.5 miles) to the west
Long Island, and is the primary waterway for boat traffic of the Federal jetty and offshore to about the 18.3-m
between the Atlantic Ocean and Great South Bay (Fig- (60-ft) depth. The Fire Island Inlet problem was caused
ure 6-5). The inlet is about 1,067 m (3,500 ft) wide with primarily by littoral drift being trapped in the inlet, thus
depths to about 7.6 m (25 ft) mlw. Between 1825 and starving the downdrift beaches and shoaling the naviga-
1940, the western end of Fire Island migrated westward a tion channel. Therefore, it was necessary that sand move-
distance of over 6.4 km (4 miles). A 1,524-m (5,000-ft) ment along the beaches be simulated in the model. The
Federal jetty, constructed in 1940, trapped the littoral drift Fire Island Inlet model was first constructed as a
for about 10 years; sand then began bypassing the fixed-bed model and all proposed improvement alterna-
structure and filling the navigation channel. Corrective tives were tested quickly and economically to determine
measures (completed in December 1959) designed to their effects on hydraulic conditions in the inlet. After
alleviate channel deposition problems and supply sand for completion of hydraulic tests, the problem area of the
down-beach nourishment consisted of: (a) dredging an model was converted to a movable bed, and the most
extensive area to -5.5 m (-18.0 ft) through the mouth of promising alternatives from the results of the fixed-bed
the inlet; (b) using a portion of the material to construct a studies were investigated further. In the fixed-bed studies,
sand dike across the deep channel adjacent to Oak Beach; the entire model bed was molded of concrete; in the
and (c) depositing an ample supply for down-beach nour- movable-bed studies, the section of the model outlined by
ishment in a feeder beach area. The sand dike was effec- a dashed line in Figure 6-5 was molded of sand with a
tive in diverting maximum currents from Oak Beach mean grain diameter of 0.25 mm and a specific gravity of
toward the center of the inlet; however, the entrance chan- about 2.65.
nel was not stabilized and continued to migrate as a result
of accretion west of the Federal jetty. (b) The model was constructed to linear scale rela-
tions, model-to-prototype, of 1:500 horizontally and 1:100
(2) Purpose of model study. The Fire Island Inlet vertically with a resultant slope scale of 5:1. One proto-
physical model study was conducted to: type semidiurnal tidal cycle of 12 hr 25 min was repro-
duced in the model in 14.9 min. The computed time
(a) Investigate the proposed design of a combination scale of 1:50 was applied only to the reproduction of
sand bypassing and channel maintenance procedure, con- prototype hydraulic forces in the fixed-bed model and had
sisting of a littoral trap, a rehandling basin, an entrance no relation to time required in the movable-bed model to
channel connecting the two, and a training dike, as recom- reproduce observed changes in prototype hydrographic
mended by the U.S. Army Engineer District, New York. conditions. The results of the movable-bed verification
indicated that, using the operation schedule derived empir-
(b) Investigate effects of changes in dimensions and ically, the time scale for bed movement in the model was
depth of the channel, trap, basin, and dikes. approximately 36 tidal cycles (or 9.0 hr of model opera-
tion) to 1 year in the prototype. In the final verification
(c) Determine the need for extending the Federal test, a total of 0.77 × 106 m3 (1.0 × 106 yd3) of
jetty (estimated cost about $2,650,000 for 305 m movable-bed material was introduced at the extreme east
(1,000 ft) in 1963). end of the model beach to replace the quantity of sand
moved in a westerly direction by the model waves. This
(d) Determine the need for additional dikes. rate of movement, applied to the empirically determined
time scale for bed movement, is in close agreement with
(e) Establish locations and dimensions of any addi- the computed rate of prototype littoral drift along this
tional improvements needed to increase the effectiveness reach of the south shore of Long Island.
of the plan and maintain a stable channel through the
inlet. (4) Fixed-bed model tests. Eleven different plans
were investigated during the fixed-bed phase of the model
(3) The model. study to determine plan effects on tides, current velocities,
tidal discharges, current patterns, and flow distribution in
(a) The model reproduced a 155 sq-km (60-square- the problem area. These plans involved: (a) development
mile) area including Fire Island Inlet and ocean beaches

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of the best location and dimensions for the littoral drift average conditions) cannot be expected to reproduce.
reservoir and the rehandling basin (Plans 2, 3, and 3A); Instead, the model-bed movement verification is an
(b) groins along Oak Beach to divert the stronger ebb cur- attempt to reproduce the gross changes that occurred in
rents away from the beach and into the navigation channel the prototype between the beginning and end of the verifi-
(Plans 4 and 4B); (c) extension of the Federal jetty cation period. Minor discrepancies of a local nature, and
(Plans 6 and 7); (d) dikes to partially or completely close those attributable to unusual prototype conditions, may be
the secondary channel off the end of the existing sand neglected. Deviations of the Fire Island model from
dike and thus divert more flow into the navigation chan- prototype conditions during the 2-year period are shown
nel (Plans 8, 9, and 10); and (e) a deflector dike located in Figure 6-6.
on the west side of the navigation channel to deflect some
ebb flow from the secondary channel into the navigation (7) Conclusions. Conclusions based on the results of
channel (Plan 5). hydraulic and movable-bed model tests concerning pro-
posed improvement plans for Fire Island Inlet were:
(5) Movable-bed model tests. In the movable-bed
tests, the effects of plans on movement and deposition of (a) Plan 3A, which required a littoral drift reservoir
bed material were determined by direct comparison of test dredged to -10.4 m (-34 ft), a deposition or rehandling
results for existing conditions with those incorporating basin to -8.5 m (-28 ft) when filled, and an 8.5-m-deep
proposed improvements. Base movable-bed tests were (28-ft-deep) connecting channel, will result in a safe and
started with known model-bed configurations, the model stabilized navigation channel with enough sand for
tide and wave generators were operated through a prede- bypassing to the downdrift beaches. Maintenance dredg-
termined schedule, and the model bed was surveyed peri- ing of the littoral trap and connecting channel will be
odically to record developments during the test. The required about every 2 years; most of this dredging can be
movable-bed test for any plan was an exact duplicate of accomplished with conventional dredging plants. Since
the base test except that the alternative plan was installed deposition in the littoral trap and connecting channel
at the beginning of the test. Effects of the plan were occurs in the form of a high bar, which builds from east
determined by comparing the configuration of the model to west, a sidecast dredge or similar equipment will prob-
bed at the end of the base test. ably be required to lower the bar crest enough for a hop-
per dredge to restore the basin depths.
(6) Results. The verification period selected for the
Fire Island Inlet model was the 2 years immediately fol- (b) The removal of large deposits of sand from Fire
lowing construction of the navigation channel in Island Inlet for beach restoration projects will not
November 1964. A careful study determined the follow- adversely affect the functioning of Plan 3A.
ing significant changes in prototype bed configurations
during this period: (a) a scour area developed just north (c) Extension to the existing sand dike will not
of the inner part of the navigation channel, (b) a shoal improve the functioning of Plan 3A in channel shoaling or
about 1.8 to 3.7 m (6 to 12 ft) high developed in the inner deposition patterns. Likewise, construction of a dike at
part of the inlet channel, and (c) a shoal about 1.8 to Cedar Island Beach would not improve the functioning of
3.7 m (6 to 12 ft) high developed along the eastern edge Plan 3A.
of the outer part of the navigation channel. After operat-
ing the model for 72 tidal cycles, it was found that gross (d) A deflector dike parallel to the entrance channel
changes in bed configuration in the model were very would not improve the functioning of Plan 3A from either
similar to those indicated by comparison of the prototype shoaling of the navigation channel or deposition patterns;
surveys made 2 years apart. Bed movement during verifi- further, the dike would be extremely difficult to maintain.
cation of a movable-bed model is not expected to dupli-
cate exactly all changes in prototype bed configuration (e) Extension of the Federal jetty would not reduce
during the selected verification period because (a) trends channel shoaling or improve deposition patterns observed
in bed movement in the prototype are not constant with for Plan 3A. An extension to the jetty would reduce
time, although the model verification procedure constitutes channel shoaling on a temporary basis while the impound-
an attempt to reproduce such movement on an average ing capacity of the extended jetty was being filled; shoal-
basis, and (b) certain observed changes in the prototype ing rates and deposition patterns would then be the same
are the result of storms or other extreme conditions, as for Plan 3A. Material impounded by a jetty extension
which the model verification (necessarily based on

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Figure 6-6. Fire Island Inlet prototype scour and fill during a 2-year period

would also be permanently lost as a source of beach ebb and flood currents transport a tidal prism of 7.2 mil-
nourishment material. lion m3 (253 million ft3) during a tidal cycle of 12.42 hr.
During the last 100 years, Murrells Inlet has migrated
(f) Extension of the Federal jetty, as a combination more than 2.1 km (7,000 ft). Pre-project conditions at the
low weir inner section and high outer section, did not inlet consisted of a difficult and hazardous navigational
function as intended. Instead of moving readily over the environment as the main channel exhibited rapid changes
low weir section, a large percentage of the littoral drift in location and depth, and waves frequently broke on the
was trapped to the east of the jetty extension; it appeared shallow shoals. The Murrells Inlet project consisted of
that the weir section would be blocked and thus would be constructing two jetties, a navigation channel, and a depo-
rendered completely inoperative. sition basin.

(g) An offshore breakwater and littoral trap would (2) Purpose of model study. The primary purpose of
also satisfy all necessary requirements of a plan for chan- jetties was to prevent longshore sediment from shoaling
nel stabilization and sand bypassing at Fire Island Inlet. the channel and offer protection from waves to incoming
and departing vessels. More recently, jetty design has
c. Murrells Inlet, South Carolina. taken the problem of littoral drift into consideration by
providing weir sections in the jetties and sediment traps
(1) Project description and background. Murrells adjacent to the weir to capture the longshore transport of
Inlet is located along the South Carolina coast between sand. Thus, sediment is kept out of the channel and
Georgetown and Myrtle Beach. The inlet provides access placed in a location where it can be utilized for future
to a well-mixed tidal lagoon of ocean salinity that has no beach nourishment efforts. This type of jetty construction
source of freshwater inflow other than local surface was authorized for Murrells Inlet. One aspect of the
runoff. The mean ocean tide range is 1.5 m (4.8 ft) and study included construction of a physical model to

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determine: (a) optimum alignment and spacing of the westward entering the Pacific Ocean along the Oregon
jetties; (b) channel alignment and current patterns at the coast, approximately 48.3 km (30 miles) north of the
entrance; (c) effects on the tidal prism and bay tidal California border (Figure 6-11). The river is about
elevations and velocities; and (d) wave heights in the 290 km (180 miles) long and drains an area of approxi-
entrance channel and deposition basin. mately 13,200 km2 (5,100 square miles) (CTH 1970).
The principal communities at the river mouth are Gold
(3) The model. A distorted scale model of Beach and Wedderburn, located on the south and north
1:200 horizontal and 1:60 vertical scales was selected banks, respectively. These areas have been developed for
(Figure 6-7). The entire lagoon was modeled to permit resort and recreational use. Prior to improvements, the
study of tidal elevations, currents, and tidal prism. A river channel at the mouth meandered between two sand
distorted-scale model must be verified for tidal currents spits and was seldom less than 61 m (200 ft) wide at low
and elevations, therefore, prototype measurements of these water. Controlling depths over the entrance bar ranged
parameters were required. Data were collected from tide from 0.61 m (2 ft) in late summer to 2.7 m (9 ft) in
gauges at locations shown in Figure 6-7 and reproduced winter. The River and Harbor Act of 1954 provided for
in the model by the adjustment of roughness elements the construction of parallel jetties spaced approximately
usually required in distorted models. 31 m (100 ft) apart at the mouth of the river. In 1971
and 1972, the Port of Gold Beach constructed a break-
(4) Model tests. After verification of tidal parame- water that extended from a point on the south bank (about
ters, various jetty plans were installed in the model for 305 m (1,000 ft) above the U.S. 101 highway bridge)
testing. Preliminary testing consisted of measuring wave downstream to the south jetty. A gap was left in the
heights in the entrance channel and inner channels for a breakwater to provide access to harbor facilities.
number of test waves at various stages of the tidal cycle,
measuring tidal elevations at the verified locations for the (2) Project background. Every year a persistent
entire tidal cycle, and taking surface current photographs shoaling problem exists between the Rogue River jetties.
at the entrance throughout the tidal cycle. Examination of The shoal extends upstream along the inside of the south
these preliminary data permitted a reduction in the num- jetty and across the harbor access channel (Figure 6-12).
ber of plans subjected to further testing (detailed current This condition makes maintenance dredging difficult and
measurement and wave height measurements). Further blocks navigation channels, thus restricting vessel traffic
refinements could then be made in the design. For exam- between the ocean and port facilities. Rapid shoaling
ple, Plan 1B (Figure 6-8) was selected for further testing. occurs in the summer (when river flows are normally low)
This plan gradually evolved into Plan 1H (Figure 6-9) as during peak boating and salmon fishing seasons, causing
changes were made in the widths and depths of the inner unpredictable and hazardous entrance conditions. Author-
auxiliary channels connecting the main navigation channel ized channel dimensions could not be maintained by dred-
to the bay to improve flow patterns and flow admittance. ging due to the rapid shoaling rate; therefore, a series of
improvement plans were devised and subjected to testing.
(5) Results. Results from physical model tests indi-
cated an optimal jetty spacing of 183 m (600 ft) to pro- (3) Purpose of model study. A physical model
vide adequate scouring currents in the channel but still investigation was conducted to study shoaling, wave,
maintain a tidal prism similar to that of pre-jetty current, and riverflow conditions in the lower reaches of
conditions. The access channel to the deposition basin the Rogue River for existing conditions and proposed
was relocated; and a training dike was added to prevent improvements.
ebb currents from entering the region of the deposition
basin. Figure 6-10 shows the completed project in Janu- (4) The model. The Rogue River Harbor model
ary 1981. The only element of the plan not constructed (Figure 6-13) was constructed to an undistorted linear
was the training dike, which may be added at a later date scale of 1:100, model to prototype. Test waves used in
if required. The deposition basin is filling and, to date, the model study ranged in period from 5 to 17 sec and in
the navigation channel has naturally maintained depths height from 2.1 to 8.8 m (7 to 29 ft). A water circulating
greater than the project depth. system was used to reproduce steady-state flows corre-
sponding to maximum flood and ebb tidal flows or vari-
d. Rogue River Harbor, Oregon (Bottin 1982). ous river discharges. River discharges ranging from
1,420 to 9,900 m3/sec (50,000 to 350,000 cfs) were repro-
(1) Project description. The Rogue River originates duced in the model. A coal tracer material was used in
in the Cascade Mountain Range and flows generally

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Figure 6-7. Murrells Inlet physical model layout

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28 Apr 95

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Figure 6-10. View of Murrells Inlet project as constructed in 1981

the model to qualitatively determine the degree of comprehensive tests were conducted for existing condi-
shoaling at the river mouth. Still-water levels of 0.0 m tions. Wave-height data, wave-induced current patterns
(0.0 ft) (mean lower low water (mllw)) +0.46 m (+1.5 ft) and magnitudes, shoaling patterns, and wave pattern pho-
(maximum ebb), +1.5 m (+4.3 ft) (maximum flood), and tographs were obtained for representative test waves from
+2.0 m (+6.7 ft) (mean higher high water (mhhw)) were four selected test directions. Water-surface elevations and
used during model testing. An automated data acquisition river current velocities also were obtained for the various
and control system was used to obtain wave height data, river discharges. During shoaling tests, tracer material
and water-surface profiles for various river discharges was introduced into the model south of the south jetty and
were determined by recording elevation changes on point north of the north jetty to represent sediment from those
gauges located at various stations in the river. A general shorelines, respectively. In addition, tracer was intro-
view of the model is shown in Figure 6-14. duced seaward of the river mouth to represent sediment
washed out of the river and deposited by various dis-
(5) Model tests and results: Existing conditions. charges. Shoaling tests conducted for existing conditions
Prior to tests of the various improvement plans,

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Figure 6-11. Rogue River project location

indicated that shoaling would occur in the lower reaches (6) Model tests and results: Improvement plans.
of the river for various test waves for each wave direc- Model tests were conducted for 58 variations in the
tion. Generally, material was deposited in the southern design elements of three basic remedial improvement
portion of the river adjacent to the south jetty. Under plans. Dikes installed within the existing entrance, exten-
constant wave attack, this material accumulated against sions of the existing jetties, and an alternate harbor
the south jetty and migrated upstream across the entrance entrance were tested. Wave-height tests, wave-induced
to the small-boat harbor (Figure 6-15) forming a shoal current patterns and magnitudes, wave patterns,
similar to that of the prototype. It was also noted that, water-surface elevations, river current velocities, and/or
when the shoal was present, rough and turbulent wave shoaling tests were conducted for the various improve-
conditions existed in the entrance (due to waves breaking ment plans. The first series of test plans included the
on the shoal) and higher than normal river stages and installation of dikes within the existing entrance. Both
river-current velocities may result for various discharges timber-pile and rubble-mound dikes were tested. Test
(since the shoal interferes with the passage of flood results indicated shoaling of the small-boat harbor
flows). When the shoal was not present, increased wave entrance would occur with the timber-pile dikes installed.
heights would be expected upstream of the small boat The rubble-mound dike configuration, however, inter-
harbor entrance. cepted the movement of tracer material and prevented it

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Figure 6-12. Aerial photograph of Rogue River mouth

from shoaling the harbor entrance. Water-surface eleva- upstream across the small-boat harbor entrance similar to
tions obtained for the dike plans indicated that river stages existing conditions. With tests involving jetty extensions
would increase compared to those for existing conditions, toward the west, sediment from the river would form
potentially contributing to flooding problems. The instal- shoals in the river entrance but would not extend
lation of a weir section in the existing north jetty and a upstream to the small-boat basin entrance. With tests
conveyance channel on the north overbank reduced river involving jetty extensions to the south, sediment from the
stages upstream by less than 0.3 m (1 ft) and therefore, river would result in a shoal along the south jetty exten-
was not successful in decreasing water-surface profiles to sion, extending north into the entrance. The shoals that
desired levels. formed in the entrance with all three jetty extension plans
consisted of sediment introduced to the system by the
(7) Additional tests. The next series of test plans river, since each plan provided shoaling protection from
involved extensions of the existing jetties. One plan sediment from the north and south shorelines.
consisted of extending the jetties on their original align-
ment, another involved orienting the extensions toward the (8) Final test series. The last series of test plans
west (on azimuths of S81o41’30"W and S16o23’22"W). involved a new entrance south of the existing river mouth.
Test results, with extensions along existing alignments, Test results indicated that this new jetty configuration
indicated that sediment from the river would form a shoal would provide shoaling protection for the new entrance
in the entrance adjacent to the south jetty and then extend

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Figure 6-13. Rogue River physical model layout

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EM 1110-2-1618
28 Apr 95

Figure 6-14. General view of Rogue River physical model

from sediment on the north and south shorelines and (3) Murrells Inlet, South Carolina (Perry, Seabergh,
sediment deposited seaward of the river entrance by vari- and Lane 1978).
ous discharges. In addition, this plan would provide wave
protection to the small craft harbor with maximum wave (4) Wells Harbor, Maine (Bottin 1978).
heights less than 0.3 m (1 ft).
(5) Little River Inlet, South Carolina (Seabergh and
6-7. Listing of Physical Model Studies Lane 1977).

A listing of inlet physical model studies shows the variety (6) Masonboro Inlet, North Carolina (Seabergh
of specific problems for which model investigations have 1976).
been conducted.
(7) Barnegat Inlet, New Jersey (Sager and Hollyfield
a. Wave action studies (short-period waves in 1974).
entrance).
(8) Nassau Harbor, Bahamas (Brasfield 1965).
(1) Oregon Inlet, North Carolina (Hollyfield, McCoy,
and Seabergh 1983). b. Shoaling studies (entrance shoaling protection).

(2) Newburyport Harbor, Massachusetts (Curren and (1) Oregon Inlet, North Carolina (Hollyfield, McCoy,
Chatham 1979). and Seabergh 1983).

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Figure 6-15. Shoal formed in the Rogue River entrance (existing conditions)

(2) Newburyport Harbor, Massachusetts (Curren and d. Tidal circulation/flood and ebb currents.
Chatham 1979).
(1) Oregon Inlet, North Carolina (Hollyfield, McCoy,
(3) Little River Inlet, South Carolina (Seabergh and and Seabergh 1983).
Lane 1977).
(2) Newburyport Harbor, Massachusetts (Curren and
(4) Masonboro Inlet, North Carolina (Seabergh Chatham 1979).
1976).
(3) Murrells Inlet, South Carolina (Perry, Seabergh,
(5) Barnegat Inlet, New Jersey (Sager and Hollyfield and Lane 1978).
1974).
(4) Wells Harbor, Maine (Bottin 1978).
c. Wave-induced circulation/current studies.
(5) Little River Inlet, South Carolina (Seabergh and
(1) Newburyport Harbor, Massachusetts (Curren and Lane 1977).
Chatham 1979).
(6) Masonboro Inlet, North Carolina (Seabergh
(2) Wells Harbor, Maine (Bottin 1978). 1976).

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(7) Barnegat Inlet, New Jersey (Sager and Hollyfield (4) Masonboro Inlet, North Carolina (Seabergh
1974). 1976).

(8) Nassau Harbor, Bahamas (Brasfield 1965). (5) Barnegat Inlet, New Jersey (Sager and Hollyfield
1974).
e. Tidal elevation studies (water-surface).
f. Salinity studies.
(1) Oregon Inlet, North Carolina (Hollyfield, McCoy,
and Seabergh 1983). (1) Little River Inlet, South Carolina (Seabergh and
Lane 1977).
(2) Murrells Inlet, South Carolina (Perry, Seabergh,
and Lane 1978).

(3) Little River Inlet, South Carolina (Seabergh and

Lane 1977).

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Chapter 7 which are important for circulation and sediment

Numerical Modeling of Tidal Inlets transport.

b. Winds. Winds induce a change in water level

(wind setup) and currents, the magnitude of which
7-1. Purpose and Scope depends on wind speed and direction. Water level
increases in the direction of the wind. Currents are in the
Coastal phenomena such as waves, currents, water levels, direction of the wind at the surface, but direction and
flow discharge, water quality, and sediment transport can magnitude may vary in the vertical. Wind effects are
be numerically simulated at inlets to predict impacts of usually accounted for in either a tidal or a wave-induced
existing or proposed design alternatives. For example, it current model.
may be necessary to maintain or improve inlet characteris-
tics such as water quality, channel navigability, structural c. Short-period waves. Short-period ocean waves are
integrity, channel shoaling rates, and sediment bypassing represented near inlets either by a monochromatic wave
strategies for a particular inlet configuration or (e.g., significant wave) or a wave spectrum. In the first
maintenance plan. By comparing existing coastal approach, individual waves are characterized by wave
processes to those simulated, effects of design plans and height, period, and direction. In the second approach, a
operation and maintenance (O&M) practices can be wave with a specified height is characterized by the distri-
assessed and optimized. The purpose of this chapter is to bution of energy in different frequency (period) and direc-
describe numerical models that have been used to predict tion bands. Short waves result in changes in water level
these various coastal phenomena at inlets. Section 7-2 (wave setup) and wave-induced currents (longshore and
presents an overview of various physical processes nor- rip currents) near inlets which cause not only changes in
mally considered in numerical models of tidal inlets. flow pattern, but also sediment transport. Wave orbital
Sections 7-3 through 7-7 discuss different types of numer- velocities at the bed cause increased shear stresses, result-
ical models and modeling systems that have been applied ing in greater sediment transport. Because of the complex
in Corps studies and are available to Corps field offices. transformation processes which take place in the
A brief description of each model is followed by a list of nearshore, short waves are predicted near inlets using
model input and output requirements, example model numerical models of the monochromatic or spectral type.
applications, and an additional bibliography. In In either case, the wave characteristics in deeper water are
Section 7-8, the implementation of numerical models is either measured in the field, or obtained from forecast or
discussed. This section deals with numerical grid hindcast performed using a spectral model (e.g., Phase II
characteristics, grid generation, and calibration and verifi- of WES Wave Information Study (WIS)).
cation of the models. Finally, Section 7-9 discusses engi-
neering use of model results. d. Freshwater flows. Freshwater flows into the back-
bay system from rivers and creeks influence both flow
7-2. Overview of Physical Processes Considered patterns and salinities. Data on such flows are obtained
from agencies such as the U.S. Geological Survey
The following physical processes are usually considered (USGS), state and local water resources agencies, and/or
in numerical modeling of tidal inlets under nonstorm from special gauges installed for the project. These flows
conditions: astronomical tides, winds, short period waves, have to be specified at the boundaries of the numerical
freshwater flows, and sediment transport. Under hurri- model grid.
cane and storm conditions, the effects of storm surge also
have to be accounted for (refer to EM 1110-2-1412). e. Sediment transport. Magnitude and direction of
inlet sediment transport depend on the processes described
a. Astronomical tides. Tides can be a major forcing in a through d. Sediment transport at inlets is of major
mechanism at inlets. Tides are long-period waves, which concern to coastal engineers and planners, because its rate
can be predicted accurately along the open coast using and distribution through the inlet affect many processes of
results of harmonic analysis of measured water level engineering concern (e.g., channel shoaling rates, erosion/
fluctuations. Near inlets and in the interior, numerical accretion of interior (bay) and ocean (adjacent) inlet
models must be used for tidal prediction because of the shorelines, stability of structure foundations (jetties, bridge
complex interactions between bathymetry, inlet and back- pilings), etc.). Modifications which change the existing
bay geometry, proximity of structures, and interconnection transport rates and patterns can disrupt the integrity and
with other inlets. Tides change currents and water levels,

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viability of a stabilized, navigable inlet. Typically, 1992a). The model should be calibrated (and verified, if
sediment transport in the back bay is characterized by possible) using known bay surface elevations and inlet
cohesive materials such as clays, silts, and fine sands, velocity measurements. Three output data files are writ-
whereas transport in the region offshore of the inlet throat ten, consisting of tabular summaries of grid characteris-
is characterized by noncohesive materials such as sand tics, velocity hydrographs at selected cell locations, and
and shell. Usually, sediment transport models use the elevation and discharge hydrographs for the sea boundary
results of hydrodynamic models for input. conditions, bay, and inlet(s). Samples of model runs
(input and output) are given by Leenknecht, Szuwalski,
7-3. Long-Wave Models and Sherlock (1992a).

a. Lumped parameter models. This type of model (3) Example applications. The model has been
gets its name from "lumping" several important variables applied to Pentwater Inlet, Michigan, to study the
together, such as discharge or back-bay storage capacity. response of a nontidal Great Lakes inlet to forcing due to
An example of a lumped parameter model is the Spatially seiching of Lake Michigan; a hypothetical harbor to
Integrated Numerical Model of Inlet Hydraulics, an predict tsunami-induced hydraulics; Masonboro Inlet,
inlet-bay hydraulic model (Figure 7-1) developed by North Carolina, to determine inlet response to tides
Seelig (1977) and Seelig, Harris, and Herchenroder (Harris and Bodine 1977); Indian River Inlet, Delaware,
(1977), and available through the U.S. Army Corps of to predict the effect of storm surge at a tidal inlet; and
Engineers’ (USACE’s) Automated Coastal Engineering Cabin Point Creek, Virginia, to illustrate the effect of
System (ACES) (Leenknecht, Szuwalski, and Sherlock adding a second inlet to a one-inlet tidal system.
1992a, 1992b).
(4) Bibliography. Seelig (1977) and Seelig, Harris,
(1) Description. This model can be used to calculate and Herchenroder (1977) discuss development of the
coastal inlet velocities, discharge, and bay surface level as original model. Leenknecht, Szuwalski, and Sherlock
a function of time for a given time-dependent sea level (1992a, 1992b) discuss limitations and application of the
fluctuation. It is applicable to one or two inlets connected model within the ACES.
to a bay with two sea boundary conditions, although only
the one-inlet, one-bay system has been tested in the b. One-dimensional models. An example of a one-
ACES (Leenknecht, Szuwalski, and Sherlock 1992a). The dimensional (1-D) model is the Dynamic Implicit Numeri-
one-dimensional equation of motion is integrated over the cal Model of One-Dimensional Tidal Flow through Inlets
area of the inlet. The resulting momentum equation and (DYNLET1) (Amein and Kraus 1991). The discussion
continuity equation are solved by marching in time. The presented herein has been abbreviated from Amein and
model idealizes the inlet-bay geometry and makes several Kraus (1991).
simplifying assumptions, detailed by Seelig, Harris, and
Herchenroder (1977) and Leenknecht, Szuwalski, and (1) Description. DYNLET1 is based on the full one-
Sherlock (1992a, 1992b). The model can be used to dimensional shallow-water equations, employing an
evaluate inlet velocities, bay water level fluctuations, and implicit finite-difference technique. The model is suited
discharges caused by tides, storm surge, seiches, and for reconnaissance-level studies for most inlets, providing
tsunamis. This type of model can be used to take a quick reliable and accurate answers with minimal data entry and
"first look" at several alternatives. The model should be grid generation. DYNLET1 predicts flow conditions in
calibrated and preferably verified for a given project channels with varied geometry, and will accept varying
before it is used for prediction. friction factors across an inlet channel, geometric data at
variable distances across and along an inlet channel, and a
(2) Model requirements. Five general types of infor- variety of boundary conditions. The inlet to be modeled
mation are required for input: general data describing may consist of a single channel connecting the sea to the
system configuration and temporal data; inlet geometries bay, or it can be a system of interconnected channels,
characterized with cross-section tables and locations; with or without bays. Values of water surface elevation
seaward boundary conditions (tabulated records or and average velocity are computed at locations across and
predicted tides using harmonic constituents); bayside along inlet channels.
boundary conditions (bay area and shape factor, and other
freshwater inflows distinct from inlet contributions); and (2) Model requirements. DYNLET1 uses four input
locations where velocity hydrographs are to be reported files and generates five output files. The inlet is repre-
from the simulation (Leenknecht, Szuwalski, and Sherlock sented by a series of channels, junctions, and nodes. If

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Figure 7-1. Inlet-bay system (Seelig, Harris, and Herchenroder 1977)

7-3
EM 1110-2-1618
28 Apr 95

two channels meet or a channel branches into two forks, a models that will be described in the sections that follow.
junction is formed. Each representative cross section in a The model may be applied to a project either at the feasi-
channel is identified by a node. Input data required bility or design stage. In setting up the link-node system
include general setup parameters, detailed information on for a particular project, bathymetry, coastline, tidal and
cross-section geometry and boundary resistance, time- other boundary locations, desired degree of resolution, and
dependent boundary data for each external boundary node, locations of field gauges should be carefully considered.
tabulated as a function of time, and desired output nodes Because the model assumes the flow in a link is along the
and parameters. The primary output file includes an echo direction of the link, links should be oriented to represent
of the input data, computed values of the volume flow known or logically expected flow directions. As a result,
rate, water surface elevations, and average velocity at the model is well-suited to applications where the flows
designated nodes at the specified times. Three other are well-channeled. It is less applicable to projects where
output files contain information that may be used with the flows are two-dimensional and the flow directions are
auxiliary programs, to facilitate evaluation and plotting of not known.
the results. The fifth output file contains nodal values of
the convective acceleration, temporal acceleration, and (2) Model requirements. Required model input con-
pressure gradient normalized by the bottom stress, so that sists of accurate bathymetric data, information to
the strengths of these terms relative to that of the friction characterize the links and nodes (Figure 7-2), tidal eleva-
term can be evaluated. tions, freshwater flows, salinity and constituent mass
flows as functions of time at the model boundaries, infor-
(3) Example applications. Amein and Kraus (1991) mation on wind speed and direction, and initial concentra-
present application and verification of DYNLET1 with tions. Field measurements of surface elevation, velocity,
two case studies: an inlet which has a system of intercon- salinity, and concentration in the interior of the system are
nected channels without a well-defined bay, Masonboro required for calibration and verification of the model. As
Inlet, North Carolina; and Indian River Inlet, Delaware, a part of its output, the model “echo prints” the input.
an inlet with two well-defined bays that is protected by
two jetties at its entrance. (3) Example applications. DYNTRAN has been
applied in several studies for the U.S. Navy (GKY and
(4) Bibliography. The theory and procedures for Associates 1988a, 1988b) to furnish the hydrodynamics to
operation, application, and verification of DYNLET1 are drive a water quality model to determine the fate and
presented by Amein and Kraus (1991). transport of organotin from Navy ships in Navy harbors.
These harbors include Charleston, Mayport, Pearl Harbor,
c. Link-node model. An example of this type is the Everett, and Bremerton. The model was applied in a
DYNTRAN (Dynamic Transport) link-node model of reconnaissance study performed for the U.S. Army Engi-
Camp, Dresser, & McKee (Moore and Walton 1984). neer District, New York. The objective of the study was
to investigate the impact of a potential storm surge barrier
(1) Description. In DYNTRAN, the prototype sys- on the Hackensack River, New Jersey, just upstream of its
tem is represented by a network of nodes and links (Fig- confluence with the Passaic River, on flood control in the
ure 7-2). A node corresponds to a particular reach of the two river basins. The model has been applied by WES to
prototype, having a certain volume and surface area. A Bolsa Chica Bay, California, (Hales et al. 1989) to study
link represents a channel or other pathway along which the impacts of opening a new entrance and flooding wet-
water flows from one node to an adjacent node. Each lands on hydrodynamics and water quality. An improved
link is characterized by a length, cross-sectional area, and fully two-dimensional version of this model has recently
velocity (flow). The DYNTRAN model combines a been used in storm surge analysis of the Passaic River
hydrodynamic model and a transport model. The former Flood Protection Project (Demirbilek and Walton 1992).
solves the one-dimensional momentum equation along the
links and applies the continuity equation at the nodes, (4) Bibliography. For additional information, refer to
thereby determining the velocity (flow) in the links, and Moore and Walton (1984), GKY and Associates (1988a,
the elevation at the nodes. The latter solves for mass 1988b), and Demirbilek and Walton (1992).
transport of salt and a nonconservative constituent.
DYNTRAN simulates hydrodynamics under the action of d. Two-dimensional vertically averaged models.
tides, freshwater flows, winds, and density gradients. It is These models neglect vertical accelerations and velocities
simpler than the two- and three-dimensional long-wave and integrate the 3-D equations of motion in the vertical

7-4
 EM 1110-2-1618
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Figure 7-2. Pseudo-two-dimensional geometric representation for inlet systems

7-5
EM 1110-2-1618
28 Apr 95

direction. They predict surface elevations and vertically (4) Bibliography. Additional information is provided
averaged velocities. An example of this type is the WES in Butler (1978a,b,c; 1980); Leenknecht, Earickson, and
Implicit Flooding Model (WIFM). Butler (1984); Seabergh (1985); Cialone (1986);
Vemulakonda et al. (1988); and Cialone et al. (1991).
(1) Description. The WIFM is a finite difference WIFM is available to Corps personnel via the CMS on
model that uses an alternating-direction-implicit (ADI) the CRAY Y-MP supercomputer that resides at the Infor-
solution scheme. It has been applied successfully to a mation Technology Laboratory (ITL), U.S. Army Engi-
variety of Corps shallow-water wave studies involving neer Waterways Experiment Station (WES) (Cialone et al.
response to tides, winds, storm surge, and tsunamis. The 1991).
model can be applied on a variable rectilinear grid, and
accounts for advection and Coriolis terms. It can simulate e. Three-dimensional models. These models solve
flooding and drying of low-lying areas, and represent the the full three-dimensional equations of motion to obtain
effects of sub-grid scale barriers such as jetties and surface elevation and the three components of velocity, as
breakwaters. The WIFM has a “hot-start” feature, which well as the vertical variation of velocity. An example of
enables simulations to be continued from results of a this type is the CH3D model.
previous computer run. The WIFM can be accessed
through the Coastal Modeling System (CMS) (Cialone et (1) Description. The CH3D determines the response
al. 1991). of coastal currents and surface elevation to the action of
tides, wind, and density gradients. The model includes
(2) Model requirements. Essential input required to Coriolis effects, advection, and horizontal and vertical
run WIFM consists of the following: bathymetric and turbulent mixing. In addition to hydrodynamics, the
geometric information for the ocean-inlet-bay system, model permits computation of temperature and salinity.
numerical grid characteristics, information on structures A second-order closure model is available to characterize
(length, height, overtopping or not, discharge coefficients), turbulent transport. The CH3D is a finite difference
friction factors for the region, time histories of surface model and permits a variable rectilinear grid in the hori-
elevations and discharges at the grid boundaries, and time zontal, just like WIFM. In the vertical, a sigma stretching
history of winds (spatial and time variation of speed and transformation, which allows the same number of grid
direction). In the case of tides, tidal constituent layers in the shallow and deep waters, is used. As a
information can be used instead of measured tidal levels result, the bottom is represented smoothly and the order
at the boundaries. To calibrate and verify the model, of vertical resolution is kept constant throughout the grid.
measured velocities and elevations at select locations in The model uses an efficient mode-splitting technique of
the interior of the grid are required. Typical output solution. The model also permits use of a nonorthogonal
consists of snapshots of elevations and velocities over the boundary-fitted coordinate grid in the horizontal and/or
whole grid at selected instants of time during the simula- layered (z-plane) vertical treatment. In this procedure, the
tion, time histories of velocity and elevation at selected external mode, which is represented by the vertically
cell locations ("gauges") throughout the simulation, and integrated equations of motion, is first solved by an alter-
variation with time of discharge across selected ranges nating direction, implicit method, similar to WIFM. As a
(flow openings). This information can be used during result, values of the free surface elevation and vertically
post-processing to obtain snapshot vector plots and time averaged velocities throughout the grid are known. The
series plots. model then solves the internal mode, which represents the
deviation of the three-dimensional velocity field from the
(3) Example applications. The WIFM has been external mode. When the results for the two modes are
applied to the following inlets: Oregon Inlet, North Caro- combined, the full 3-D solution is obtained.
lina, to study the effect of jetty spacing and channel stabi-
lization on tides and storm surge; St. Marys Inlet, Florida, (2) Model requirements. In addition to the type of
to determine the effects of channel modification and jetty input required for WIFM, the model input consists of
sealing on tidal circulation near a jettied inlet; Yaquina choices for computing bottom friction, advection terms,
Bay, Oregon, to determine tidal currents near the jetties and lateral turbulence. Because the model solves the
and provide guidance for jetty rehabilitation; and Los equations of motion in a dimensionless form, certain
Angeles-Long Beach Harbors, California, to determine the reference values needed to make variables dimensionless
effects of proposed plans on tidal circulation and flushing. must be furnished. In addition, information on initial

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 EM 1110-2-1618
28 Apr 95

values of temperature and salinity throughout the grid as It assumes that bottom slopes are small, wave reflections
well as boundary information throughout the simulation are negligible, and energy losses outside the surf zone are
period must be provided, if these variables are to be negligible. Wave breaking and subsequent wave transfor-
modeled. Boundary information is needed not only at the mation in the surf zone are modeled using the empirical
lateral and bottom boundaries but also at the free surface. method of Dally, Dean, and Dalrymple (1984). The
Model output consists of printouts at selected times of RCPWAVE is accessible to Corps personnel via the CMS
surface elevation, velocity fluxes in x and y directions, the (Cialone et al. 1991).
three velocity components, temperature and salinity at
different vertical levels over the whole grid, as well as (2) Model requirements. In addition to information
time series of the same variables at selected gauge loca- on the grid characteristics and bathymetry for the region,
tions. Tide-induced residual currents also can be RCPWAVE requires wave characteristics in deep water
computed. Instead of numerical values being printed, (wave height, direction, and period). These may be
printer plots of contours of the variables at selected obtained either from WIS or field data. The model com-
instants of time over the whole grid may be obtained. putes wave conditions at the offshore boundary from this
Results may be stored in computer files and used for post- information. Model output consists of wave height, direc-
processing, such as for vector and time series plots and tion, and wave number at the centers of grid cells. Also
plots of velocity fields within a vertical transect across available is information on breaker location.
entrances.
(3) Example applications. The RCPWAVE has been
(3) Example applications. The CH3D has been applied to numerous Corps projects by CERC and Corps
applied to determine tide and wind-driven circulation over Districts. These include Oregon Inlet, North Carolina;
Mississippi Sound (Sheng 1983) and, in a modified form, St. Marys Inlet, Florida; and Yaquina Bay, Oregon.
to compute tidal and wind-induced circulation over Los Model simulations have been used for a variety of pur-
Angeles-Long Beach Harbors under existing and planned poses, including design of structures, determination of
conditions (Coastal Engineering Research Center 1990; wave-induced currents, and sediment transport
Vemulakonda, Chou, and Hall 1991). calculations.

(4) Bibliography. Additional information can be (4) Bibliography. For additional information, refer to
found in Sheng (1983, 1984) and Johnson et al. (1991a, Ebersole (1985), Cialone (1986); Ebersole, Cialone, and
1991b). Prater (1986); Vemulakonda et al. (1988); and Cialone et
al. (1991). RCPWAVE is available to Corps personnel
7-4. Short-Period Wave Models via the CMS (Cialone et al. 1991).

a. RCPWAVE. The Regional Coastal Process Wave b. HARBD. This model determines oscillations in
(RCPWAVE) model is a monochromatic short-period harbors and water wave scattering in a region consisting
wave model that employs a significant wave approach and of arbitrary boundaries, having variable bathymetry, and
linear wave theory. forced by ocean waves at an arbitrary depth (shallow,
intermediate, or deep) (Chen and Houston 1987).
(1) Description. The RCPWAVE (Ebersole, Cialone,
and Prater 1986) is a finite difference model and allows (1) Description. HARBD is a finite element model
the use of a variable rectilinear grid. It takes wave condi- applicable to linear water waves. It permits fixed floating
tions in deeper water (typically 18.3-m (60-ft) depth or platforms in the region considered. The model takes into
so) where the bottom contours are reasonably shore- account bottom friction and boundary absorption (energy
parallel and where the waves have been subject only to loss due to wave reflection). HARBD uses a hybrid finite
shoaling and refraction, and propagates the waves towards element method based on a variational principle for
the shore where most of the engineering applications are. numerical solution. The model does not account for wave
It is assumed that Snell’s law is valid from the offshore breaking and transformation in the surf zone and in its
boundary of the model grid to deep water. The model present form does not predict wave direction.
computes the effects of refraction and depth diffraction.
Structure diffraction may be taken into account (2) Model requirements. In addition to information
approximately by a separate program which employs the on the finite element grid (such as identification of nodes,
Penney and Price (1952) solution near structures. The their coordinates, and elements and their correspondence
RCPWAVE solves a form of the “mild slope equation.” with nodes) and bathymetry, input required consists of

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28 Apr 95

friction coefficients of elements, reflection coefficients of information about the wave (height, period, and direction),
boundary elements, and angle and period of incident and water level (surge, tide) time history at the offshore
waves. Because the models are linear, the input (forcing) boundary of the model grid.
wave amplitude is assumed to be unity for convenience.
Model output consists of the absolute value and phase of (3) Example applications. REF/DIF has been applied
the normalized nodal potential at the nodes of the grid. to Indian River Inlet, Delaware, and Kings Bay, Georgia.
The absolute value represents the wave amplification
factor (ratio of local wave height at that particular node to (4) Bibliography. Kirby and Dalrymple (1986) and
the incident wave) so the local wave height can be com- Dalrymple, Kirby, and Hwang (1984) describe REF/DIF
puted. Model output averaged over a basin (a basin is and its application.
defined as an area consisting of one or more elements)
can be printed for several basins specified in the input. 7-5. Wave-Induced Current Models
For additional information on input and output, refer to
Chen and Houston (1987). a. WICM. The Wave-Induced Current Model
(WICM) is a two-dimensional, depth-averaged model for
(3) Example applications. The HARBD model has computing wave-induced circulation and water surface
been applied to harbor response studies for Fisherman’s setup. The following summary was abbreviated from
Wharf, San Francisco, California; Indiana Harbor, Indi- Chapter 14 of the CMS Manual (Cialone et al. 1991).
ana; Green Harbor, Massachusetts; and Agat, Guam.
(1) Description. WICM solves finite difference
(4) Bibliography. Additional information may be approximations of the Navier-Stokes (continuity and hori-
found in Bottin, Sargent, and Mize (1985); Weishar zontal momentum) equations for the water surface dis-
(1988); Chen and Houston (1987); Clausner and Abel placement and the unit flow rate components. Because
(1987); and Crawford and Chen (1988). HARBD is WICM is two-dimensional, velocities are treated as depth-
available within the CMS (Cialone et al. 1991). averaged quantities (i.e., velocities are constant in magni-
tude and direction over depth). WICM can simulate flow
c. REF/DIF. The numerical model REF/DIF is a fields induced by wave fields, wind fields, river
monochromatic combined refraction/diffraction model that inflows/outflows, and tidal forcing. This finite difference
can account for wave-current interactions. The program model is developed in boundary-fitted (curvilinear)
calculates the forward scattered wave field in regions with coordinates.
slowly varying depth and current, including the effects of
refraction and diffraction. (2) Model requirements. The types of data processed
by WICM are extensive and encompass a wide range of
(1) Description. REF/DIF is based on Booij’s (1981) possible applications. Since each application is unique,
parabolic approximation for Berkoff’s (1972) mild slope the type of input data required for each study will vary.
equation, where reflected waves are neglected. The In general, there are seven categories of data require-
model is valid for waves propagating within 60 deg of the ments: model control specifications (e.g., run title, units);
input direction. REF/DIF is based on Stokes perturbation grid description (rectilinear or curvilinear cells); physical
expansion. In order to have a model that is valid in shal- characteristics (topography/bathymetry, bottom friction
low water outside the Stokes range of validity, a disper- coefficients, and barriers influencing tidal circulation and
sion relationship which accounts for the nonlinear effects storm surge levels); boundary conditions (tidal elevation,
of amplitude (Hedges 1976) is provided. The model may discharge, and uniform flux condition); wind field specifi-
be operated in three different modes (1) linear, (2) Stokes- cation (steady or nonsteady); wave field specification
to-Hedges nonlinear model, and (3) Stokes weakly nonlin- (steady, nonuniform, monochromatic, or spectral); and
ear. Wave breaking is based on Kirby and Dalrymple’s output specifications.
(1986) dissipation scheme, which is initiated when the
wave breaker index is exceeded. Land boundaries such as (3) Example applications. Three illustrative exam-
coastlines and islands are modeled using the thin film ples of WICM are presented in Chapter 14 of the CMS
approximation where the surface piercing feature is Manual (Cialone et al. 1991). The first simulates wave
replaced by shoals with very shallow depth. breaking on a plane beach, and the other two examples
discuss application of WICM to Leadbetter Beach, CA.
(2) Model requirements. REF/DIF requires a depth
grid representing the region of interest, as well as

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(4) Bibliography. WICM is available via the CMS, transport and inlet channel shoaling under long-term aver-
and model documentation is provided in Chapter 14 of the age wave conditions (excluding the effect of severe
CMS manual (Cialone et al. 1991). storms; e.g., hurricanes and northeasters) such as those
given by WIS. It can predict areas of accretion and ero-
7-6. Sediment Transport sion in the region under consideration. Because of grid
size limitations, the model cannot accurately resolve
Numerical models for coastal sediment transport may be shoreline changes, which are on the order of a meter. It
classified into those for noncohesive sediment and those can qualitatively predict changes near barrier islands. It is
for cohesive sediments. advisable to calibrate and verify the model with field data
for the project site before applying it to new project
a. Noncohesive sediments. An example of a model conditions.
for noncohesive sediment is the sediment transport model
component of the Coastal and Inlet Processes (CIP) Mod- (2) Model requirements. Apart from grid character-
eling System used in some Corps studies (Vemulakonda istics and bathymetry, model input consists of sediment
et al. 1985, 1988). For convenience, it will be called diameter, density, porosity, Manning’s roughness, time-
CIPSED hereafter. step for running the model, and parameters to control the
sequencing of waves, wave-induced currents and tide
(1) Description. The CIPSED model solves for sedi- during time marching. Additional input consists of output
ment transport on a variable rectilinear grid. It is a finite files from runs of the wave, wave-induced current, and
difference model, that computes sediment transport using tide models consisting of wave height, direction, wave
the results of a wave model, tide model, and a number, tidal elevation, setup, tidal and wave-induced
wave-induced current model. In the past, results of velocity components at the centers of grid cells, and
RCPWAVE, WIFM, and CURRENT were used for input breaker location. Model output consists of sediment
and CIPSED was used for long-term simulation (“average transport rates in two coordinate directions, and net ero-
year”), excluding severe storms such as hurricanes. A sion or deposition at the end of the simulation for each
time-marching approach was used. Since the details of grid cell. Intermediate results and a mass conservation
sediment transport are not well-understood, the model check are also printed at desired time intervals.
takes an empirical approach. For computing sediment
transport, the area of interest is divided into two regions (3) Example applications. An earlier version of
-- the open coast region away from the inlet, and the CIPSED was used for the Oregon Inlet, North Carolina,
region near the inlet. In the open coast region, for non- project (Vemulakonda et al. 1985) to evaluate erosion and
storm conditions, cross-shore transport due to factors accretion in the ocean bar entrance channel and the lateral
other than wave-induced and tidal currents may be movement of the channel when just the south jetty was in
neglected in comparison to longshore transport. This place. This single jetty case simulated a construction
region may be further divided into two zones, the area sequence in which the south jetty was built before the
within the surf zone and the area outside the surf zone. beginning of construction of the north jetty. The model
Within the surf zone, wave breaking plays a dominant was used for St. Marys Inlet (Kings Bay Study) (Vemula-
role. Therefore, the total longshore transport is computed konda et al. 1988) to study channel shoaling under
from the CERC formula (Shore Protection Manual (SPM) existing and plan conditions, and recommend advance
1984) and distributed across the surf zone, using a proce- maintenance dredging for different reaches of the channel
dure suggested by Komar (1977). Beyond the surf zone, for plan conditions.
because waves are not breaking, it is the tractive force of
currents that produces sediment transport. Therefore, in (4) Bibliography. For additional information, refer to
this zone, the method of Ackers and White (1973) is Vemulakonda and Scheffner (1987) and Vemulakonda,
followed after appropriate modification for the presence of Houston, and Swain (1989).
waves. Finally, in the region near the inlet, where tidal
and wave-induced currents play a major role in transport, b. Models for cohesive sediments. An example of an
the modified Ackers and White method is used. Output algorithm that has been applied to predict cohesive sedi-
from CIPSED consists of transport rates in the two coor- ment transport resuspension is documented by Cialone et
dinate directions at each grid cell. These are used with a al. (1991). Note that this module does not predict sedi-
continuity equation to determine the net erosion or deposi- ment transport rates or directions, only the potential for
tion at each grid cell for the period of simulation. In sediment to suspend in the water column.
general, the model is suitable for predicting sediment

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(1) Description. For the Green Bay, Wisconsin, a. Description. The CIP System consisted of models
study, the potential for cohesive sediment resuspension in for tide, wave, wave-induced current, and noncohesive
the Bay was evaluated using output from the three- sediment transport. All the models of the system were of
dimensional velocity model, CH3D, to drive a cohesive the finite-difference type and were applied on a variable
sediment resuspension module. The module was devel- rectilinear grid.
oped for shallow water based on sediment resuspension
being a function of the orbital velocities associated with b. Model requirements. Input requirements for the
short wave fields, together with the shear stress imparted types of models within the CIP System have been
by the depth-averaged flow (output from CH3D). To described.
account for this coupled process, an effective increase in
the bed shear stress was used in the algorithm. A rela- c. Example applications. The modeling system was
tionship developed by Bijker (1967) was used, which originally developed for the Oregon Inlet project (Vemul-
states that an effective shear stress reflecting both waves akonda et al. 1985), and was also applied at Kings Bay
and currents can be written as a function of a wave- (Vemulakonda et al. 1988) and Yaquina Bay (Cialone
induced increase in the bed shear stress produced by 1986).
currents only.
d. Bibliography. Additional information may be
found in Houston et al. (1986); Cialone and Simpson
(2) Module requirements. The cohesive sediment
(1987); Vemulakonda and Scheffner (1987); and Vemula-
resuspension module requires output from CH3D (root-
konda, Houston, and Swain (1989).
mean-square velocities at each grid cell), as well as wave
orbital velocities. Significant wave heights and periods
were estimated using fetch-limited shallow-water hindcast- 7-8. Numerical Model Implementation
ing procedures as discussed in the Shore Protection
The following paragraphs deal with aspects of model
Manual (SPM 1984), using measured maximum sustained
implementation that must be considered when applying
wind speeds.
numerical models at inlets.
(3) Example applications. To evaluate potential a. Grid characteristics. The grid typically should
sediment resuspension patterns over a wide range of include the inlet, the barrier islands adjacent to the inlet,
hydrodynamic conditions, the module was applied to ten the back bay, and a portion of the ocean area in front of
scenarios at Green Bay, Wisconsin (Mark et al. 1993). the inlet. The grid boundaries must be located sufficiently
far away from the inlet so the boundary conditions are not
(4) Bibliography. For a discussion of the module’s affected by planned changes near the inlet. Boundary
development and application to Green Bay, Wisconsin, locations must be chosen carefully so the flow satisfies
see Mark et al. (1993). the boundary conditions. Depending on the process
modeled, the grid cells must be sufficiently fine near the
7-7. Numerical Modeling Systems inlet, the navigation channels, the back bay, and the surf
zone for proper representation. Grid cells can be coarse
Apart from individual numerical models, numerical mod- near the lateral and offshore boundaries. In tidal and
eling systems containing a suite of numerical models (for wave-induced current models, the grid cell size, depth,
example, models for tides, waves, wave-induced currents, and expected maximum local velocity dictate the maxi-
and sediment transport) may be employed for studies on mum time-step that can be used for simulation. Computa-
coastal hydraulics and sedimentation. There are several tional time and storage typically depend on some power
advantages to such systems. For instance, all the models (greater than one) of the number of grid cells. Therefore,
are of the same type (finite-difference or finite element), it is desirable to minimize the total number of cells, con-
they use the same type of grid, information can be readily sistent with accuracy and resolution desired. This objec-
transferred from one model to another, and the individual tive is achieved by using a variable rectilinear grid.
component models of the system can be applied in differ-
ent combinations, depending on the specific application. b. Grid generation.
An example of a numerical modeling system for the inlet
environment was the Coastal and Inlet Processes (CIP) (1) Finite difference. A variable or uniform rectilin-
System, applied to several Corps studies. ear grid for the region of interest can be obtained, plotted,

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and listed to file by using a special interactive program new calibration parameters. In practice, prototype data of
called CMSGRID, which is part of the CMS (Cialone et the quality needed for calibration and verification are not
al. 1991). Output from the program consists of grid coef- available unless they are collected as a part of the numeri-
ficients, for different regions of the grid, in the two coor- cal modeling project. There may be only one data set, in
dinate directions. Other preprocessing programs of the which case calibration/verification is done as a one-step
CMS can use this information to determine coordinates of process. Another problem encountered is that the proto-
grid cells as well as plot the grid to any desired scale. type data may not be complete and accurate. In such
The grid plotted to an appropriate scale is overlaid on a situations, the modeler looks for qualitative agreement
bathymetric chart and the depths for different grid cells between model and prototype in terms of overall behavior
are determined. patterns and for reasonable explanations as to why the
two might differ. Once calibration and verification are
(2) Finite element. The finite element grid for the successful, the model is ready for application to plan
HARBD model is created manually by selecting the nodes conditions. Finally, it should be noted that model calibra-
and elements of the grid as desired. The nodes and ele- tion and verification are essential for models of tidal
ments are numbered in some convenient fashion and the hydrodynamics and sediment transport. For models of
correspondence between the nodes and elements is estab- waves and wave-induced currents, model calibration and
lished. The grid is overlaid on a bathymetric chart and verification are desirable but not essential, because
the coordinates of the nodes and depths are digitized. It understanding of the hydrodynamics of the latter phenom-
may be necessary to modify the grid on the basis of pre- enon is more complete and the models have fewer site-
liminary testing. dependent calibration parameters.

(3) Boundary-fitted. Nonorthogonal curvilinear 7-9. Design Use of Model Results

(boundary-fitted) grids can be made to conform to bathy-
metric features and provide an accurate means of repre- Typically, models may be employed to improve our
senting a study area. These grids can be generated using understanding of various phenomena at prototype loca-
a numerical grid generator such as program EAGLE tions and to furnish explanations for observed behavior or
(Thompson 1985), which has the flexibility to concentrate failure. They are often used to compare existing (base)
grid lines in shallow-deep areas or in areas where the conditions to future plan conditions and thereby predict
bathymetric gradients are great. the impact of plans on hydrodynamics (velocities, dis-
charges, water levels), water quality, and sediment trans-
c. Calibration/verification. Before most numerical port at key locations. By testing alternate plans in the
models are applied to determine the impact of some new numerical models, it is possible to assess the advantages
plan conditions, it is necessary to ensure that they repro- and disadvantages of each and choose from among the
duce the prototype behavior corresponding to some known alternatives the best for project implementation. It may
conditions. This is the objective of the calibration/ be necessary to ensure that for the design selected, veloci-
verification process. For this purpose, ideally, two com- ties in the interior are adequate for mixing and flushing,
plete and independent sets of prototype data are necessary. velocities and waves near the navigation channel do not
The data should include all the information necessary to adversely impact navigation, and velocities near structures
run the model and check model results. Thus information are sufficiently low to prevent scour. Examples of such
on boundary conditions, forcing mechanisms, and mea- projects are navigation channel modifications and jetty
surements in the interior of the model grid are needed. construction for channel stabilization. Often, the designer
During calibration, the model is run to correspond to the is faced with conflicting requirements. For example, by
first set of conditions. Model parameters such as friction increasing jetty spacing, velocities in the navigation chan-
and eddy coefficients are varied until the model repro- nel may be reduced, thereby improving navigation but
duces the prototype measurements in the interior satisfac- worsening channel shoaling, and vice versa. Model
torily. Next, the model is run in the verification mode, results enable the designer to strike a balance. In light of
using the second set of conditions. During this phase, model testing, improved designs and modifications to
model parameters are not changed but kept at their values original designs can result. One area where significant
corresponding to calibration. Model results are compared cost reductions may be possible is in estimating mainte-
to prototype measurements. There should be good agree- nance dredging required after channel modifications.
ment. If measured and predicted data significantly differ, Using model predictions of advance maintenance dredging
the model should be re-calibrated and verified with the required for different reaches of channel, it is possible to

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modify the channel design and reduce the overall dredg-

ing required. Even though they are approximate, numeri-
cal models are the only tools available to predict sediment
transport quantitatively in such cases.

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Chapter 8 inlet. Some types of measurements may require contract-

Guidelines for Planning Tidal Inlet ing to outside organizations, as the facilities, equipment,
and expertise may not be available in-house.
Monitoring
8-2. Overview
8-1. Introduction
a. Ideally, an inlet monitoring project is divided into
a. The purpose of this chapter is to provide guidance three phases: (1) reconnaissance; (2) preliminary mea-
to the field engineer in planning prototype monitoring of surements; and (3) detailed field study. Each phase level
physical processes at tidal inlets. Processes in and near includes the process critical to a successful monitoring
tidal inlets may be monitored to evaluate the feasibility of program: proper planning. During the planning process,
proposed inlet modifications; to investigate the impacts of data needs, measurement devices, and data analysis tools
existing modifications, such as a deepened or stabilized are identified to ensure that the type, duration, and fre-
channel; to ascertain inlet safety issues relating to naviga- quency of required information will be obtained. Analysis
tion and pollution control; and/or to provide information of observations and data should be conducted during
for subsequent numerical or physical modeling of the and/or after each phase.
inlet. Tidal inlets are dynamic coastal features that
migrate, shoal, and change their shape in response to b. Various types of data collection methods and
various physical processes. These processes can be stud- instrumentation can be used to obtain field data at inlets,
ied through physical or numerical modeling, or prototype as indicated in Table 8-1. The methods listed are popular,
(field) measurements. This chapter provides guidelines proven methods for field use; other measurement tech-
for planning and conducting prototype measurements at niques and instrumentation are available for other applica-
field sites. These guidelines are intended to be generally tions. Each measurement method/device has inherent
applicable throughout the United States, but must be limitations, e.g., required deployment location, length of
adapted for project requirements. deployment, frequency of data sampling, how the data are
stored and retrieved, environmental conditions under
b. Many monitoring programs have been which the technique/instrument will properly perform,
implemented by the USACE at inlets in the United States. theoretical assumptions in analysis of raw data, etc.
Under the USACE Monitoring Completed Coastal Pro- Choosing the method/device to measure a particular type
jects Program (MCCP), the following inlets have been of data will depend on its limitations, availability, and
monitored for various time periods since inception of the cost, perhaps requiring outside expertise.
program in 1981: East Pass, Florida (Morang 1992);
Yaquina Bay, Oregon (in planning stages); Siuslaw, c. Monitoring programs are usually initiated to
Oregon; Colorado River, Texas (White 1994); Carolina (1) evaluate pre-construction site processes so that a pro-
Beach Inlet, North Carolina (Jarrett and Hemsley 1988); ject can be properly designed with analytical, physical, or
Ocean City Inlet, Maryland; and Manasquan Inlet, North numerical models; (2) evaluate post-construction success
Carolina. Other inlets monitored by the Corps include: of an inlet modification; or (3) assess existing conditions
Indian River Inlet, Delaware (Anders, Lillycrop, and and trouble-shoot processes that may be causing a particu-
Gebert 1990); Oregon Inlet, North Carolina (monitoring lar problem. Every field study requires an initial recon-
under way); Port Everglades, Florida (Rosati and Denes naissance, primarily to assess what is known about the
1990); Panama City, Florida (Lillycrop, Rosati, and site. The reconnaissance phase may simply be a site visit
McGehee 1989); Murrells Inlet, South Carolina (Douglass supplemented with information gathered through a litera-
1987); and Little River Inlet, South Carolina (Chasten and ture search, or may extend to preliminary field observa-
Seabergh 1992). For a detailed discussion of the specific tions with low-cost measurement techniques. The
monitoring programs at each of these inlets, the reader is reconnaissance can suggest a hypothesis to test and a
directed to the references cited. This chapter illustrates scheme for field data collection. Based on the reconnais-
various levels of a monitoring program through discus- sance objective, the project engineer can then decide if a
sions of a few of these monitoring projects. preliminary, relatively inexpensive study is to be
conducted or if a more thorough, detailed study is in
c. Instructions for using and analyzing data from order. Sometimes, the preliminary field study identifies
individual instruments is beyond the scope of this chapter. additional conditions that need to be monitored in detail,
This chapter is directed towards broad guidance on plan- ultimately resulting in a study that has included all three
ning a monitoring project, listing the types of equipment phases.
available, and describing data that can be collected at an

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Keeping in mind the intent of the monitoring program and

Table 8-1
Data Needs and Associated Instrumentation for Inlet
required data, the field work plan should accommodate
Monitoring Projects flexibility so that unique field conditions can be captured.
Data Collection Method/
Data Desired Instrumentation Types e. The purpose of a monitoring program may be to
provide information for numerical model calibration and
Circulation patterns Surface and/or subsurface verification, and/or to provide input data for physical
drogues, dye models. In these cases, specific types of data and sam-
Current speed and direction Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler pling site locations may be called for in the numerical/
(ADCP) physical model, and should be addressed in the
Electromagnetic Current Meter monitoring program.
(EMCM)
Ducted impeller (self-aligning)
8-3. Phase I: Reconnaissance
Wave height, period, and Pressure sensor (nondirectional)
direction Pressure sensor with EMCM
Pressure sensor array The reconnaissance phase of the study is a vital prelude to
Accelerometer-based buoy the later field measurements. Much of it can be con-
(deep water) ducted at the home office, although at least one field visit
Wind speed and direction Vane-mounted anemometer by the project engineer is required.
Propeller-driven anemometer
Cup-type anemometer a. Planning. Prior to visiting the project site, the
Water/tide level Absolute water pressure sensor project engineer should be familiar with the site as it is
and barometer discussed in the literature, including previous studies
Tide gauge (stilling well and concerned with the site (laboratory, numerical, and field)
acoustic level detector)
which may give insight into inlet processes. Measurement
Suspended sediment Sediment traps techniques which have been successful at locations with
concentration/rate Optical Backscatter Sensors similar processes and/or navigation traffic should be con-
(OBS)
Fluid/sediment sample jars sidered for the project site monitoring. A preliminary
monitoring plan should be developed, including data
Total sediment transport rate Sediment traps
Sediment tracer
requirements, types of instrumentation, time scale for the
measurements, and proposed sampling locations. The
Bathymetry Rod and level
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration
Boat with fathometer
Sled (NOAA) tidal current and height tables published by NOS
SHOALS (Scanning Hydro- present predicted current and tidal height information for
graphic Operational inlets along the Atlantic, gulf, and Pacific coasts. These
Airborne Laser System) tables are published approximately 6 months prior to the
SEABAT (multi-beam acoustic
referenced year; therefore, the project engineer can plan a
sounding system)
reconnaissance visit to coincide with predicted conditions
Topography Rod and level of interest (i.e., peak currents, spring tide, etc.).
GPS-tracked (Global Positioning
System) vehicle
Stereoscopic aerial photography b. Literature search. An extensive literature base
exists concerning tidal inlets, and technical information
Information about bed forms Diver inspection
or structure conditions Aerial photography (with clear may be available for a study area. If documentation of
water) processes or previous studies at the project site is scarce,
Side-scan sonar reports discussing inlets with similar histories and pro-
SEABAT (see above) cesses may be useful. Sources for such information
Surface/subsurface exploration Sediment grab samples include:
Sediment cores
Subbottom profiler
(1) Reports prepared by U.S. Government agencies,
such as the USGS and the USACE. The GITI program
conducted by USACE produced many site-specific and
d. Occasionally, unexpected field conditions (due to
comprehensive reports about inlets. USACE District and
weather patterns, wave climate, navigational traffic, dred-
Division offices may have reconnaissance and feasibility
ging activities, etc.) may create a “target of opportunity”
studies for the inlet of interest.
to gain some insightful information about inlet processes.

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(2) Congressional documents. d. Field visit.

(3) Reports by academia, such as those in the librar- (1) A site visit allows the project engineer to observe
ies of Louisiana State University’s Coastal Studies Insti- inlet processes, process interaction with structures, and
tute, and the University of Florida’s Coastal and Ocean inlet effects on adjacent beaches. The preliminary
Engineering Laboratory. monitoring plan developed in planning stage (a) can be
evaluated for its feasibility, and revised if necessary.
(4) Conference proceedings often have several case Observations of dye movement through the inlet/
studies describing inlet research, including discussions of structures, measurements of currents with hand-held cur-
processes at inlets, monitoring programs, and applications rent meters, and Littoral Environment Observations (LEO)
to numerical and/or physical modeling. (Schneider 1981) of wave conditions are simple, inexpen-
sive methods for quantifying site processes. Discussions
(5) Scientific journals such as the Journal of Sedi- with local citizens, harbor masters, and city/county
mentary Petrology, Journal of Geology, Marine Geology, engineers can provide useful information about inlet con-
Journal of Waterways, Ports, Coastal, and Ocean Engi- ditions during normal and storm conditions, navigation/
neering, and Journal of Coastal Research. Scientific recreational hazards to instrument deployment, and public
publishers such as Elsevier or the Society of Sedimentary perception of inlet effects.
Geologists (SEPM) have printed excellent books contain-
ing papers which describe the results of coastal research (2) It is usually cost-effective for the project engineer
and engineering (examples include Elsevier’s Lecture to charter an airplane to fly over the site. This overview
Notes on Coastal Engineering, SEPM Special Publica- helps fix the inlet within the broader geologic and geo-
tions, and some of the Geological Society of America graphic framework. Features which may be obscure from
Memoirs). the water surface or the ground may be clear from the air,
e.g., sediment plumes within the inlet or sea, bed forms,
c. Data search. Data (current, wave, and water level ebb/flood tidal shoals, beach ridges, and ponds which may
measurements, core logs, bathymetric, topographic, sub- mark former inlets. An airplane with the wing over the
bottom/seismic data, surface sediment samples, tidal/river cabin and windows that open is recommended for the best
stage data, aerial photographs, and/or dredging records) quality photographs/video. An altitude between 300 and
may be available from previous field studies. Sources for 600 m (1,000 and 2,000 ft) is ideal, although in some
such data include: areas aircraft are not permitted to fly this low. A helicop-
ter, which can hover over a site, can be an attractive
(1) District offices of USACE. Historic maps, alternative to a plane. However, vibration from the heli-
hydrographic surveys, and topographic sheets may be copter may degrade photographs/video, and the rental cost
available. for helicopters is an order of magnitude greater than that
for airplanes.
(2) Other Federal agencies. The NOAA archives tide
data, and limited hydrographic surveys dating back to the e. Controlled aerial photographs. Sources for aerial
1800s. The National Climatic Data Center has weather photography include:
data from around the country. Offshore wave data may
be available from the U.S. Navy for certain areas. The (1) USACE.
USGS produces topographic sheets for the United States.
(2) U.S. Air Force.
(3) State agencies. Departments of natural resources
and environmental regulation often have sediment sam- (3) National Atmospheric and Space Administration
ples, beach profiles, coring records, and geophysical data. (NASA).

(4) Universities. Schools with oceanography, (4) U.S. Department of Agriculture.

geology, or coastal engineering departments may have
inlet process data. (5) State agencies, as discussed in c3 above.

(5) City Governments. Cities with active engineering (6) City engineering departments, as listed in c5
departments. above.

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(7) Private aerial photography companies in vicinity

of the inlet.

It is worth obtaining as many historical photographs and/

or hydrographic surveys as possible because they often
reveal the natural behavior of an inlet and demonstrate
how it migrated over time. Older photographs taken
before structures affected natural processes in the vicinity
of the inlet give great insight into structure impacts and
natural inlet processes.

f. Example of a reconnaissance level study: Port

Everglades, Florida.

(1) The purpose of the Port Everglades, Florida,

monitoring program was to evaluate the effectiveness of a
structure sealing project at the south jetty, a rubble stone
structure with large “man-sized” voids (Figure 8-1).
Beach fills placed south of the inlet eroded at an
extremely high rate, indicating to county and state person-
nel that sediment moved through the south jetty into the
navigation channel. The structure was sealed with sodium
silicate-cement for void cavities and with sodium silicate-
diacetin for sand-filled voids during the period September-
November 1988. Four site visits were conducted as part
of the monitoring program: (a) reconnaissance study,
(b) preconstruction experiment, (c) during-construction
inspection and observation, and (d) post-construction Figure 8-1. Data collected during the Port Everglades,
Florida, reconnaissance field study
experiment. The Port Everglades study is described by
Rosati and Denes (1990).
(3) A snorkeling inspection of structure voids,
(2) The purpose of the reconnaissance study, con- recording their location and dimensions, was initially
ducted 27-29 June 1988, was to obtain detailed informa- conducted. Several structure voids that extended deep
tion about the south jetty infrastructure, current patterns, into the structure were identified and photographed for
and surrounding beach and bathymetry conditions to plan possible placement of current meters and sediment traps
later phases of the monitoring program. Using the NOAA during future experiments. Characteristics of the seabed
tidal current tables, the trip was scheduled such that were also noted during the snorkeling inspection. No
extreme conditions (peak flood and ebb currents) occurred shoals or large sediment deposits were noted along the
during daylight hours, and could easily be evaluated. A structure, indicating that if sediment passed through the
literature review revealed that the county had conducted a structure, it was carried away from the sides of the jetty.
dye study at the site in February 1985 by placing dye on
one side of the jetty and making visual observations of (4) A hand-held current meter was brought to the site
dye movement through the structure as an indication of to evaluate currents at locations along the structure; how-
structure permeability. Permission to access the site and ever, the equipment failed and a replacement current
operate from a staging area was obtained prior to the meter could not be obtained in a timely manner.
reconnaissance study period. Proposed plans for assessing
pre- and post-construction structure permeability included: (5) Dye placement using a pressure sprayer did not
dye movement through/around structure; current speed provide the continuous, concentrated quantity of dye
and direction through/around structure; and sediment required. Instead, powdered dye placed in sediment sam-
transport through structure (using sediment traps and/or a ple bags weighted with rocks and placed in structure
bed-load sampler). The feasibility of making each type of voids provided an observable dye pattern. Observations
measurement during the pre- and post-construction experi- of dye dispersal were made over the experiment period
ments was evaluated during the reconnaissance study.

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for three peak flow conditions, both from the ground and and a summer flight are recommended. If other aerial
from a rented airplane. photographs already exist for the study area, it is recom-
mended that the new photographs be taken at the same
(6) A sediment trap and bed-load sampler were altitude and with the same lens focal length to produce
placed in structure voids over several hours, and removed images that are the same scale as the original photos.
to measure the accumulated sediment. Both types of sedi- Otherwise, two scale factors are recommended, 1:24000 to
ment measurements collected very little sediment. It was provide broad coverage of the study area, and 1:4800 to
decided that the sediment traps and bed-load samplers produce detailed images. If the water is clear, the
would not be used to measure sediment transport through 1:4800 photographs will have enough resolution to show
the structure in later phases of the monitoring program. inlet bed form features.

(7) It was concluded that dye dispersal through the (2) Daylight quality should be considered when plan-
structure provided the best measure of structure perme- ning aerial photography. If seafloor features are of pri-
ability. A fluorometer, an instrument that quantifies fluid mary interest, then the photographs should be taken at
florescence, was used in later phases of the monitoring midday when the sun is high and has greatest penetration
program to determine the rate of dye dispersal through the through the water. If land features are of primary inter-
structure. Using dimensions of the structure voids, three est, then low-angle sunlight is preferred because long
current meter mounts were designed, and the mounts were shadows help reveal features.
used to position 2.5-cm (1-in.) electromagnetic current
meters in voids for pre- and post-construction experi- (3) Tidal stage is also an important consideration. At
ments. These two types of measurements were used to most inlets, the flood tide carries clear water into the
quantify pre- and post-construction structure permeability inlet, which may facilitate photographing bed forms.
at the Port Everglades south jetty. Photographs during ebb flow water may be undesirable
due to turbid river inflow or sediment suspension from a
8-4. Phase II: Preliminary Measurements back bay area. Another (possibly conflicting) consider-
ation is adjacent beach shoreline position as it varies with
a. General. This phase of an inlet study is intended tidal stage. It is convenient to take aerial photographs at
to either answer a specific question with a limited amount a known phase of the tide, i.e., mean low water (mlw),
of field data or provide general information which can mean high water (mhw), etc., which facilitates comparison
identify problem areas and be used to plan a more with beach surveys and/or previous aerial photographs.
detailed field survey. For projects with limited scope or
funding, this effort may be the only field study performed. c. Beach profile/inlet shoreline surveys. Beach pro-
In some cases, the collection can be designed to compli- files can be obtained with simple equipment (rod and
ment similar data being obtained in the vicinity of the level) at low cost. Many sites have previously surveyed
inlet by other agencies. An example is the measurement reference locations; resurveying these locations allows
of water levels. NOAA might have a tide gauge within direct comparison with earlier surveys. Sometimes the
an inlet or harbor. In this case, a single additional tide most difficult part of beach surveys is obtaining permis-
gauge could be deployed along the open coastline so that sion from local residents to use their property as a right of
the tidal phase difference between the bay and sea can be way to gain access to the beach.
measured. Another example is the use of side-scan sonar
to examine an inlet structure. Once the vessel and side- d. Sediment sampling. Surface sediment samples can
scan equipment have been mobilized, the equipment can be collected by the field workers who perform the profile
be used to image bed forms within the inlet for a rela- surveys. Ideally, samples should be taken within the inlet,
tively small additional cost. Examples of the types of from adjacent beaches, and from the bay behind the bar-
data that might be collected in a preliminary site survey rier beaches. These sampling locations can help identify
include: the source of the sediment and suggest whether there is a
net amount of sediment entering the bay or flushing out to
b. Controlled aerial photographs. sea. The samples should be taken from various parts of
the beach profile since grain size can vary significantly
(1) Aerial photographs taken under controlled condi- across the beach. In addition, it is important that sample
tions can be used for mapping, identifying landforms, and locations be recorded since it may be necessary to
sometimes identifying relic channels. If inlet features resample the same locations in the future.
change shape significantly during the year, a winter flight

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e. Currents. The speed of water flowing through an at Port Everglades, Florida, to evaluate the permeability of
inlet is basic information which is often unavailable. the inlet jetty before and after structure sealing.
Measurements can be made using either in situ current
meters (discussed in the next section) or surface or sub- (4) Dye is available as a powder in bulk form, in
surface drifters. Drifters can be prepared inexpensively pre-formed blocks or rings, and as a concentrated liquid.
and provide basic information about current speed. The Dye rings are the most convenient to use, but tend to
easiest method is to position painted blocks of wood or dissolve slowly. Powder and liquid are quickly dispersed,
oranges/grapefruit in the inlet and time how long they but can be messy to use. Two commonly used dyes are
take to travel a known distance. rhodamine, which is pink/red, and uranine, which is fluo-
rescent green. Food colorings are available that have
f. Water flow patterns. been tested for purity, and may be preferred for environ-
mental considerations. Material Data Safety Sheets are
(1) Drifting floats and dye can be used to show how available from the manufacturer for these food colorings,
water flows through the complex inlet system. Drifters certifying that they are nontoxic. In areas where local
can provide only limited quantitative information about residents are especially sensitive about environmental
the volume of water in the system, but can demonstrate pollution, food colorings are recommended.
overall patterns such as whether certain channels are
primarily ebb or flood dominated, if gyres occur around (5) In turbid conditions, dye is only visible at the
structures, and how different bodies of water interact. A surface. Formulabs, Inc. recommends that yellow/green
drifter or dye study can be performed as part of the dye be used in water bearing heavy sediment loads
reconnaissance phase of monitoring or can be done in because red will be partially obscured by suspended clay
conjunction with more detailed current meter measure- particles. For turbid seawater conditions, it is advisable to
ments in the Detailed Field Study phase. Dye is useful in use concentrated dye that has been mixed with fresh
indicating the relative permeability of structures during water, since this solution will float. If the water is clear,
various phases of tidal flow. An experiment with drifters it may be best to mix powder with sea water at the site
or dye can be performed relatively easily since material since this mixture will tend to remain at the depth of its
costs are modest and observations can be made from injection. In inlets with rapid flow, dye may disperse too
ground or a rented airplane. The main disadvantage of quickly to be visible. Before finalizing a monitoring
these inexpensive devices is that they must be used in program at the inlet, the feasibility of using dye and drift-
relatively good weather so that they can be accurately ers at the site should be evaluated with testing.
tracked. Drifters with radar reflectors are available and
are an alternative to consider if the weather is often poor g. Tide measurements. If there is a harbor near the
at the study site, but the complexity of the radar and project site, a tide gauge may already be located there.
navigation equipment adds significantly to the cost. To determine the phase difference between tidal stage in
the harbor and along the open coastline, another tide
(2) Drifters used on the water surface can simply be gauge will have to be installed, preferably near the inlet’s
plywood shapes painted with fluorescent paint and num- mouth. Thus, short-term deployment of an inlet mouth
bered for identification. To trace the flow of water below gauge and comparison of these measurements with a
the surface, a drifter can be made with vanes suspended harbor gauge will facilitate proper conversion of the long-
below the surface float at the desired depth. These drift- term harbor tidal record.
ers can be difficult to use because the vanes can get
caught on underwater obstructions or a shallow bottom. h. Side-scan sonar.
The surface float also produces some drag, so the resul-
tant velocity vector may not accurately describe either the (1) Side-scan sonar uses phased transducer arrays
surface or subsurface speed and direction. mounted on a towfish to emit acoustic pulses in narrow
beams to each side. Timing of the return echoes permits
(3) Dye can be injected from a fixed point over a computation of the slant range, perpendicular to the direc-
period of time, producing streak lines that can reveal tion of towfish travel, to targets in the plane of the beam.
areas of turbulence or mixing. Wright, Sonu, and Repeatedly pulsing the signal as the towfish is pulled
Kielhorn (1972) used dye at East Pass, Florida, to demon- forward generates a picture of the seafloor as a series of
strate how sea water entering the inlet with the flood tide scan lines on a moving chart recorder. Stronger returns
was subducted underneath a plume of fresh water flowing show darker images, and a lack of a signal appears white.
south out of the Bay. Rosati and Denes (1990) used dye The result is an acoustic image of the bottom as seen

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from the position of the towfish (Clausner and Pope (2) Bathymetric surveys were used to identify and
1988). Side-scan sonar is a versatile tool that can be used locate individual bed forms within the inlet (Figure 8-2).
to assess the condition of breakwaters or other structures Five parallel survey lines spaced approximately 30 m
and can image bed forms and other bottom features in (100 ft) apart were used to monitor the sand waves, with
inlets and channels (Lillycrop, Rosati, and McGehee surveys made in October and November 1986, and July
1989). 1987. Side-scan sonar was used to obtain a continuous
picture of the bed features in November 1986.
(2) The advantage of side-scan sonar is that it can be
operated in turbid water, where aerial photography or (3) In April 1987, currents were measured with a
diver inspection are ineffective. However, shallow water hand-held ducted impeller meter (see short-term current
may limit its use. It usually is not effective in water measurements, next section) to determine the maximum
depths less than about 3 m (10 ft), but if a shallow-draft tidal induced flow and the variation of near-bottom veloc-
vessel is used in calm seas, the side-scan towfish can be ities near sand wave crests and troughs. In situ meters
suspended just below the water surface. To reduce turbu- (see remote current meters, next section) with internal
lence and optimize quality of the records, the side-scan recording capability were deployed over several tidal
surveys should be made at slack tide. Bubbles in the cycles in July 1987. For ease of installation and protec-
water column during ebb or flood tides may completely tion from significant fishing boat traffic, gauges were
obscure the record. Turbulence caused by wave-current mounted from taut moor buoys anchored to existing navi-
interaction and wave breaking near the mouth of an inlet gational buoy sinkers. Currents were recorded at 15- or
may make this area difficult to image except on calm 30-min intervals, depending on the gauge. Gulf and bay
days. water level differences were measured by manual record-
ing of tide levels on staffs placed at three locations during
(3) Because of the many difficulties in using side- the same time period.
scan sonar within an inlet, the likelihood of its success at
the project site must be evaluated by comparing condi- (4) Prototype data from Panama City were used to
tions under which it has been successful to the project define existing conditions that create sand waves, and to
inlet processes. The main cost of most side-scan projects obtain data to use in model calibration and verification.
is mobilizing the equipment, transportation of equipment
and personnel to the project site, and leasing a vessel. 8-5. Phase III: Detailed Field Study

i. Example of a preliminary field study: Panama The detailed field study is often complex and costly, and
City, Florida. therefore must be carefully planned and coordinated,
incorporating information gained from the earlier phases
(1) The Panama City, Florida, study was initiated in of the study. Examples of the types of data that may be
an effort to reduce dredging requirements in the inlet. collected during a detailed field study include:
Sand waves with heights as great as 15 ft in the entrance
channel reduced the authorized channel depths, requiring a. Short-term current measurements.
frequent overdepth dredging. The purpose of the study
was to evaluate potential changes to the inlet system that (1) Short-term measurements of the current can be
would reduce dredging requirements. Flow characteristics made intensively at several inlet cross sections over a
in the Panama City channel were such that sand waves tidal cycle. The measurements are typically made by
formed; if these flow characteristics could be modified, field workers operating from small boats, although some-
the tendency for sand wave formation could be reduced. times instruments can be deployed from a bridge if the
A limited amount of field data was obtained to (a) quali- span is not too high. Currents are usually hourly at three
tatively monitor sand wave formation through time, or four stations at each cross section, at depths of 0.8, 0.5,
(b) determine hydraulic characteristics of the inlet for and 0.2 times the total water depth at each station. The
numerical model calibration and verification, and resulting three-dimensional grid of current measurements
(c) measure the velocity distribution associated with a gives an indication of current speed and direction, provid-
fully developed bed form. A detailed discussion of the ing a detailed snapshot of water flow within the inlet.
Panama City, Florida, project is given by Lillycrop, This information can help identify processes that may be
Rosati, and McGehee (1989). contributing to problems in the inlet.

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Figure 8-2. Data collected during the Panama City, Florida, preliminary field study (adapted from
Lillycrop, Rosati, and McGehee (1989))

(2) However, a short-term measurement program is (3) Significant changes in current patterns can occur
labor-intensive, and usually expensive. Often only one while measurements are being taken, simply because all
cross section at the inlet throat is monitored, where the measurements cannot be made simultaneously without a
most intense currents occur. Data collection is typically large number of current meters and field workers. Signif-
designed to coincide with spring or neap tide on the icant current changes are most likely to be missed when
assumption that the currents will be the strongest. Other the tides are turning. A way to reduce the likelihood of
factors may also influence current speed and direction, missing significant events is to perform the measurements
such as runoff from rivers or complex interactions with at half-hour intervals during the tide change and at hourly
other bay openings. It is recommended that the measur- intervals thereafter. Measurements during severe weather
ing period extend for at least 48 hr, and that some in situ may indicate the most dynamic inlet processes, but field
current meters (discussed below) be deployed for an workers may not be able to stay safely at their stations.
extended period. If the budget allows, measurements
should be made several times during the year to learn b. Remote current meters.
more about seasonal effects on current speed and direc-
tion. If only one measurement period is possible, the (1) Many of the disadvantages of a short-term cur-
study should be scheduled to coincide with the conditions rent measurement program can be alleviated by using
under which problems at the site have been reported, or remote current meters. Remote current meters can record
are likely to occur. For example, if structures have been data internally, or allow real-time reporting by sending
damaged in spring, possibly as a result of increased river data to shore via telemetry or cable. Data from internally
flow, then the study should be performed at that time. recording (self-contained) meters are analyzed when the

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meter is retrieved or the data are downloaded. Remote changes have occurred. These data can show changes in
current meters are deployed by divers on a mooring the inlet shape and orientation, and whether it is scouring
during calm weather, left on station for a period of time, or shoaling. If major construction, rehabilitation, or dred-
and recovered. If possible, they should be deployed for at ging is to be performed, the region should be surveyed
least one complete lunar tidal cycle. Most internally before and after the work. Survey lines across the inlet
recording meters can record flow speed and direction at can show the effect of the dredging on the navigation
10- to 15-min intervals for a multi-week deployment; channels and on subsequent infilling or erosion. If cur-
cabled or telemetered meters can stay on station indefi- rent speed is obtained at various inlet cross sections,
nitely. This information can reveal subtle changes in the accurate survey information will allow the inlet’s volu-
flow field as the tide turns, and can also show variations metric flow to be calculated.
in maximum velocities over time. The greatest advantage
of remote current meters is that they can record over d. Water level. Water level information should be
conditions too severe for field workers, such as during the obtained, either from an existing gauge, or a gauge specif-
passage of storms or floods. ically deployed for the monitoring period. The tide gauge
should be deployed so that the measured water level can
(2) Remote current meters are expensive, thereby be referenced with respect to a standard datum. Water
limiting the number that can be deployed in an inlet. level information can be used in conjunction with the
They must be located where they will not interfere with volumetric flow data to determine inlet tidal prism.
boat traffic, which can restrict their spatial coverage. If
the meters are inadvertently in the path of trawlers or boat e. Wave information. Data on wave height, direc-
anchors, they can be damaged or lost. Frequent inspec- tion, and period are necessary for many inlet studies
tion of the moorings by divers can reduce the likelihood because wave-induced longshore currents can carry sedi-
of loss, but adds expense to the project. Because most ment to and from adjacent shorelines, damage structures,
remote current meters record internally, the quality of data and be a significant process in forming ebb tidal shoals.
is unknown until the gauge is retrieved. If the gauge has Understanding these processes can help verify hypotheses
malfunctioned, the data from that particular location may about long-term trends at the study site. Offshore wave
be lost. To help prevent equipment failure, the gauges statistics are available for the Atlantic, gulf, Pacific, and
should be thoroughly checked and calibrated prior to Great Lakes coastal areas from the USACE Wave Infor-
deployment. mation Study (WIS), which is based on hindcasting waves
from meteorological data (Jensen 1983). Wave data are
(3) An ideal practice for a thorough field study available from the National Data Buoy Center (NDBC)
would be a combination of both an intensive, manual for 3- and 12-m (10- and 40-ft) discus buoys, which are
current measurement effort accompanied with the deploy- in operation in the Great Lakes, Pacific, and Atlantic
ment of remote current meters. The intensive field effort (Steele, Lau, and Hsu 1985; Steele et al. 1990). WIS
would provide spatial coverage, while the in situ meters statistics or NDBC data can be used to determine general
would provide long-term temporal coverage. trends for the project area, but complexities in local bath-
ymetry and shoreline orientation at the study area can
c. Hydrographic (bathymetric) surveys. produce a local wave climate that is different from that
projected using offshore data. Estimates of the nearshore
(1) Large-area hydrographic surveys of a tidal inlet wave climate can be obtained by using a numerical wave
and the adjoining area can provide valuable information. transformation model with local bathymetry and offshore
Ideally, the surveys should include the inlet, the ebb tidal wave data. To measure local waves, a directional wave
shoal and surrounding region, the flood tidal shoal, and gauge should be deployed within a few miles of the study
back-bay channels that feed the inlet. The inlet and the area. If possible, the gauge should be in operation for at
offshore can usually be surveyed from a small boat, but a least 1 year so that a complete winter and summer cycle
shallow flood tidal shoal may require rod and transit can be sampled. An 18-month deployment which covers
surveys. The surveys must be referenced to a standard two winters is preferable since the most severe wave
datum. climate occurs in winter for most of the United States.
Exceptions would be those sites where there is significant
(2) Although precision hydrographic surveys are ice cover during the winter. For these sites, the gauges
labor-intensive and expensive, one should be conducted at should be recovered before winter so that they will not be
the beginning of the field study, and another at the end if lost during the spring thaw when drifting ice can gouge
the study is of such a duration that significant bathymetric the seafloor.

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f. Subsurface exploration. Inlet location and rubble-mound jetties were extended approximately 610 m
scouring/shoaling patterns may be controlled to some (2,000 ft) seaward and 122-m-long (400-ft-long) spurs
extent by underlying geologic structure. Clues that there oriented at a 45-deg angle to the jetty trunk were
might be structural control at a site are a stable inlet that constructed (Figure 8-3). Physical model studies
has not migrated and rock outcrops on land, within the conducted prior to spur additions indicated that the spurs
inlet, or offshore. Information about outcrop or regional would deflect material away from the structure, signifi-
structure may be available from the geological literature, cantly reducing shoaling in the navigation channel. The
but detailed exploration may be needed at some sites to objectives of the monitoring project were to (a) determine
plan construction or provide more information about long- the effectiveness of the spurs in deflecting sediment,
term stability. Details on subsurface geology can be (b) identify shoaling patterns near the jetties, (c) compare
obtained from high-resolution geophysical surveys or from existing prototype conditions to those predicted in the
sediment cores. A combination of both is ideal: the physical model study, (d) evaluate the effectiveness of the
cores provide control for the geophysics, and the geophys- system in reducing maintenance dredging requirements,
ics provide a more regional image of the subsurface. and (e) evaluate impacts of the jetties on the surrounding
beaches.
g. Detailed surface sampling. A comprehensive
sampling program can be performed to learn more about (2) Bathymetric data extending alongshore for 10 km
source areas and transport patterns. In addition, sediment (6 miles) south of Siuslaw River and 8 km (5 miles)
samples can be collected periodically if it is suspected north, and offshore to an approximate depth of 7.6 m
that changes in sediment type occur during the year. (25 ft), including some profiles perpendicular to the jetty
in the vicinity of the spurs, were collected twice a year
h. Sand tracer studies. Sand can be dyed and for 4 years prior and 5 years after spur construction
injected into the inlet system to trace sediment dispersion (1981-1990).
patterns. These studies would complement the drifter
experiments described previously. Usually sand from the (3) Dye dispersal, documented with video and aerial
site is obtained, dyed, and washed with dish soap (to photographs, was conducted twice a year to indicate cur-
reduce clumping) prior to placement. The main disadvan- rent patterns in the inlet and near the spur jetties. Seabed
tages with the tracer experiments are that the sand may be drifters were used in conjunction with the dye studies to
dispersed too much to be traced, and counting sand grains indicate bottom current patterns. Bottom currents were
is tedious. also measured in the summer of 1990 by suspending a
current meter with a 91-kg (200-lb) subsurface buoy from
i. Repetitive aerial photographs. At a site where the a helicopter. Current speed and direction at 22 locations
morphology changes throughout the year, periodic aerial in the vicinity of the inlet created a snapshot mosaic of
photographs can be a valuable tool for mapping shoreline current patterns for three different wave and current con-
changes. At least two flights per year are recommended, ditions during the field test. However, due to 21-m/sec
with a “storm” flight reserved for severe northeasters or (40-knot) winds, current patterns were primarily wind-
hurricanes that impact the site. dominated, and inlet-related currents were subdued.
Under the MCCP, the current portion of the Siuslaw
j. Meteorological data. Data on wind speed and monitoring program was extended, and a similar helicop-
direction should be collected during the hydraulic field ter current study was conducted during 1992 which suc-
studies. Weather records from nearby airports or military cessfully documented inlet circulation in the vicinity of
bases may be available. If not, a portable weather station the Siuslaw jetties (Pollock, in preparation).
can be established on a tower or pole near the project site.
These data can reveal if wind setup contributed to unusual (4) Side-scan sonar investigations of inlet and jetty
water levels in inlet back-bay areas. conditions were conducted during a fall 1987 field test;
however, wave conditions were too rough for boat maneu-
k. Example of a detailed field study: Siuslaw River, vering and the measurements were inconclusive.
Oregon.
(5) A directional wave gauge was deployed from
(1) Under the MCCP, the Siuslaw River, Oregon, September 1988 to September 1989 southwest of the
was monitored from 1987 to 1990 to determine the effec- entrance in 12-m-deep (40-ft-deep) water. Wave data
tiveness of jetty “spurs.” In 1985, the existing during that year of deployment are being correlated with a

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Figure 8-3. Data collected at Siuslaw, Oregon, detailed field study (*note that seabed drifter, dye,
and current data were also measured south of the project)

permanent directional gauge located at Coquille, Oregon, constraints that exist at the inlet. Data necessary for a
approximately 97 km (60 miles) south. Once a correla- proper engineering design come from a monitoring project
tion between the two gauges is known, data from the that has been designed to answer the critical questions.
Coquille gauge can be adjusted for use at Siuslaw.
b. It must be emphasized that data analyses should
(6) Pre- and post-construction dredging data are be performed during or immediately after the field work
being compiled and correlated with bathymetric changes, at each phase of a monitoring program. If critical mea-
current speeds and directions, and wave information to surements have been lost, there still may be time to
determine impacts of the spur jetties on coastal processes. deploy another instrument and try again. Since many new
instruments perform data conversion and analysis intern-
8-6. Summary ally or in the field by means of portable computers, qual-
ity control has improved. It has become easier to decide
a. Tidal inlets are dynamic coastal features that are onsite if the instruments are performing properly, or
fascinating to observe because of the rapid changes that whether a modification of the experiment is in order. In
can occur, driven by waves, tides, winds, sediment sup- addition, field notes are available and memories of the
ply, structure design, and channel cross section. For participants are fresh during or immediately following the
engineering works to be successful, they must be in har- data collection effort.
mony with the physical processes and geographical

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c. Three phases to a field study have been described: latter phases may be omitted, depending on the purpose of
reconnaissance, preliminary measurements, and detailed the monitoring program. However, the critical process of
field study. Some level of reconnaissance is necessary for any monitoring program, at every level, is proper
every monitoring project, although one or both of the planning.

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Appendix A Investigation,” Technical Report H-78-18, U.S. Army

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Bottin, R. R. 1982. “Design for Flood Control, Wave

Protection, and Prevention of Shoaling, Rogue River,
Abou-Seida, M. M. 1965. “Bed Load Function Due to Oregon: Hydraulic Model Investigation,” Technical
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Wave Research Laboratory. iment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Ackers, P., and White, W. R. 1973. “Sediment Trans- Bottin, R. R. 1992. “Physical Modeling of Small-Boat
port: New Approach and Analysis,” Journal of the Harbors: Design Experience, Lessons Learned, and Mod-
Hydraulics Division, American Society of Civil Engineers, eling Guidelines,” Technical Report CERC-92-12,
Vol 99, HY11, pp 2041-2060. U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
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Amein, M., and Kraus, N. C. 1991. “DYNLET1:
Dynamic Implicit Numerical Model of One-Dimensional Bottin, R. R., Sargent, F. E., and Mize, M. G. 1985.
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10, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Design for Wave Protection: Physical and Numerical
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ference, Beach Preservation Technology ’90, American Bahamas: Hydraulic Model Investigation,” Technical
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Berelson, W. M., and Heron, S. D., Jr. 1985. “Correla-
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Coastal Engineering Conference, Vol 1, pp 471-490. Bruun, P. 1978. “Stability of Tidal Inlets, Theory and
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Bijker, E. W. 1967. “The Increase of Bed Shear in a
Current Due to Wave Motion,” Delft Hydraulics Labora- Bruun, P., and Gerritsen, F. 1959. “Natural By-Passing
tory, p 7-19. of Sand at Coastal Inlets,” Journal of the Waterways and
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Delft, The Netherlands. Bruun, P., and Gerritsen, F. 1960. “Stability of Coastal
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Bottin, R. R. 1978. “Design for Harbor Entrance The Netherlands.
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Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS. Vicksburg, MS.

Schneider, C. 1981 (Mar). “The Littoral Environment Shore Protection Manual. 1984. 4th ed., 2 vols,
Observation (LEO) Data Collection Program,” Coastal U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
Engineering Technical Aid 81-5, U.S. Army Engineer Coastal Engineering Research Center, U.S. Government
Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS. Printing Office, Washington, D.C.

Seabergh, W. C. 1976. “Improvements for Masonboro Simpson, D. P., Kadib, A. L., and Kraus, N. C. 1991.
Inlet, North Carolina: Hydraulic Model Investigation: “Sediment Budget at Oceanside, California, Calculated
Final Report,” U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experi- Using a Calibrated Shoreline Change Model,” Coastal
ment Station, Vicksburg, MS. Sediment ’91, N. C. Kraus, K. J. Gingerich, and D. L.
Kriebel, eds., American Society of Civil Engineers,
Seabergh, W. C. 1985. “Los Angeles and Long Beach New York, pp 2234-2248.
Harbors Model Study, Deep-Draft Dry Bulk Export Ter-
minal, Alternative No. 6: Resonant Response and Tidal Sorenson, R. M. 1977. “Procedures for the Preliminary
Circulation Studies,” Miscellaneous Paper CERC-85-8, Analysis of Tidal Inlet Hydraulics and Stability,” Coastal
U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Engineering Technical Aid, 77-8, Coastal Engineering
Vicksburg, MS. Research Center, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experi-
ment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Seabergh, W. C., and Lane, E. F. 1977. “Improvements
for Little River Inlet, South Carolina: Hydraulic Model Sorenson, R. M. 1992. “Prediction of Siltation in Off-
Investigation,” Technical Report H-77-21, U.S. Army shore Channels for Coastal and Small Boat Harbors,”
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS. draft report prepared for the U.S. Army Engineer Water-
ways Experiment Station, Coastal Engineering Research
Seelig, W. N. 1977. “A Simple Computer Model for Center, Vicksburg, MS.
Evaluating Coastal Inlet Hydraulics,” Coastal Engineering
Aid No. 77-1, Coastal Engineering Research Center, Stapor, F. 1973. “History of Sand Budgets of the Barrier
U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Island System in the Panama City, Florida, Region,”
Vicksburg, MS. Marine Geology, Vol 14, pp 277-286.

Seelig, W. N., Harris, D. L., and Herchenroder, B. E. Steele, K. E., Lau, J. C., and Hsu, Y. L. 1985. “Theory
1977. “A Spatially Integrated Numerical Model of Inlet and Application of Calibration Techniques for an NDBC
Hydraulics,” GITI Report 14, Coastal Engineering Directional Wave Measurement Buoy,” Journal of
Research Center, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experi- Oceanic Engineering, Vol 10, No. 4, pp 382-396.
ment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
Steele, K. E., Wang, D. W., Teng, C., and Lang, N. C.
Sexton, W. J., and Hayes, M. O. 1982. “Natural Bar- 1990. “Directional-Wave Measurements with NDBC 3-
Bypassing of Sand at a Tidal Inlet,” Proceedings of the meter Discus Buoys,” National Oceanic and Atmospheric
18th Coastal Engineering Conference, Capetown, South

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Administration, National Data Buoy Center, Stennis Space Vemulakonda, S. R., and Scheffner, N. W. 1987.
Center, MS. “Application of CIP Modeling System to St. Mary’s Inlet,
Florida,” Proceedings Coastal Sediments ’87, American
Swift, D. J. P. 1976. “Coastal Sedimentation,” Marine Society of Civil Engineers, Vol I, pp 616-631.
Sediment Transport and Environment Management, D. J.
Stanley and D. J. P. Swift, eds., John Wiley, New York, Vemulakonda, S. R., et al. 1985. “Coastal and Inlet
pp 255-310. Processes Numerical Modeling System for Oregon Inlet,
North Carolina,” Technical Report CERC-85-6,
Thompson, J. F. 1985. “A Boundary-Fitted Coordinate U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
Code for General Two-Dimensional Regions with Obsta- Vicksburg, MS.
cles and Boundary Intrusion,” Technical Report E-83-8,
U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vemulakonda, S. R., et al. 1988. “Kings Bay Coastal
Vicksburg, MS. Processes Numerical Model,” Technical Report CERC-88-
3, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
Tye, R. S. 1984. “Geomorphic Evolution and Stratigra- Vicksburg, MS.
phy of Price and Capers Inlets, South Carolina,” Sedimen-
tology, Vol 31, pp 655-674. Vemulakonda, S. R., Houston, J. R., and Swain, A. 1989.
“Development and Application of Coastal and Inlet
Tye, R. S., and Moslow, T. F. “Tidal Inlet Reservoirs: Processes Numerical Modeling System,” Hydrodynamics
Insights from Analysis of Modern Examples,” Marine and Sediment Dynamics of Tidal Inlets, D. G. Aubrey and
Clastic Reservoirs, E. G. Rhodes and T. F. Moslow, eds., L. L. Weishar, eds., Springer-Verlag, NY, pp 54-70.
in preparation, Springer-Verlag, New York.
Vincent, C. L., and Corson, W. D. 1980. “The Geometry
Trawle, M. J., and Herbich, J. B. 1980. “Prediction of of Selected U.S. Tidal Inlets,” GITI Report No. 19,
Shoaling Rates in Offshore Navigation Channels,” COE Coastal Engineering Research Center, U.S. Army Engi-
Report, Department of Civil Engineering, Texas A&M neer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
University, College Station, TX.
Vincente, C. M., and Uva., L. P. 1984. “Sedimentation
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(Shallowbag) Bay, North Carolina, General Design Mem- Rates,” Proceedings, 19th International Coastal Engineer-
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Houston, TX.
U.S. Army Engineer District, Wilmington. 1990. “More-
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Environmental Assessment,” Wilmington, NC. Solution to Inlet Equation with Inertia,” Proc. Paper
16414, Journal of the Waterway, Port, Coastal and Ocean
Van de Kreeke, J. 1967. “Water Level Fluctuations and Division, ASCE, Vol 105, No. WW4, pp 191-195.
Flows in Tidal Inlets,” Journal Waterways, Harbors, and
Coastal Engineering Division, American Society of Civil Watt, D. A. 1905. “Notes on the Improvement of River
Engineers, Vol 93(WW4), pp 97-106. and Harbor Outlets in the United States,” Transactions,
American Society of Civil Engineers, Vol 55, pp 288-305.
Van de Kreeke, J. 1988. “Hydrodynamics of Tidal
Inlets,” Hydrodynamics and Sediment Dynamics of Tidal Weggel, J. R. 1981. “Weir Sand-bypassing Systems,”
Inlets, D. G. Aubrey and L. L. Weishar, eds., Springer- Special Report No. 8, Coastal Engineering Research Cen-
Verlag, NY, pp 1-21. ter, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experiment Station,
Vicksburg, MS, pp 5-11, 5-18.
Vemulakonda, S. R., Chou, L. W., and Hall, R. W. 1991.
“Los Angeles and Long Beach Harbors Additional Plan Weishar, L. L. 1988. “A Study of Inlet Hydraulics at
Testing, Numerical Modeling of Tidal Circulation in Green Harbor, Marshfield, Massachusetts,” Miscellaneous
Water Quality,” Technical Report CERC-91-2, U.S. Army Paper CERC-88-10, U.S. Army Engineer Waterways
Engineer Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS. Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.

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White, T. 1994. “Field Tests of Radiation-Stress Wright, L. D., Sonu, C. J., and Kielhorn, W. V. 1972.
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Japan.

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Appendix B hi Depth of ith channel segment

Notation
i Inlet channel segment number (from 1 to m)
aB Bay tidal amplitude
ken Entrance loss coefficient
ao Ocean tidal amplitude
kex Exit loss coefficient
a^ B Dimensionless bay tidal amplitude
K Keulegan’s repletion coefficient
A Cross-sectional area of the channel
L Representative length
AB Bay surface area
Lc Channel length
Ac Channel cross-sectional area
Lh Horizontal length ratio
Ac* Critical cross-sectional area
Lr Model-prototype length ratio used for scaling
ACE Cross-sectional area of throat
Lv Vertical length ratio
Ai Cross-sectional area of ith channel segment
m Total number of channel segments
C Chezy bed resistance coefficient
M Total annual littoral drift
Ca Sediment concentration in the bed layer
Mmean Average rate of longshore transport
Ch Concentration of suspended sediment at a
n Manning’s bed resistance coefficient
distance h above the bed
p Pressure
CK Coefficient accounting for nonsinusoidal variation
of current
p Coefficient in channel width-depth relationship
d Depth
P Tidal prism
E Elasticity
q Exponent in channel width-depth relationship
F Impedance
Q Discharge through channel
Fe Force due to elasticity
Qb Bed-load transport rate
Fg Force due to gravity
Qd Rate of sediment deposition per unit width of
channel
Fi Inertial force
Qf Freshwater discharge from upstream sources
Fpr Force due to pressure
Qm Maximum discharge through channel
Fst Force due to surface tension
Qmax Maximum discharge to inlet
Fµ Force due to viscosity
Qs Total suspended load on the updrift side of the
g Acceleration due to gravity
channel
hc Mean channel depth

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Qs1 Rate of transport of suspended load reaching the β Dimensionless dissipation coefficient
channel
β Stability index
Qs2 Transport rate across the channel
γ Kinematic viscosity
r Ratio of transport rate to inlet discharge used to
characterize bypassing ε Lag of slack water after high or low water in the
ocean
S Bay storage volume
η Instantaneous water surface elevation relative to
t Time mean water level

Tr Time ratio ηB Instantaneous water surface elevation in the bay

u Current velocity in channel ηo Instantaneous water surface elevation in the ocean

um Maximum current velocity in channel λ Stability index

u^ m Dimensionless maximum channel velocity µ Dynamic viscosity

V Current velocity in channel ν Dimensionless maximum velocity

Vmax Maximum channel velocity νE Equilibrium value of ν

V’max Dimensionless maximum channel velocity ρ Density

VT Threshold velocity for sand transport σ Surface tension

Wc Width at inlet throat σ Tidal frequency

α Dimensionless tidal frequency τ Angular measure of the lag of slack water in the
channel after midtide in the ocean
α1 Coefficient in relationship between C and Ac
Ω Tidal prism
α2 Coefficient in relationship between C and Ac

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Appendix C four specific areas; model materials evaluation,

Summary of General Investigation of movable-bed modeling evaluation, reanalysis of a previous
inlet model study, and prototype inlet studies.
Tidal Inlets (GITI) Program Reports
C-3. Report Summaries

C-1. Purpose and Scope The following are short summaries of each GITI report in
numerical order. Names of authors and date of publica-
In 1969, the General Investigation of Tidal Inlets (GITI) tion are noted at the end of the summary. Portions of the
Program was initiated under the technical surveillance of summaries have been reproduced from abstracts published
the U.S. Army Coastal Engineering Research Center with the original reports.
(CERC). The GITI Program was established to conduct
research into the behavior and characteristics of tidal GITI Report 1:1 Reanalysis of Beach Erosion Board
inlets and to provide quantitative data for use in design of Technical Memorandum No. 94
inlets and inlet improvements. Research was conducted
by CERC, the U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experi- In the 1950’s, the U.S. Army Beach Erosion Board
ment Station’s Hydraulics Laboratory, other Government (BEB)2 and the U.S. Army Engineer Waterways Experi-
agencies, and private organizations. This appendix ment Station conducted a series of small-scale model tests
describes the GITI research program and presents a brief to evaluate the impact of an unimproved inlet on adjacent
summary of each report published under the program. beaches. Test results from six of the eight tests were
reported in BEB Technical Memorandum No. 94. A
C-2. Research Objectives and Design reanalysis of the data, performed under the GITI Program,
was originally intended to be the first publication in the
The GITI Program was divided into three major study GITI series; however, publication was delayed and the
areas; inlet classification, inlet hydraulics, and inlet report eventually was distributed as a miscellaneous paper
dynamics. A total of 22 reports have been published as by the Hydraulics Laboratory. Reanalysis indicated that
part of the GITI series; five related to classification, nine the area of the model inlet channel was related to the tidal
on hydraulic studies, and eight on dynamic studies. prism, but the relationship was different from that previ-
ously determined by O’Brien for prototype inlets. The
a. Inlet classification. The objective of the inlet reanalysis also showed that the minimum channel area
classification study was to group inlets according to their was approximately 80 percent of the average channel
geometry, hydraulics, and stability. Early efforts were area. The Keulegan method was found to be an effective
designed to produce three independent classifications. tool for predicting model inlet behavior. TM 94 is
Plans for future research involved efforts to interrelate the included in its entirety as Appendix A for the benefit of
three separate classifications and investigate reasons for those without access to the original report. All data,
correspondence between well-defined classifications. This including those from tests not described in the original
aspect of the study involved collection of large data sets report, are also provided in appendices. [E. C. McNair,
on the physical characteristics of numerous tidal inlets. 1987]

b. Inlet hydraulics. Objectives of the inlet hydraulics GITI Report 2: Catalog of Tidal Inlet Aerial
study were to define tide-generated flow regime and water Photography
level fluctuations in the vicinity of coastal inlets and to
develop techniques for predicting these phenomena. The This catalog of inlet aerial photography covers inlets on
inlet hydraulics study was subdivided into three areas; the Pacific, Atlantic, and Gulf coasts and was designed to
idealized inlet modeling, evaluation of state-of-the-art be an information source for studies of inlet geomorphol-
physical and numerical models, and prototype inlet ogy and stability. Data from approximately 6,000 inlet
hydraulics. overflights dating from 1938 to 1974 (including date,

c. Inlet dynamics. Basic objectives of the inlet _____________________________

dynamics study were to investigate the interactions of 1
Published as Miscellaneous Paper HL-87-1.
tidal flow, inlet configuration, and wave action at inlets as 2
The Beach Erosion Board is now the Coastal Engineer-
a guide to improvement of inlet channels and nearby ing Research Center (CERC), U.S. Army Engineer Water-
shore protection works. The study was subdivided into ways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.

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source agency, project name, exposure numbers, scale, These notes were originally intended only to help a gradu-
and film type) are presented in tables and indexed accord- ate student formulate a research project; however, it was
ing to Corps of Engineer District Office. Exposures for believed that they could serve as a valuable addition to
individual date listings are the minimum number neces- the GITI publication series and would stimulate further
sary to cover the inlet throat and in most cases, are suffi- inlet research. [M. P. O’Brien, 1976]
cient to identify all associated tidal delta complexes.
[J. H. Barwis, 1975] GITI Report 6: Comparison of Numerical and Physical
Models, Masonboro Inlet, North Carolina
GITI Report 3: Tidal Prism-Inlet Area Relationships
GITI Report 6 presents an evaluation of existing inlet
This report was a secondary result of research conducted modeling techniques performed by calibrating a physical
as part of the inlet classification study. During an investi- model and three numerical models with prototype data
gation of the variation in the Keulegan repletion coeffi- from Masonboro Inlet. Model verification was not con-
cient with variations in inlet geomorphology, new tidal ducted since no additional prototype data were available.
prism data were generated. The opportunity was then A distorted scale fixed-bed physical model, a lumped
taken to reexamine relationships originally developed by parameter numerical model, and two two-dimensional
O’Brien between tidal prism (P) and inlet cross-sectional numerical models were included in the study. To extend
area (A). A total of 162 data points, representing the model comparison, the two-dimensional, shallow-
108 inlets along the Atlantic, Pacific, and Gulf coasts, water hydrodynamic equations were derived from the
were included in the analysis. Data were grouped into Navier-Stokes equations and the physical interpretation
three categories according to number of jetties and then and significance of each term were discussed. Study
further divided based on location (Atlantic, Pacific, or results indicated that the four models more accurately
Gulf coast). Regression analysis was performed on each simulated tidal height than tidal current. It was concluded
data set to determine best fit relationships. Results that physical models provide more reliable predictions
yielded equations of the form A = CPn, where C and n are than numerical models of the effect of small-scale
constants. It was determined that unjettied and single- phenomena. On the other hand, numerical models can
jettied inlets on the three coasts do exhibit different P provide better predictions of the effects of the earth’s
versus A relationships as a result of the different tidal and rotation, wind stress, and pressure gradients. Reports on
wave characteristics of the three coasts. For jettied inlets, each of the four models investigated were published as
it was concluded that no modification of O’Brien’s P separate appendixes to the main report. [D. L. Harris and
versus A relationship was warranted by the additional B. R. Bodine, 1977, Main text and Appendices 1-4]
data. [J. T. Jarrett, 1976]
GITI Report 7: Model Materials Evaluation; Sand Tests;
GITI Report 4: Annotated Bibliography on the Geologic, Hydraulic Laboratory Investigation
Hydrologic, and Engineering Aspects of Tidal Inlets
A recognized need in making movable-bed inlet modeling
This report contains citations for approximately a precise science was a better understanding of the model
1,000 published and unpublished documents on geologic relationships between the fluid motions, sediment, and
and engineering aspects of tidal inlets. References were resulting inlet characteristics. This report summarizes a
collected during a literature survey made as background series of 21 laboratory tests conducted in a partitioned
for the inlet classification aspect of the investigation and flume with a 40-ft-long test section of beach including an
include reports on tidal hydraulics, inlet structures, littoral inlet. Since stable and definable flow conditions were
processes, inlet stratigraphy and geologic history, coastal considered essential for the tests, a series of steady unidi-
aerial photography, and inlet case studies. References are rectional flows was substituted for cyclic tidally induced
listed alphabetically by last name of the senior author and flows. Tests consisted of various steady discharges
a cross-referenced subject index is provided. [J. H. through the inlet with and without waves acting on the
Barwis, 1976] seaward end of the channel. Surveys of the inlet were
taken periodically to evaluate changes in channel geome-
GITI Report 5: Notes on Tidal Inlets on Sandy Shores try. Tests indicated that minimum channel area, channel
width, and the hydraulic radius were strongly related to
This report presents an edited collection of observations rate of flow through the channel. The ability to scale
and theories on several aspects of tidal inlets prepared by channel geometry was demonstrated; however, it was
M. P. O’Brien during 40 years of inlet-related work. determined that scaling relations for material transport

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required further investigation. The report also presents general reconnaissance of the inlet area, beach profile
specific recommendations for improved test procedures surveys, bathymetric mapping, tidal elevation and current
for future model material studies. [E. C. McNair, 1976] velocity measurements, and aerial photography. The
importance of seasonal variation in processes was empha-
GITI Report 8: Hydraulics and Dynamics of New Corpus sized by significant differences in wave parameters, short-
Christi Pass, Texas: A Case History, 1972 - 1973 term morphologic response, and tidal parameters. [R. J.
Finley, 1977]
Corpus Christi Water Exchange Pass extends from Corpus
Christi Bay to the Gulf of Mexico through Mustang GITI Report 11: Laboratory Investigation of Tidal Inlets
Island, Texas. Studies of sedimentation and hydraulics of on Sandy Coasts
the pass began with its opening in 1972 and continued
through 1975. This report presents data on the initial This report is based on a series of 36 experiments con-
adjustment (1 year) of the pass to tides, waves, and other ducted at the Hydraulic Engineering Laboratory at the
forces. It was estimated that approximately 1 million yd3 University of California, Berkeley. Experiments were
of sand accumulated at the pass during construction of the performed in an idealized movable-bed tidal inlet model
two jetties. Downdrift beaches exhibited considerable for a variety of geometric characteristics. Sinusoidal tides
sand loss and extensive shoal deposits formed near the and model waves were run until a periodic tide was estab-
bay end of the pass. Average discharge through the pass lished in the bay. Measured parameters included cross-
was only about 3 percent of the total tidal prism, indicat- sectional area; water surface elevations of the ocean, bay,
ing that Aransas Pass to the north was the primary bay- and inlet; and inlet velocities. Results indicated that two
gulf connection and that the creation of Corpus Christi techniques accurately predicted idealized inlet hydraulics;
Pass had no significant effect on flushing of the bay. Keulegan’s repletion coefficient technique, and the
Work on this research was conducted by the University of lumped parameter method which extends the Keulegan
Texas Marine Science Institute. [E. W. Behrens, R. L. method by considering inertia and variable inlet geometry.
Watson, and C. Mason, 1977] Experimental data are presented in tables, photographs,
and plots. Comparisons of tidal prisms and minimum
GITI Report 9: Hydraulics and Dynamics of New Corpus flow areas between laboratory results and field data are
Christi Pass, Texas: A Case History, 1973 - 1975 also presented. [R. E. Mayor-Mora, 1977]

Data obtained during the second phase (1973-1975) of a GITI Report 12: A Case History of Port Mansfield Chan-
field study of Corpus Christi Water Exchange Pass are nel, Texas
presented in this report. Qualitative and quantitative data
on longshore sediment transport, tidal differentials, flood This report documents the hydraulic and sedimentary
and ebb tidal discharge, wind waves, and local winds characteristics of Port Mansfield Channel and presents an
provided information on both the long- and short-term evaluation of its behavior from construction in 1962 to
stability of the pass and on the processes affecting the 1975. The channel is an artificial, jettied inlet on the
dynamics of the pass and adjacent beaches. It was deter- Texas coast connecting the Gulf of Mexico with Laguna
mined that the flood dominant nature of the system, Madre. Seaward migration of the updrift shoreline and
together with a long channel, required that most sediment shoaling in the entrance channel suggested that material
entering the channel be carried through its entire length to was bypassing the jetty. Significant annual dredging was
be deposited on the flood-tidal delta if the pass was to necessary to maintain design channel dimensions. Predic-
remain open. Results of stability analyses suggested that tions of stability using relationships developed by
the pass was of marginal stability with a tendency toward Escoffier, O’Brien, and Bruun and Gerritsen were found
closure. [R. L. Watson and E. W. Behrens, 1976] to predict the unstable nature of the inlet. Keulegan’s
repletion coefficient was calculated to investigate the
GITI Report 10: Hydraulics and Dynamics of North hydraulic capacity of the channel; a value of 0.57 indi-
Inlet, South Carolina, 1974 - 1975 cated that infilling of the bay would be incomplete. It
was also determined that channel velocities were not
This report presents results of the first phase of a field sufficient to cause natural scour and maintain the design
study to define the hydraulics and dynamics of North cross-sectional area. The instability of the inlet was
Inlet, South Carolina. Field work was conducted quar- attributed to the large head loss due to friction in the
terly to characterize seasonal variations and included a extremely long channel. [J. M. Kieslich, 1977]

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GITI Report 13: Hydraulics and Stability of Tidal Inlets GITI Report 16: Hydraulics and Dynamics of North
Inlet, South Carolina
Classic inlet hydraulic and stability work by Brown,
O’Brien, Escoffier, Bruun, Keulegan, O’Brien and Dean, This report presents results of the second phase of a field
Johnson, and Jarrett is summarized in this report. The study to define the hydraulics and dynamics of North
original stability concept is extended and functional design Inlet, South Carolina. Detailed bathymetric profiling of
requirements are discussed. In addition, case studies of the inlet throat and channels and topographic mapping of
Masonboro Inlet, North Carolina, Rollover Fish Pass, subaerial, intertidal, and shallow subtidal zones were used
Texas, and Mission Bay Inlet, California, are presented. to define the seasonal morphologic variability of the inlet
[F. F. Escoffier, 1977] and adjacent beaches. Wave and tidal data provided basic
information on wave conditions and inlet hydraulic char-
GITI Report 14: A Spatially Integrated Numerical Model acteristics and were correlated with observed bathymetric
of Inlet Hydraulics changes. Results presented in this report suggested that
North Inlet was hydraulically ebb dominated; peak ebb
This report discusses development of a simple numerical velocity exceeded peak flood by a factor of 1.22. In a
model for the prediction of inlet channel velocities and multiple stepwise regression analysis, the longshore com-
discharge as well as resulting bay surface level fluctu- ponent of wind velocity was found to explain more of the
ations for inlets responding to the tide and other long variance in the observed longshore current velocity than
wave oscillations. The model simultaneously solves the any other measured parameter. [D. Nummedal and S. M.
area-averaged momentum equation for the inlet and the Humphries, 1978]
continuity equation for the bay. The bay surface elevation
is assumed to remain horizontal during rise and fall. At GITI Report 17: An Evaluation of Movable-Bed Tidal
each time-step, the geometric and hydraulic factors Inlet Models
describing the inlet-bay system are calculated by evaluat-
ing flow conditions throughout the inlet and by spatially The objectives of this study were to evaluate the effec-
integrating this information to determine coefficients of tiveness of movable-bed tidal inlet hydraulic models in
the first-order differential equations. The model was predicting prototype behavior and to examine the scaling
determined to be flexible and to give realistic estimates of requirements for such models. Seven model studies,
inlet-bay hydraulics. [W. N. Seelig, D. L. Harris, and conducted at WES between 1939 and 1969, were evalu-
B. E. Herchenroder, 1977] ated. Calibrations of five of the models, as measured by
bed topography changes, were evaluated using correlation
GITI Report 15: Physical Model Simulation of the coefficients and root-mean-square (rms) error. Due in
Hydraulics of Masonboro Inlet, North Carolina part to inadequate prototype data, acceptable model per-
formance was not always achieved; values of correlation
This report is the first of two publications presenting coefficients were typically low and those of rms error
detailed results of the Masonboro Inlet fixed-bed model high. A literature review was also performed to deter-
study. The model study was conducted to determine the mine the present understanding of and practice concerning
ability of existing physical modeling techniques to simu- similitude requirements for movable-bed coastal models.
late hydraulic characteristics of an inlet-bay system and to Major capabilities and limitations of movable-bed inlet
determine whether simple tests could be useful in predict- models are discussed and an assessment of the general
ing the effects of proposed inlet improvements. This conditions and similitude requirements under which inlet
report presents model verification and prediction data as models may be expected to yield reliable results are out-
well as analyses concerning the effects of waves on model lined. The study was conducted at the Iowa Institute of
hydraulics. Five velocity ranges with three stations at Hydraulic Research, The University of Iowa. [S. J. Jain
each range were verified in the model; seven tidal eleva- and J. F. Kennedy, 1979]
tion gauges in the ocean and bay were also verified.
Model predictions of filling of the dredged navigation GITI Report 18: Supplementary Tests of Masonboro Inlet
channel and deposition basin, and a tendency for the Fixed-Bed Model
channel to shift toward the north jetty were substantiated
by comparison with prototype data. [R. A. Sager and This report is the second concerned with testing in the
W. C. Seabergh, 1977] Masonboro Inlet fixed-bed physical model and describes

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three separate supplemental test series. The first study (morphologic) characteristics. Characteristics of the inlet
examined the effects of closing various bay channels on throat and ebb delta of 67 U.S. tidal inlets were
inlet hydraulics. The second investigated the effects of investigated. Thirteen parameters indicative of tidal
adding a south jetty to the existing project, which had a geometry were defined and measured with correlations
single north jetty, and included an evaluation of the result- developed. The parameters are shown to vary in a consis-
ing hydraulics for various weir configurations on both tent fashion that appears to be scaled according to the
jetties. The third study involved sediment tracer testing relative magnitude of tidal processes. Results of both
under the action of tides and wind waves and was cluster analysis and discriminate analysis indicate the
designed to evaluate the effectiveness of using tracer presence of at least six well-defined clusters or types of
materials in inlet model studies. Results indicated that the inlets based on geometry. The classification provides a
closure of any of the three interior channels in Masonboro systematic organization of inlet morphology that is related
Inlet produced a significant change in inlet hydraulics and to deviations from the basic scaling relationship probably
morphology. Weir jetty testing indicated the effect of a due to the influence of wave action. The report contains
south jetty was to centralize flood flow through the inlet substantial amounts of inlet morphologic data obtained
gorge, and the presence of a weir on the south jetty did from aerial photographs and boat sheets that may be
not alter the basic flow pattern. Tracer experiments applicable to site-specific studies. [C. L. Vincent and
showed that short-term fill and scour trends could be W. D. Corson, 1980]
predicted qualitatively; however, major changes in bathy-
metry preclude quantitative long-range predictions. GITI Report 21: Stability of Selected U.S. Tidal Inlets
[W. C. Seabergh and R. A. Sager, 1980]
This report presents a study of tidal inlet stability based
GITI Report 19: Tidal Inlet Response to Jetty on changes in geomorphic parameters measured from
Construction aerial photographs. A total of 51 inlets were selected for
study, representing the range of inlets along U.S. coasts.
During an evaluation of inlet models, a similarity in chan- Years of photographic coverage include 1938 through
nel and beach response to jetty construction at Tillamook 1976. Hydraulic and geographic (positional) stability
Bay, Oregon, and Masonboro Inlet, North Carolina, was parameters were defined, measured, and used to create
noted. An effort was then undertaken to determine if the four stability indices describing the relative variation of
response pattern exhibited by these two inlets was typical principal aspects in which inlets can be expected to
of other inlets on U.S. coasts. This report presents results change in time. A single parameter was devised to indi-
of that investigation. Thirteen tidal inlets located on the cate hydraulic stability and another for positional stability.
Atlantic, Gulf, and Pacific coasts of the continental United Arbitrary stability limits were then selected and all inlets
States were selected for study. Inlet entrance behavior classified as stable or unstable. Regional patterns of inlet
following jetty construction was evaluated, and guidelines stability were also investigated; however, no strong corre-
for the functional design of inlet entrance improvements lation was found. Data presented in this report will be
are suggested. Inlets considered in the study were those valuable in future studies of relationships between inlet
where a single updrift or downdrift jetty was built first. geomorphic changes and appropriate hydraulic parameters.
The construction of single jetties resulted in migration of [C. L. Vincent, W. D. Corson, and K. J. Gingerich, 1991]
the channel thalweg toward the jetty regardless of the
inlet-bay orientation, angle of the jetty to the shoreline, GITI Report 22: Evaluation of Physical and
position of the jetty relative to the direction of net long- Numerical Hydraulic Models, Masonboro Inlet, North
shore transport, the ratio of net-to-gross transport, or the Carolina
gross transport. Accretion of the updrift shoreline, ero-
sion of the downdrift shoreline, and a decrease in channel GITI Report 22 is the last in a series of documents
cross-sectional area typically followed construction of an describing the calibration and verification of the physical
updrift jetty. Sufficient data were not available to gener- model and several numerical models of Masonboro Inlet.
alize response following construction of a downdrift jetty. This report presents a comparison of the predictions of a
[J. M. Kieslich, 1981] fixed-bed, distorted-scale physical model, a two-
dimensional, vertically integrated numerical model, and a
GITI Report 20: Geometry of Selected U.S. Tidal Inlets spatially integrated numerical model with a set of July
1974 prototype data. Both the physical model and the
This report presents a classification of inlets based on two-dimensional model reproduced measured tidal records
objective analysis of similarities between inlet geometric and vertically averaged velocities equally well.

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EM 1110-2-1618
28 Apr 95

Predictions from the two models and the prototype data models; however, it did not predict the average bay levels
were averaged for comparison with the spatially integrated as well. In addition, the author presents possible ways to
model. The spatially integrated model predicted mean improve results of each of the three models. [J. E.
inlet velocities significantly better than the other two McTamany, 1982]

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 EM 1110-2-1618
28 Apr 95

Appendix D
Acknowledgement

Table D-1
Authorship and Review of EM 1110-2-1618, “Coastal Inlet Hydraulics and Sedimentation”

Chapter Authors Reviewers* Chapter Authors Reviewers*

1 Lee L. Weishar1 Thomas Bender7 6 William Seabergh6 D. D. Davidson6

Kathryn J. Gingerich2 Leslie M. Fields1 John H. Lockhart, Jr.8
John H. Lockhart, Jr.8 Dennis G. Markle6
Thomas F. Moslow3
7 S. Rao Vemulakonda6 H. Lee Butler6
3 5
2 Thomas F. Moslow Mark R. Byrnes Mary A. Cialone6
Kathryn J. Gingerich2 Leslie M. Fields1 Bruce A. Ebersole6
John H. Lockhart, Jr.8 John H. Lockhart, Jr.8
Donald Stauble6 David J. Mark6

3 Jerry Machemehl4 W. Sam Corson6 8 Andrew Morang6 Nicholas C. Kraus10

Kathryn J. Gingerich2 John H. Lockhart, Jr.8 Julie D. Rosati6 W. Jeff Lillycrop6
Thomas F. Moslow3 John H. Lockhart, Jr.8
Lee L. Weishar1 Jane M. Smith6

4 Mark R. Byrnes5 Monica A. Chasten9 Appendices Kathryn J. Gingerich2 John H. Lockhart, Jr.8
Lee L. Weishar1 Kathryn J. Gingerich2 Julie D. Rosati6
Leslie M. Fields1
John H. Lockhart, Jr.8
Thomas F. Moslow3

5 Yen-Hsi Chu6 James E. Clausner6

John H. Lockhart, Jr.8
Joan Pope6
Lee L. Weishar1

Affiliation:
*
Reviewers are listed alphabetically.
1
Aubrey Consultants, Falmouth, MA.
2
Formerly Coastal Engineering Research Center, USAE Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, presently COASTEC, Inc.,
Baton Rouge, LA.
3
University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada.
4
Deceased, formerly Texas A&M University, College Station, TX.
5
Coastal Studies Institute, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA.
6
Coastal Engineering Research Center, USAE Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS.
7
U.S. Army Engineer District, Buffalo, Buffalo, NY.
8
Headquarters, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Washington, DC.
9
Formerly Coastal Engineering Research Center, USAE Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, presently U.S. Army
Engineer District, Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA.
10
Formerly Coastal Engineering Research Center, USAE Waterways Experiment Station, Vicksburg, MS, presently Conrad Blucher
Institute for Surveying and Science, Texas A&M University, Corpus Christi, TX.

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