Group
Group
Group
1 INTRODUCTION
2 GROUP FUNDAMENTALS
2.1 Groups and Subgroups . . .
2.1.1 Definition . . . . . .
2.1.2 Example . . . . . . .
2.1.3 Definition . . . . . .
2.1.4 Definition . . . . . .
2.1.5 Definition . . . . . .
2.1.6 Definition . . . . . .
2.1.7 Definition . . . . . .
2.1.8 Definition . . . . . .
2.1.9 Definition . . . . . .
2.1.10 Definition . . . . . .
2.1.11 Definition . . . . . .
2.2 Permutation Groups . . . .
2.2.1 definition . . . . . .
2.2.2 Definition . . . . . .
2.3 Cayleys Theorem . . . . . .
2.3.1 Theorem (Cayley) . .
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10
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13
14
3.1.6
3.1.7
3.1.8
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
4 ISOTROPY SUBGROUPS
4.1 Definition . . . . . . . . .
4.1.1 Example . . . . . .
4.1.2 Theorem . . . . . .
4.1.3 Definition . . . . .
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17
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18
5 ORBITS
5.1 Theorem . . . .
5.2 Definition . . .
5.2.1 Theorem
5.2.2 Example
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19
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COUNTING
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6 APPLICATIONS OF G-SETS TO
6.1 Theorem (Burnsides Formula ) .
6.1.1 Example . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.2 Example . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.3 Example . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.4 Example . . . . . . . . . .
6.1.5 Example . . . . . . . . . .
8 CONCLUSION
38
9 REFERENCES
40
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
In algebra and geometry a group action is a way of describing symmetries of objects using groups.The essential elements
of the objects are described by the symmetry group of this set
,which consists of bijective transformation of set.In this case,the
group is also called a permutation group (especially if set is finite or not a vector space) or transformation groups.A group
actions is an extention to the definition of a symmetry group in
which every element of the group acts like a bijective transformation (orsymmetry) of the set ,without being identified
with that transformation.This allows for more comprehensive
description of the symmetries of an object,such as a polyhedron
by allowing the same group to act on several different sets of
features such as the set of vetices ,the set of edges and the set
of faces of the polyhedron.
Historically,the first group action studied was the action of
the Galois group on roots of polynomial.However ,there are
numerous examples and applications of group action in many
branches of mathematics ,including algebra,topology geometry
,number theory and analysis as well as the science including
3
Here the outline of sections .In section 1 we will discuss Fundamentals of Groups and definition of Sub groups ,section 2 discuss the Group Action on Set ,section 3 describes the isotropy
subgroups with some examples,section 4 describes Orbits and
an important theorem,section 5 describes Applications of Group
Action on a Set to Counting including the formula and some examples section 6 describes the application problems of related
Group Action and its application which may help you to see
the real beauty of group action on a set.
Chapter 2
GROUP FUNDAMENTALS
This chapter define some fundamental idea about groups and
subgroups and also giving some examples of them
2.1
2.1.1
Example
2.1.3
Definition
A non empty set S with one or more than one binary operations
is called a mathematical system or(algebraic system) and if (?)is
a binary operation on S,then we say that (S, ?) is a mathematical system
2.1.4
Definition
Definition
Definition
than 1.
There are some very familiar examples of abelian groups under addition,namely the integers Z,rationals Q,the real numbers
R,the complex numbers C,and the integers Zm modulo m
2.1.7
Definition
A subgroup H is a non empty subset of G that forms a group under the binary operations of G ,Equivalently ,H is a non empty
subset of G such that if a and b belongs to H.so does ab1 .
If A is any subset of group G,the subgroup generated by A is the
smallest subgroup containing A,denoted by hAi.
It is obvious that hei and G are always subgroup of group G
2.1.8
Definition
Definition
Definition
Definition
2.2
2.2.1
Permutation Groups
definition
Definition
There are several permutation groups that are of major interests.the set Sn of all the permutations of {1, 2, 3, .....n} is called
a symmetric group on n letters.The subgroup An of all even permutations {1, 2, 3, .....n} is called the aleternatimg groups on n letters
2.3
2.3.1
Cayleys Theorem
Theorem (Cayley)
Chapter 3
GROUP ACTION ON A SET
3.1
Group Action
Definition
Example
3.1.3
Theorem
11
proof
To show that g is permutation of X ,we must show that it
is a one to one map of X onto itself.
suppose that g (x1 ) = g (x2 )s for x1 , x2 X.
then
gx1 = gx2
consequently,
g 1 (gx1 ) = g 1 (gx2 )
using condition 2 in definition ,we see that
(g 1 g)x1 = (g 1 g)x2 ,
so ex1 = ex2 .
condition 1 of the definition then yields
x1 = x2
so g is a one-to-one.
the two conditions of the definition shows that for x X
we have g (g 1 x) = g(g 1 )x = (gg 1 x)S = ex = x
so g maps X onto X ,thus g is indeed a permutation,
To show that : G SX defined by (g) = g is a homomorphism,we must show that
(g1 g2 ) = (g1 )(g2 ) for all g1 g2 G
we show the equality of these two permutations in SX by showing they both carry an x X into same element.using the two
conditions in definition and rule for function composition,We
obtain
(g1 g2 )(x) = g1 g2 (x)
= (g1 g2 )x
12
= g1 (g2 x)
= g1 g2 (x)
= g1 (g2 (x))
= (g1 g2 )(x)
= ((g1 )(g2 ))(x)
Thus is a homomorphism.The stated property follows at
once since by our definitions ,we have (g)(x) = g (x) = gx.
It follows from the preceding theorem that if X Gset, then the
subset of G leaving every element of X fixed is normal subgroup
N of G , and we can regard X as a G/N -set where the action of a
coset gN on X is given by(gN )x = gx for each x X,N = {e},
then the identity element of G is the only element that leaves
every x X fixed ; we say that G acts faithfully on X.A group
G is transitive on a Gset Xif for each x1 , x2 X, there exists
g G such that gx1 = gx2 .Note that G is transitive on X if and
only if the subgroup [G] ofSX is transitive on X , as defined in
coming examples .
we continue with more examples G sets.
3.1.4
Example
13
3.1.5
Example
Let H be a subgroup of G .Then G in an H set under an conjugation where (h, g) = hgh1 for g G and h H .condition
1 is obvious , and condition 2 note that
1
(h1 h2 , g) = (h1 h2 )g(h1 h2 )1 = h1 (h2 gh1
2 )h1 = (h1 , (h2 , g))
3.1.6
Example
For students who have studied vector spaces with real (or complex) scalars , We mention that the axioms (rs)V = r(sV)
and 1V=V for scalars r and s and a vector V shows
that the set of vectors is an R? set or(C ? set) for multiplicative group of nonzero scalars.
3.1.7
Example
14
3.1.8
Example
Let G be the group D4 ={0 , 1 , 3 , 3 , 1 , 2 , 1 , 2 } of symmetries of squares .In figure show the square with vertices 1,2,3,4
as in a square .we label the sides s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 , the diagonals
d1 and d2 , vertical and horizontal axes m1 , m2 ,the center
C,and mid point Pi of sides si .Recall that i corresponds to
rotating the square counterclockwise through i/2 radians ,i
corresponds to flipping on the axis mi , and i to flipping on the
diagonal di .we let
X = {1, 2, 3, 4, s1 , s2 , s3 , s4 , m1 , m2 , d1 , d2 , C, P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 }
Then X can be regarded as a D4 set in a natural way .Table describes completely the complete action of D4 on X and is
given to provide geometric illustrations of ideas to be introduced
.
We should be sure that we understand how this table is formed
before continuing.
15
16
Chapter 4
ISOTROPY SUBGROUPS
4.1
Definition
Example
X1
X0 = X
X1 = {C}
= {s1 , s3 , m1 , m2 , C, P1 , P3 }
Also , with G = D4 ,
17
G1 = {0 , 2 }
Gs3 = {0 , 1 }
Gd1 = {0 , 2 , 1 , 2 }
We have the computation of the other X
lem section.
GX to in the prob-
Theorem
Definition
18
Chapter 5
ORBITS
For the D4 set X in the example of group action on a set
with the action table ,the elements in the subset {1, 2, 3, 4} are
carried into elements of this same subset under action by D4
.Further more ,each element 1,2,3 and 4 is carried in to all the
other elements of the subset by the various elements of D4 .We
proceed to show that every G set X can be partitioned into
subsets of this types
5.1
Theorem
for some g1 g2 G .
Then (g2 g1 )x1 = g2 (g1 x1 ) = g2 x2 = x3 ,so x1 x3 and is transitive
5.2
Definition
Let X be a Gset .Each cell in the partition of equivalence relation described in the above theorem is an orbit in X under G
if x X ,the cell containing x is the orbit of x .we let this cell
be GX .
The relationship between the orbits in X and the group structure of G lies at the heart applications that appear in coming
chapter .The following theorem gives this relationship .Recall
that for a set X,we use |X| for the number of elements , and
(G : H) is the index of a subgroup H in group G.
5.2.1
Theorem
21
5.2.2
Example
22
Chapter 6
APPLICATIONS OF G-SETS
TO COUNTING
This section present an application of our work with G set
to counting.suppose for example, ,we wish to count how many
distinguishable ways the six faces of a cube can be marked with
from one to six dots to form a die .The standard die is marked
so that when placed on a table with 1 on the bottom and the
2 toward front ,the 6 is on top ,the 3 on the left,4 on the right
,and the 5 on the back . of course , other ways of marking the
cube to give a distinguishably different die are possible.
The following theorem gives a tool for determining the number of orbits in a G set X under G.Recall that for each
g G we let Xg be the set of elements of X left fixed by g ,so
thatXg = {x X|gx = x}.Recall also that for each x X,we
let GX = {g G|gx = x} , and GX is the orbit of x under G.s
24
6.1
|Xg |
(6.1)
gG
proof
We consider all pairs (g, x) where gx = x , and let N be the
number of such pairs.For each g G, there are |Xg | pairs having g as first member .Thus,
N=
|Xg |
(6.2)
gG
On the other hand ,for each x X there are |Gx | pairs having
x as second member .thus also we have
N=
X
xX
25
|Gx |
(6.3)
X
xX
X
|G|
1
= |G|(
)
|Gx |
xX |Gx |
(6.4)
Now 1/|Gx has the same value for all x in the same orbit ,and
if we let % be any orbit, then
X 1
1
=
=1
x% |%|
x% |Gx |
X
(6.5)
of
orbits in X
under
G) = |G|.r
(6.6)
corollary
26
The proof of this corollary follows immediately from the preceding theorem
Let us continue our computation of the number of distinguishable dice as our first example
6.1.1
Example
the front face there are 3.2.1 possibilities for the remaining three
side faces.Thus there are 5.3.2.1=30 possibilities in all.
6.1.2
Example
Example
28
1
(number of orbits)= 14
.7! = 360
6.1.4
Example
(time 4 possibilities)
|X2 | = |X1 | = 16 same reason as for 1
Then
|Xg | = 64 + 4 + 4 + 16 + 16 + 16 = 120
(6.8)
gS3
Example
30
Chapter 7
APPLICATION PROBLEMS
RELATED G-SET AND
G-SET ON COUNTING
7.1
Computation
1. In this let
X = {1, 2, 3, 4, s1 , S2 , S3 , S4 , m1 , m2 d1 , d2 , C, P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 }
be the D4 set of example inthe sectiongroup action on set
with the action table .find the following were G = D4
31
a)
X0 = X
X1 = {C}
X2 = {1 , 2 , d1 , d2 , C}
X3 = {C}
X1 = {1 , 2 , m1 , m2 , C, P1 , P3 }
X2 = {2 , 4 , m1 , m2 , C, P2 , P4 }
X1 = {2, 4, d1 , d2 , C}
X2 = {1, 3d1 , d2 , C}
b)
G1 = G3 = {0 , 2 }
G2 = G4 = {0 , 1 }
Gs1 = Gs3 = {0 , 1 }
Gs2 = Gs4 = {0 , 2 }
Gm1 = Gm2 = {0 , 2 , 1 , 2 }
Gd1 = Gd2 = {0 , 2 , 1 , 2 }
GC = G, GP1 = GP3 = {0 , 1 }, GP2 = GP4 = {0 , 2 }
G1 = G2 = G3 = G4 = {1, 2, 3, 4}, Gs1 = Gs2 = Gs3 =
Gs4 1 = {s1 , s2 , s3 , s3 }, G1 = G2 = {m1 , m2 }, Gd1 = Gd2 =
{d1 , d2 }, GC = {C}, GP1 = GP2 =, GP3 = GP4 =
{P1 , P2 , P3 , P4 }
2. Find the number of orbits in {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8} under the
cyclic subgroup < (1, 3, 5, 6) > of S8 .
Answer
Let X = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}
We have | X1 |= 8
| X(1,3,5,6) |=| {2, 4, 7, 8} |= 4 | X(1,6,5,3) |=| {2, 4, 7, 8} |= 4
32
Therefore we have
X
| Xg |= 8 + 4 + 4 + 4 = 20
(7.1)
gG
| X1 |= 8
| X1,3 |= 6
| X2,4,7 |= 5
| X2,7,4 |= 5
| X(1,3)(2,4,7) |= 3
| X1,3)(2,4,7) |= 3
T hen
| Xg |= 8 + 6 + 5 + 5 + 3 + 3 = 30
(7.2)
gG
1
12 (24)
5. A wooden cubes of the same size are to be painted on different color on each face to make childrens blocks .How many
distinguishable blocks can be made eight colors of paint are
available?
Answer
the total number of ways such a block can be painted with
different colors on each face is 8.7.6.5.4.3 the group of rigid
motions of the cube has 24 elements .The only rigid motion leaving unchanged a block with different colors on all
faces the identity which leaves all such blocks fixed .Thus
1
the number of distinguishable block is 24
.(8.7.6.5.4.3) =
8.7.5.3 = 40.2! = 840
7.2
Concepts
1. Let X and Y be G set with the same group G .An isomorphism between G set X and Y is a map
: X Y ,that is one -one Y satisfies g((x))=(gx) for
all x X and g G The two Gset are isomorphic.If such
an isomorphism between them exists,Let x be D4 set
(a) Find two distinct orbits of X that are isomorphic
subset D4 -sets.
(b) Show that the orbits {1, 2, 3, 4} and {S1 , S2 , S3 , S4 }
are not isomorphic subD4 sets
34
7.3
Theory
Answer
Given that X is a G-set ,i.e G has an action on x x X
.G has the same actionon Y.
Therefore YX
Let y Y and g1 , g2 Gy
g1 y = y
g2 y = y
(g1 g2 )y = g1 (g2 y) =g1 y =y , y Y
Therefore g1 g2 Gy
Therefore Gy is closed under the operation we have e Y
since ey = y , y Y
Let g Gy ,then
gy = y
g (gy) = g 1 y
(g 1 g)y = g 1 y
ey = g 1 y
y = g 1 y y Y
y 1 Gy
1
Therefore Gy G
2. Let G be the additive group of real numbers .Let the action
G on the real plane R2 be given by rotating the plane
counter clockwise about the origin through radians .Let
P be a point other than the origin in the plane
(a) Show that R2 is G-s
(b) Describe geometrically the orbit containing p
(c) Find the group GP
Answer
36
37
Chapter 8
CONCLUSION
In this project we have done a deep study of group-action on
a set with many examples and its application in G-set counting
and also some problem relating .
From the study of group-action onset we reach the following conclusions :one way of thinking of G acting on X is that
elements of group .G may be applied to elements of X to give
a new elements of X .And the goal to build automorphism of
sets(permutation) by using groups.Additionally we have studied the influences of G-set on counting.Group action on a set
is an advanced topic in abstract algebra. Group action on a
set and its application give another mode of finding solution ti
problems,mainly in coloring problems,it is more understandable
than the other methods.And in daily life we use group action on
a set without knowing ourselves.
Through this project we have understand what do we mean by
group action on a set , isotropy of group and orbits with some
examples, and also we have understood the application of G-set
on counting with examples and some problems.Over all through
38
this project we get an idea about group action on a set with its
application on counting.
39
Chapter 9
REFERENCES
John B.Fraleigh -A First Course In Abstract Algebra(7th
Edition)-Pearson Education India (2008)
I.N Herstein - Topics in Algebra (2th Edition)-John Wiley and
sons (2006)
M.R Adhikari - Groups,Rings and Modules With
Applications-Universities press (India)Private Limited (2003)
P.B.Bhattacharaya,S.K.Jain,S.R.Nagapaul - Basic Abstract
Algebra(2th Edition)-Cambridge university press (1995)
en.Wikipedia.org/wiki/group
en.wikipedia.org/wiki/groupaction
www.Groupaction.com
40