Postdevelopment theory

Postdevelopment theory (also post-development, or

anti-development) holds that the whole concept and
practice of development is a reection of WesternNorthern hegemony over the rest of the world. Postdevelopment thought arose in the 1980s out of criticisms
voiced against development projects and development
theory, which justied them.

degenerate and primitive.

They point out that a new way of thinking about development began in 1949 with President Harry Truman's declaration: The old imperialismexploitation for foreign
prothas no place in our plans. What we envisage is a
program of development based on the concepts of democratic fair dealings.
While claiming that the era of development began at
this point, post development theorists do not suggest that
the concept of development was new. What was new was
the denition of development in terms of an escape from
underdevelopment. Since the latter referred to two-thirds
of the world, this meant that most societies were made to
see themselves as having fallen into the undignied condition of underdevelopment, and thus to look outside
of their own cultures for salvation.

Development as ideology

The postdevelopment critique holds that modern

development theory is a creation of academia in tandem
with an underlying political and economical ideology. The academic, political, and economic nature
of development means it tends to be policy oriented,
problem-driven, and therefore eective only in terms of Development, according to these critics, was now a euand in relation to a particular, pre-existing social theory. phemism for post-war American hegemony; it was the
The actual development projects thus initiated, by both ideals and development programs of the United States and
governments and NGOs, are directed in accordance with its (Western) European allies that would form the basis of
this development theory. Development theory itself, development everywhere else.
however, assumes a framework already set in place by
government and political culture in order to implement
it. The development process is therefore socially con3 Post-development theory
structed; Western interests are guiding its direction and
outcome, and so development itself fundamentally rePost-development theory arose in the 1980s and 1990s
ects the pattern of Western hegemony.
through the works of scholars like A. Escobar, G. EsDevelopment as an ideology and a social vision is inteva, M. Rahnema, W. Sachs, J. Ferguson, S. Latouche,
grained in the ideals of modernization, which holds westG. Rist and F. Sabelli. Leading members of the postern economic structure and society as a universal model
development school argue that development was always
for others to follow and emulate. Rooted in western
unjust, never worked, and at this point has clearly failed.
inuence, the developmental discourse reects the unAccording to Wolfgang Sachs, a leading member of the
equal power relations between the west and the rest of the
post-development school, the idea of development stands
world, whereby the western knowledge of development,
like a ruin in the intellectual landscape and it is time to
approach toward development, and conception of what
dismantle this mental structure. [1]
development entails, as well as perceptions of progress,
To cite an example of this mental structure, developdirects the course for the rest of the world.
ment theorists point out how the concept of development has resulted in the hierarchy of developed and underdeveloped nations, where the developed nations are
2 Reviewing development
seen as more advanced and superior to the underdeveloped nations that are conceived as inferior, in need of
Inuenced by Ivan Illich and other critics of colonialism help from the developed nations, and desiring to be like
and postcolonialism, a number of post-development the- the developed nations. The post-development school of
orists like Arturo Escobar and Gustavo Esteva have chal- thought points out that the models of development are oflenged the very meaning of development. According to ten ethnocentric (in this case Eurocentric), universalist,
them, the way we understand development is rooted in the and based on western models of industrialization that are
earlier colonial discourse that depicts the North as ad- unsustainable in this world of limited resources and inefvanced and progressive, and the South as backward, fective for their ignorance of the local, cultural and his1

3 POST-DEVELOPMENT THEORY

torical contexts of the peoples to which they are applied.

In essence, the problem post-development theorists see in
development and its practice is an imbalance of inuence
or domination by the west. Post development theorists
promote more pluralism in ideas about development.

3.1

3.2 Alternatives to development

While the postdevelopment school provides a plethora of
development critiques, it also considers alternative methods for bringing about positive change. The postdevelopment school proposes a particular vision of society removed from the discourse of development, modernity, politics, cultural and economical inuences from the
west, and market oriented and centralized authoritarian
societies.

Critique of ethnocentrism and univer- In his works, Escobar has outlined the common features
salism
of post-development thought and societal vision. Accord-

Among the starting points and basic assumptions of postdevelopment thought is the idea that a middle-class, Western lifestyle and all that goes with it (which might include
the nuclear family, mass consumption, living in suburbia
and extensive private space), may neither be a realistic
nor a desirable goal for the majority of the worlds population. In this sense, development is seen as requiring
the loss, or indeed the deliberate extermination (ethnocide) of indigenous culture[2] or other psychologically and
environmentally rich and rewarding modes of life. As a
result, formerly satisfactory ways of life become dissatisfying because development changes peoples perception
of themselves.

ing to Escobar, the post-development school of thought

is interested (in terms of searching for an alternative to
development) in local culture and knowledge; a critical
stance toward established scientic discourses; and the
defense and promotion of localized, pluralistic grassroots
movements. Grassroots movements, Escober argues, are
local, pluralistic, and distrust organized politics and development establishment.

Post-development thought takes inspiration from vernacular societies, the informal sector and frugal rather than
materialistic lifestyles. Furthermore, post-development
theorists advocate for structural changes. According to
Escobar, post-developmental thinking believes that the
economy must be based around solidarity and reciprocity;
policy must focus on direct democracy; and knowledge
Majid Rahnema cites Helena Norberg-Hodge: To take
systems should be traditional, or at least a hybrid of modan example, Helena Norberg-Hodge mentions how the
ern and traditional knowledge.
notion of poverty hardly existed in Ladakh when she visited that country for the rst time in 1975. Today she
says, it has become part of the language. When visiting 3.3 James Ferguson
an outlying village some eight years ago, Helena asked a
young Ladakhi where were the poorest houses. 'We have One of the leading anti-development writers, James Ferno poor houses in our village,' was the proud reply. Re- guson contributed to what John Rapley termed the most
cently Helena saw the same Ladakhi talking to an Amer- important of the opening salvos of post-development
ican tourist and overheard him say, 'if only you could do theory with his article The Anti-Politics Machine: Desomething for us, we are so poor.'"[3][4]
velopment, Depoliticization, and Bureaucratic Power in
Development is seen as a set of knowledges, interventions and worldviews (in short, discourses) which are also
powers: to intervene, to transform and to rule. Postdevelopment critiques challenge the notion of a single
path to development and demands acknowledgment of
diversity of cultural perspectives and priorities.

Lesotho. In The Anti-Politics Machine Ferguson describes

the failure of the development project to properly understand the cultural and economic values of the people
of Lesotho. This misunderstanding led to misappropriation of resources by the international community and
myriad negative consequences for Basotho (residents of
Lesotho), prompting Ferguson to comment that Capitalist interests [...] can only operate through a set of social and cultural structures so complex that the outcome
may be only a baroque and unrecognizable transformation of the original intention.[5] In other words, development projects cannot simply create a desired result, but
instead have a number of unexpected consequences.

For example, the politics of dening and satisfying needs

is a crucial dimension of development thought, deeply entwined in the concept of agency. But who voices development concerns, what power relations are played out,
how do the interests of development experts (the World
Bank, IMF ocials, professionals, and so on) rule the
development priorities, and which voices are excluded
as a result? The post-development approach attempts to
overcome the inequality of this discourse by opening up
3.4
spaces for non-Western peoples and their concerns.

Arturo Escobar

Postdevelopment theory is, above all, a critique of the Critics of development do not deny the need for change.
standard assumptions about progress: who possesses the They argue instead that to enact proper and eective
change, change itself must rst be conceived in dierkey to it and how it may be implemented.

3
ent terms. Arturo Escobar, another leading member of on our nite planet. However, in 1992 he co-authored and
the post-development school, argues:
edited The Development Dictionary: A Guide to KnowlWhile social change has probably always been part of edge as Power which contributed greatly to the compilathe human experience, it was only within the European tion of post development literature as a general theory.
modernity that 'society', i.e. the whole way of life of a
people, was open to empirical analysis and made the subject of planned change. And while communities in the
Third World may nd that there is a need for some sort
of organised or directed changein part to reverse the
damage done by developmentthis undoubtedly will not
take the form of 'designing life' or social engineering. In
this long run, this means that categories and meanings
have to be redened; through their innovative political
practice, new social movements of various kinds are already embarked on this process of redening the social,
and knowledge itself.

3.5

Majid Rahnema

Majid Rahnema addresses the question of which path to

take directly in his conclusion to the Post-Development
Reader. Rahnema admits that it may be true that a large
majority of people, whose lives are in fact dicult, do
want change. But the answer he suggests is not development but the end of development. He says that the end
of development is not An end to the search for new possibilities of change, for a relational world of friendship, or
for genuine processes of regeneration able to give birth
to new forms of solidarity. Rather, Rahnema argues,
the inhumane and the ultimately destructive approach to
change is over. It should resemble a call to the 'good people' everywhere to think and work together.

This manifesto posits that the new era of development

that emerged in the 1950s was created by the United
States in order to secure its new hegemonic position in
the global community. Sachs explains that the concept of
underdevelopment was actually constructed in Harry S.
Trumans 1949 inaugural address, which popularized the
term. Sachs argues that the creation of this term was a
discrete, strategic move to secure American hegemony
by reinforcing the idea that the United States is at the top,
and other countries on a lower pillar, of a linear and singular trajectory of development. It created a homogeneous identity for these countries and stripped them of
their own diverse characteristics. "It converts participation into a manipulative trick to involve people in struggles
for getting what the powerful want to impose on them."[7]
The Development Dictionary describes a biological
metaphor for development. This biological metaphor was
transferred to the social sphere and perpetuated the ideal
that there is one natural way to develop into the perfect
form. To develop in a manner disparate from the natural order of things was to become a disgured anomaly.
This denition held the potential to provide morally ambiguous justication for imperialist behavior and can be
connected to colonial discourse and mainstream development theories. Under such categorization, Sachs explains,
development was reduced to a simple measurement of the
economic growth of per capita production.

Sachs issues a cry for public awareness of the limits of

development. He leaves the reader with the idea of the
New Commons and posits that men and women should
begin with this awareness before attempting to introduce
3.6 Serge Latouche
new political policies with room for creativity and innoSerge Latouche is a French emeritus professor in econ- vation in diverse development paths.
omy at the University of Paris-Sud. A specialist in NorthSouth economic and cultural relations, and in social sciences epistemology, he has developed a critical theory towards economic orthodoxy. He denounces economism, 4 Criticisms
utilitarianism in social sciences, consumer society and the
notion of sustainable development. He particularly crit- There is a large body of works which are critical of posticizes the notions of economic eciency and economic development theory and its proponents. It has been noted
rationalism. He is one of the thinkers and most renowned that post-development theory sees all development as impartisans of the degrowth theory.[6] Jorion has also pub- posed upon the developing world by the West. This dulished in the Revue de Mauss, a French anti-utilitarian alist perspective of development may be unrealistic, and
journal.
Marc Edelman notes that a large proportion of development has risen from, rather than been imposed upon, the
developing world.[8] Citing Jonathan Crushs point that
3.7 Wolfgang Sachs and The Development Development, for all its power to speak and to conDictionary
trol the terms of speaking, has never been impervious
to challenge and resistance, nor, in response, to reformuWolfgang Sachs is a leading writer in post-development lation and change[9] Ray Kiely argues that The postthought. Most of his writing is focused on environmen- development idea is thus part of a long history within
tally sustainable development and the idea that past no- the development discourse.[10] In short, Kiely argues that
tions of development are naturally unsustainable practices post-development theory is merely the latest version of a

4
set of criticisms that have long been evident within writing and thought in the eld of development. Development
has always been about choices, Kiely explains. Choices
with resulting losers and winners, dilemmas and destruction, as well as creative possibility.

7 BIBLIOGRAPHY

5 Notable development critics

6 See also

There are a number of more fundamental objections to Opposing theories:

the postdevelopment school. The rst is that it overstates
Modernization Theory
its case. A rejection of all development is a rejection of
the possibility for material advancement and transforma Neoliberalism
tion. It ignores the tangible transformations in life opportunities and health and material well-being that has been
evident in parts of the developing world. Moreover, development itself is so varied and carries so many mean- 7 Bibliography
ings that critiques need to be specic about their intention
The Post-Development Reader, ed. by Majid Rahwhen they claim to be post- development. By damnnema and Victoria Bawtree, London: Zed Books,
ing development all together, post-development theorists
1997. ISBN 1-85649-473-X
fail to notice the heterogeneity within development discourse. They categorize all development under the um Arturo Escobar: Encountering Development: The
brella of Western hegemony, contradictively applying the
Making and Unmaking of the Third World, Princesame sort of essentialist generalization post-development
ton: Princeton University Press, 1995, ISBN 0-691theorists reject.
00102-2
Critics also argue that post-development perpetuates cul [14]
tural relativism: the idea that cultural beliefs and practices
can be judged only by those who practice them. By ac Serge Latouche: In the Wake of the Auent Society:
cepting all cultural behaviors and beliefs as valid and reAn Exploration of Post-Development, London: Zed
jecting a universal standard for living and understanding
Books, 1993
life, critics of post-development argue, post-development
represents the opposite extreme of universalism, extreme
Gilbert Rist: The History of Development: From
relativism. Such a relativist extreme, rather than bestWestern Origins to Global Faith, Expanded Edition,
ing extreme universalism, has equally dangerous impliLondon: Zed Books, 2003
cations. John Rapley points out that rejection of essen Wolfgang Sachs(ed.): The Development Reader. A
tialism rests itself on an essentialist claim namely, that
Guide to Kowledge and Power, London: Zed Books
all truth is constructed and arbitrary[...]"[11]
1992, ISBN 1-85649-044-0
Kiely also argues that by rejecting a top-down, centralized approach to development and promoting develop Gilbert Rist, The History of Development: From
ment through local means, post-development thought perWestern Origins to Global Faith, Expanded Edition,
petuates neo-liberal ideals. Kiely remarks that The arLondon: Zed Books, 2003, ISBN 1-84277-181-7
gument - upheld by dependency and post-development
The Development Dictionary: A Guide to Knowltheory - that the First World needs the Third World,
edge as Power, ed. by Wolfgang Sachs, London:
and vice versa, rehearses neo-liberal assumptions that the
Zed Books, 1992, ISBN 1-85649-044-0
world is an equal playing eld in which all nation states
[12]
have the capacity to compete equally[...]"
In other
Oren Ginzburg: There You Go! ISBN 974-92863words, making locals responsible for their own predica0-8
ment, post-development unintentionally agrees with neoliberalist ideology that favors decentralized projects and
Mohandas Gandhi: Hind Swaraj (1909)
ignores the possibility of assisting impoverished demo Ivan Illich: Tools for Conviviality (1973)
graphics, instead making the fallacious assumption that
such demographics must succeed on their own initiative
Post-Development Reader (Zed Books, ed. Majid
alone. Kiely notes that not all grassroots movements
Rahnema, 1997), ISBN 1-85649-474-8
are progressive. Post-development is seen to empower
Henry Thoreau: Walden (1854)
anti-modern fundamentalists and traditionalists, who may
hold non-progressive and oppressive values.[13]
John. H. Bodley, Victims of Progress, 5th Edition,
AltaMira Press, 2008
Rapley. J.(2004). Development studies and postdevelopment critique. Progress in Development
Studies.4:350. doi:10.1191/1464993404ps095p

5
Pieterse. J. N.(2000). After post-development.
Third World Quarterly.21(2), p. 175-191.
Ziai. A.(Eds.).(2007). Exploring post-development
theory and practice, problem and perspectives. London; New York: Routledge.

[13] Kiely, Ray (1 June 1999). The Last Refuge of the Noble Savage? A Critical Assessment of Post-Development
Theory. European Journal Of Development Research
11: 30. doi:10.1080/09578819908426726. Retrieved 12
February 2013.
[14] Ferguson, James (SeptemberOctober 1994). The AntiPolitics Machine: Development, Depoliticization, and
Bureacratic Power in Lesotho. The Ecologist 24 (5):
176181. Retrieved 3 February 2013.

Post-development.(2009).
In D.Gregory,
R.Johnston, G.Pratt, M.J.Watts & S.Whatmore
(Eds.), A dictionary of geography. Hoboken, NJ:
Wiley-Blackwell.
[15] Sidaway, James (June 2007). Spaces of Postdevelop Much of this article was compiled using information
gathered from [15]

References

[1] Wolfgang Sachs, Introduction in Sachs 1992: 1-5, citation p. 1

[2] Ancient Futures: learning from Ladakh by Helena
Norberg-Hodge. Sierra Club Books, 1992
[3] Majid Rahnema, Poverty in: Sachs 1992: 158-176, citation p. 161
[4] Majid Rahnema also refers to Peter Bunyard, Can Selfsucient Communities survive the onslaught of Development?", The Ecologist, Vol. 14, 1984, p.3
[5] Ferguson, James (SeptemberOctober 1994). The AntiPolitics Machine: Development, Depoliticization, and
Bureacratic Power in Lesotho. The Ecologist 24 (5):
176181. Retrieved 3 February 2013.
[6]
[7] Sachs, Wolfgang (1992). The Development Dictionary:
A Guide to Knowledge as Power. Zed Books. ISBN 185649-044-0.
[8] Edelman, Marc (1999). Peasants Against Globalization:
Rural Social Movements in Costa Rica. Stanford, CA:
Stanford University Press. ISBN 0804734011.
[9] Crush, Jonathan (1995). Power of Development. London:
Routledge. p. 8. ISBN 0-415-11176-5.
[10] Kiely, Ray (1 June 1999). The Last Refuge of the Nohle
Savage? A Critical Assessment of Post-Development
Theory. European Journal of Development Research 11
(1): 30. doi:10.1080/09578819908426726. Retrieved 12
February 2013.
[11] Rapley, John (1 October 2004).
Development
studies
and
the
post-development
critique.
Progress in Development Studies 4 (4): 350354.
doi:10.1191/1464993404ps095pr.
Retrieved 12
February 2013.
[12] Kiely, Ray (1994). Development Theory and Industrialisation: Beyond the Impasse. Journal of Contemporary
Asia 24: 133160. doi:10.1080/00472339480000101.

ment (PDF). Progress In Human Geography 31 (3): 345

361. doi:10.1177/0309132507077405. Retrieved 10
February 2013.

9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1

Text

Postdevelopment theory Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Postdevelopment_theory?oldid=678256342 Contributors: Ijon, Dave Harris, Camw, Rjwilmsi, Jrtayloriv, Bgwhite, SmackBot, InverseHypercube, Hmains, Kevlar67, Minority2005, Wizardman, Robosh, HelloAnnyong, Maziotis, Minnaert, Word2line, Winjammer, Dvaladares, LeadSongDog, Mm40, Addbot, Fluernutter, Jarble, Yobot, Eduen,
AnomieBOT, JimVC3, J04n, FrescoBot, DrilBot, User1756, RjwilmsiBot, John of Reading, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bobulix, Esiemiat,
Bhuiop, BattyBot, TanvirKarim, Vagmon11, MrNiceGuy1113, Wywin, 069952497a, Evanrand, Monkbot and Anonymous: 26

9.2

Images

File:Ambox_rewrite.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Ambox_rewrite.svg License: Public domain

Contributors: self-made in Inkscape Original artist: penubag
File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-bysa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007

9.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0