ManufacturingProcesses

g
forEngineeringMaterials
(5th EditioninSIUnits)
Edition in SI Units)
Chapter3:StructureandManufacturing
PropertiesofMetals

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

TheCrystalStructureofMetals
( )
Whenmetalssolidifytheatomsarrangethemselvesinorderly
configurationscalledcrystals().
Arrangementofatomsinthecrystaliscalledcrystalline
A
t f t
i th
t li
ll d
t lli
structure().
Smallestgroupofatomsshowingthecharacteristiclattice
Smallest group of atoms showing the characteristic lattice
structure() ofaparticularmetalisknownasaunit
cell(()).
Crystalstructuresmodifiedbyaddingatomsofanothermetal
ormetalsisknownasalloying().

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

The Crystal Structure of Metals

TheCrystalStructureofMetals
3basicpatternsofatomicarrangementinmetal:

Body-centered cubic
(, bcc)

Face-centered cubic
(, fcc)

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Hexagonal close packed

(, hcp)

DeformationandStrength
ofSingleCrystals(
)

Crystalundergoeselasticdeformation thenplastic
(permanent)deformation.
2basicmechanismsduringplasticdeformation:
2b i
h i
d i
l ti d f
ti
a. Slip() oneplaneofatomsslipoveranadjacentplane
under shear stress
undershearstress
b. Twinning() portionofthecrystalformsamirrorimage
of itself across the plane of twinning
ofitselfacrosstheplaneoftwinning

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

DeformationandStrength
ofSingleCrystals

Shearstressatadisplacementxis

x/b
Forsmallvaluesof,

FromHookeslaw,

Hence, max =

Assumeb approxa, max =

= max

x
= G = G
a

Gb
2a

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

G
2

= max sin
2x
b

2x
b

Slip systems ()
Slipsystems()

9
9
9

Directionofslipisknownasaslipsystem().
Differentnumberofpotentialslipsystems:
bcccrystals 48possibleslipsystems,highslip
fcccrystals12slipsystems,moderateslip
hcpcrystal 3slipsystems,lowslip

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Idealtensilestrengthofmetals
(

)

Whenthetensilestressreachestheatomicbonds,itis
knownastheidealtensilestrength.
F
Fromthegraph,wehave
th
h
h
max =

E
2a

Combiningtheseequations,
max =

max
Work =

E
a

Substituteappropriatevalues,

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

max

10

Imperfections ()
Imperfections()

a)
b)
c)
d)

Discrepancyinactualstrengthisexplainedintermsof
imperfections() inthecrystalstructure.
I
Imperfectionsanddefectscategorizedas:
f ti
dd f t
t
i d
Pointdefects()
Di l
Dislocations
i ()
Grainboundaries()
Cracks
k ()

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Strainhardening(,work
hardening,)

Increaseintheshearstressandoverallstrengthofthemetal
g
isknownasstrainorworkhardening(,).
Thisalsoincreasesthemetalsstrength.
Degreeofstrainhardeningisindicatedbystrainhardening
exponentn.

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

GrainsandGrainBoundaries
(
)

Numberandsizeofthegrainsdevelopedinmetaldepend
ontherateofnucleation().
V i
Variousstagesduringsolidificationofmoltenmetal:
t
d i
lidifi ti
f
lt
t l

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Grains and Grain Boundaries

GrainsandGrainBoundaries

Surfacesthatseparatetheindividualgrainsarecalledgrain
boundaries().
E h
Eachgrainconsistsofsinglecrystal
i
it f i l
t l
orpolycrystallineaggregate.
Single grain is anisotropic() and
Singlegrainisanisotropic
and
polycrystallinemetalisisotropic().

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Grain size()
Grainsize()

Grainsize() influencesthemechanicalpropertiesof
metals.
L
Largegrainlowstrengthandhardness,high
i l
t
th d h d
hi h
ductility
The yield strength Y is related to grain size by as Hall Petch
Theyieldstrength,Y,isrelatedtograinsizebyasHallPetch
equation.

Y = Yi + kd

1 / 2

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Yi = basic yield stress

k = constant
t t
d = grain diameter

Grain size
Grainsize

Grainsizeismeasuredbycountingthenumberofgrains
inagivenarea.
Grainsizenumber,n,isrelatedtothenumberofgrains,
N.

N = 2 n 1

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Influenceofgrainboundaries
(
)

Grainboundariesinfluencestrength,ductilityofmetalsand
strainhardening.
Pl ti d f
Plasticdeformationtakesplacethroughgrainboundary
ti t k
l
th
h
i b
d
sliding( ).
Creep mechanism( ) resultsfromgrainboundary
Creepmechanism
results from grain boundary
sliding.
At a lowmeltingpoint
Atalow
melting point,metals,
metals
strongmetalcancrackunder
verylowstressesknownas
grainboundaryembrittlement
( ).

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

PlasticDeformationofPolycrystalline
Metals(
)

Duringplasticdeformation,masscontinuityingrain
boundariesismaintained.
Thegrainswouldbecomeelongatedinonedirectionand
Th
i
ld b
l
t di
di ti
d
contractintheother.
Twotypesofanisotropy
Two types of anisotropy() inmetals:
in metals:
1. Preferredorientation( )
2 Mechanicalfibering
2.
Mechanical fibering( )

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Recovery,Recrystallization,
andGrainGrowth(,,
)

Thetemperaturerangeandthetimerequireddependon
The
temperature range and the time required depend on
thematerial.
3eventstakeplaceduringtheheating:
3 events take place during the heating:
9 Recovery()
numberofmobile
number of mobile
dislocationsreduced
9 Recrystallization()
newgrainsform
9 Graingrowth
Grain growth( )
grainsgrowbigger
Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals
Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Cold,Warm,andHotWorking(,
,
)

Whenplasticdeformationaboverecrystallization
temperature,itiscalledhotworking(), viceversaitis
known as cold working().
knownascoldworking

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Failure and Fracture ( )

FailureandFracture(
2typesoffailure:
1. Fracture()
2. Buckling()

2categoriesoffractureisductileandbrittle.

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Ductile fracture ()
Ductilefracture()

Ductilefracture() iswhereplasticdeformationwhich
precedesfailureofthepart.
It t k
Ittakesplacealongplanesonwhichtheshearstressisa
l
l
l
hi h th h
t
i
maximum.
The surface shows a fibrous pattern with dimples
Thesurfaceshowsafibrouspatternwithdimples.
Inatensiontestspecimen,fracturebeginsatthecentreof
the necked region
theneckedregion.

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Ductile fracture
Ductilefracture
Effectsofinclusions( )
Influenceonductilefractureandformabilityofmaterials.
Consistofimpuritiesofvariouskindsandsecondphase
particles.
Twofactorsthataffectvoidformation:
T f
h
ff
id f
i
1. Strengthofthebondbetweeninclusionandmatrix
2. Hardnessoftheinclusion
d
f h
l

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Ductile fracture
Ductilefracture
Transitiontemperature()
Metalsundergoasharpchangeinductilitytotoughness
th
throughtransitiontemperature.
ht
iti t
t
Abruptchangesinshapeandsurfacenotchesoccur.

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Ductile fracture
Ductilefracture
Strainaging
Strain
aging ()
Strainagingiswherecarbonatomsinsteelssegregateto
dislocationsandincreaseresistancetodislocation
movement.
Increasestrengthandreduceductility.

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Brittle fracture ()
Brittlefracture()

Brittlefracture() occurswithlittleplasticdeformation
beforeseparationofthematerial.
I t i
Intension,brittlefracturetakesplacealongacleavage
b ittl f t
t k
l
l
l
plane().

Defects()
Scratches,flawsorinternalcracks.
Scratches flaws or internal cracks

1
Crack length

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Brittle fracture
Brittlefracture

Crackssubjectedtostressesin3modesofdirection:
ModeI tensilestressperpendiculartothecrack.
ModesIIandIII shearstressesin2directions.

Fatiguefracture()
Minuteexternal/internalcracks
d l
developatdefectsinthematerial.
d f
h
l
Fracturesurfaceinfatigueistermby
b h
beachmarks.
k

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Brittle fracture
Brittlefracture
Fatiguefracture
g
Fatiguelifeisinfluencedbymethodofpreparationofits
surfaces.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Fatiguestrengthimprovedby:
Compressiveresidualstressesonsurfaces
Heattreatment
Finesurfacefinish
Selectingappropriatematerialsfreefromsignificant
g pp p
g
inclusions,voids,andimpurities

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Brittle fracture
Brittlefracture
Stresscorrosioncracking()
Ductilemetalcanfailbystresscorrosioncracking.
Susceptibilityofmetalsdependson:
a) thematerial
b) thepresenceandmagnitudeoftensileresidualstresses
c) theenvironment

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Physical Properties ( )
PhysicalProperties(

9
9
9
9
9
9

Propertiesofparticularinterestinmanufacturingare:
Density()
meltingpoint()
specificheat()
thermalconductivityandexpansion(,)
electricalandmagneticproperties( )
resistancetooxidationandcorrosion()

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Density

Densitydependsonweight,radiusandpackingoftheatoms.

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Melting point
Meltingpoint

Dependsontheenergyrequiredtoseparateitsatoms.
Recrystallizationtemperatureisrelatedtoitsmeltingpoint
operationssuchasannealing
ti
h
li () andheattreating.
d h t t ti
Highermeltingpoint,moredifficulttheoperation.
M li
Meltingpointsarealsorelatedtotherateofmaterial
i
l
l d
h
f
i l
removalandtoolwear.

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Specific heat
Specificheat

Specificheatistheenergyrequiredtoraisethetemperature
ofaunitmassofamaterialbyonedegree.
Hightemperaturewillaffecttheproductqualityby
Hi h t
t
ill ff t th
d t
lit b
a) affectingsurfacefinishanddimensionalaccuracy
b) causingtoolanddiewear
i
l d di
c) resultinginmetallurgicalchangesinthematerial

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Thermal conductivity
Thermalconductivity

Thermalconductivityindicatestherateatwhichheatflows
withinandthroughthematerial.

Alloyingelementswithdifferenceinthermalconductivities
will have effect on thermal conductivity of alloys
willhaveeffectonthermalconductivityofalloys.

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Thermal expansion
Thermalexpansion

Coefficientofthermalexpansionisinverselyproportionalto
themeltingpointofthematerial.
Th
Thermalstresses
l t
() resultsfromexpansionand
lt f
i
d
contractionofcomponents.
Thermal stresses may also be caused by anisotropy of
Thermalstressesmayalsobecausedbyanisotropyof
thermalexpansion( ) ofthematerial.
Thermal fatigue() resultsfromthermalcycling.
Thermalfatigue
results from thermal cycling
Thermalshock() isthedevelopmentofcracksaftera
single thermal cycle.
singlethermalcycle.

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Electrical and magnetic properties

Electricalandmagneticproperties

Electricalconductivity() isameasureofhowwellthe
materialconductselectriccurrent.
El t i l i ti it () istheinverseofconductivity,and
Electricalresistivity
i th i
f
d ti it
d
materialswithhighresistivity(,insulators).
Superconductivity() iswherezeroelectricalresistivity
is where zero electrical resistivity
occursbelowacriticaltemperature.
Piezoelectric effect() isareversibleinteraction
Piezoelectriceffect
is a reversible interaction
betweenanelasticstrainandanelectricfieldusedinmaking
transducers.

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Resistance to corrosion
Resistancetocorrosion

Corrosionisthedeteriorationofmetalsandceramicswhile
degradation() isatermusedinplastics.
C
Corrosioncanoccuroveranentiresurfaceorlocalizedsuch
i
ti
f
l li d
h
asinpitting().
Stress corrosion cracking() istheeffectofa
Stresscorrosioncracking
is the effect of a
corrosiveenvironment.

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

GeneralPropertiesandApplications
ofFerrousAlloys

Ferrousalloys() areusefulmetalsintermsof
mechanical,physicalandchemicalproperties.
All
Alloyscontainironastheirbasemetal.
t i i
th i b
t l
Carbonsteelsareleastexpensiveofallmetalswhile
stainless steels is costly
stainlesssteelsiscostly.

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Carbonandalloysteels(

)

Compositionandprocessingarecontrolledinamannerthatis
suitablefordifferentapplications.

9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9

Severalelementsareaddedtosteelsfor
l l
dd d
l f
Hardenability
St
Strength
th
Hardness
Toughness
Wearresistance
Workability
Weldability
Machinabilityy

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Carbon and alloy steels

Carbonandalloysteels
Carbonsteels
Classifiedaslow,mediumandhigh:
1. Lowcarbonsteelormildsteel(,),<0.3%C,bolts,
nutsandsheetplates.
2 Mediumcarbonsteel
2.
M di
b
l(),0.3%~0.6%C,machinery,
0 3% 0 6%C
hi
automotiveandagriculturalequipment.
3 Highcarbonsteel
3.
High carbon steel(),>0.60%C,springs,cutlery,cable.
> 0 60% C springs cutlery cable

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Carbon and alloy steels

Carbonandalloysteels
Alloysteels()
Steelscontainingsignificantamountsofalloyingelements.
Structuralgradealloy( ) steelsusedfor
constructionindustriesduetohighstrength.
Otheralloysteelsareusedforitsstrength,hardness,
Oh
ll
l
df i
h h d
resistancetocreepandfatigue,andtoughness.
Itmayheattreatedtoobtainthedesiredproperties.
It may heat treated to obtain the desired properties

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Carbon and alloy steels

Carbonandalloysteels
Highstrengthlowalloysteels( )
Improvedstrengthtoweightratio.
Usedinautomobilebodiestoreduceweightandin
agriculturalequipment.
Someexamplesare:
S
l
1. Dualphasesteels
2. Microalloyedsteels
ll
d
l
3. Nanoalloyedsteels

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Stainless steels ()
Stainlesssteels()

Characterizedbytheircorrosionresistance,highstrength
andductility,andhighchromiumcontent.
St i l
Stainlessasafilmofchromiumoxideprotectsthemetal
fil
f h
i
id
t t th
t l
fromcorrosion.

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Stainless steels
Stainlesssteels

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Fivetypesofstainlesssteels:
Austeniticsteels()
Ferriticsteels()
Martensiticsteels()
Precipitationhardening(PH)steels()
Duplexstructuresteels()

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Tool and die steels ( )

Toolanddiesteels(

Designedforhighstrength,impacttoughness,andwear
resistanceatarangeoftemperatures.

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

GeneralPropertiesandApplications
ofNonferrousMetals()
andAlloys

a)
b)
c)
d)

Moreexpensivethanferrousmetals,nonferrousmetalsand
alloys.
E
Examplesofapplicationsare:
l
f
li ti
aluminiumforaircraftbodies
copperwire
i
titaniumforjetengineturbineblades
tantalumforrocketengines
l
f
k

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Aluminium and aluminium alloys

Aluminiumandaluminiumalloys

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Factorsforselectingare:
Highstrengthtoweightratio
Resistancetocorrosion
Highthermalandelectricalconductivity
Easeofmachinability
Nonmagnetic

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Magnesium and magnesium alloys

Magnesiumandmagnesiumalloys

Magnesium(Mg)isthelightestmetal.
Alloysareusedinstructuralandnonstructuralapplications.
Typicalusesofmagnesiumalloysareaircraftandmissile
components.
Al h
Alsohasgoodvibrationdampingcharacteristics.
d ib i d
i
h
i i

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Copper and copper alloys

Copperandcopperalloys

Copperalloyshaveelectricalandmechanicalproperties,
corrosionresistance,thermalconductivityandwear
resistance.
resistance
Applicationsareelectroniccomponents,springsandheat
exchangers.
exchangers
Brass() isanalloyofcopperandzinc.
Bronze() isanalloyofcopperandtin.
is an alloy of copper and tin

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Nickel and nickel alloys

Nickelandnickelalloys

Nickel(Ni)hasstrength,toughness,andcorrosionresistance
tometals.
U di t i l
Usedinstainlesssteelsandnickelbasealloys.
t l
d i k lb
ll
Alloysareusedforhightemperatureapplications,suchas
jet engine components and rockets
jetenginecomponentsandrockets.

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Superalloys ()
Superalloys()

Superalloysarehightemperaturealloysuseinjetengines,
gasturbinesandreciprocatingengines.

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Titanium and titanium alloys

Titaniumandtitaniumalloys

Titanium(Ti)isexpensive,hashighstrengthtoweightratio
Titanium
(Ti) is expensive has high strength to weight ratio
andcorrosionresistance.
Used as components for aircrafts jetengines
Usedascomponentsforaircrafts,jet
engines,racing
racingcars
cars
andmarinecrafts.

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Refractory metals ()
Refractorymetals()

Refractorymetalshaveahighmeltingpointandretaintheir
strengthatelevatedtemperatures.

Applicationsareelectronics,nuclearpowerandchemical
industries.
industries

Molybdenum,columbium,tungsten,andtantalumare
Molybdenum
columbium tungsten and tantalum are
referredtoasrefractorymetal.

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Other nonferrous metals

Othernonferrousmetals
1. Beryllium
2. Zirconium
3. Lowmeltingpointmetals:
Lead
Zinc
Tin
4 Preciousmetals:
4.
Precious metals:
Gold
Silver
Platinum

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials

Special metals and alloys

Specialmetalsandalloys
1.
2.
3.
4.

Shapememoryalloys()
Amorphousalloys()
Nanomaterials()
Metalfoams()

Chapter 3: Structure and Manufacturing Properties of Metals

Manufacturing Processes for Engineering Materials