Contents

Spectrometer

1.1

Optical spectrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.2

Mass spectrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.3

Time-of-ight spectrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.4

Magnetic spectrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.5

Resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

1.6

References

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Prism

2.1

How prisms work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.1.1

Deviation angle and dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.2

Prisms and the nature of light . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3

Types of prisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3.1

Dispersive prisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3.2

Reective prisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3.3

Polarizing prisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.3.4

Deecting prisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.4

In optometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.5

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.6

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.7

Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2.8

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Minimum deviation

3.1

References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Angle of incidence

4.1

Optics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.1.1

Grazing angle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.2

Angle of incidence of xed-wing aircraft . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.3

See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.4

Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4.5

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

ii
5

CONTENTS
Refractive index

10

5.1

Denition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

10

5.2

History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

5.3

Typical values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

5.3.1

Refractive index below unity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

11

5.3.2

Negative refractive index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

5.4

Microscopic explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

5.5

Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

12

5.6

Complex refractive index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

13

5.7

Relations to other quantities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

5.7.1

Optical path length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

14

5.7.2

Refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

5.7.3

Total internal reection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

5.7.4

Reectivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

5.7.5

Lenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

15

5.7.6

Microscope resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16

5.7.7

Relative permittivity and permeability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16

5.7.8

Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

16

5.7.9

Group index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

5.7.10 Momentum (AbrahamMinkowski controversy) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

5.7.11 Other relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

5.7.12 Refractivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

Nonscalar, nonlinear, or nonhomogeneous refraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

5.8.1

Birefringence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

17

5.8.2

Nonlinearity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

5.8.3

Inhomogeneity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

Refractive index measurement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

18

5.9.1

Homogeneous media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

5.9.2

Refractive index variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

19

5.10 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

5.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

5.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

20

5.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

22

Prism spectrometer

23

6.1

Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

6.2

Usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

6.2.1

Spectroscopy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

6.2.2

Measurement of refractive index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23

6.3

External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

24

6.4

Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

25

6.4.1

25

5.8

5.9

Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

CONTENTS

iii

6.4.2

Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

26

6.4.3

Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

27

Chapter 1

Spectrometer
In physics, a spectrometer is an apparatus to measure a
spectrum.[1] Generally, a spectrum is a graph that shows
intensity as a function of wavelength, of frequency, of
energy, of momentum, or of mass.

1.1 Optical spectrometer

F
+

Optical spectrometers (often simply called spectrometers), in particular, show the intensity of light as a function of wavelength or of frequency. The deection is produced either by refraction in a prism or by diraction in
a diraction grating.

A positive charged particle moving in a circle under the inuence

of the Lorentz force F

1.2 Mass spectrometer

A mass spectrometer is an analytical instrument that is
used to identify the amount and type of chemicals present
in a sample by measuring the mass-to-charge ratio and
abundance of gas-phase ions.[2]

1.3 Time-of-ight spectrometer

The energy spectrum of particles of known mass can also
be measured by determining the time of ight between Focus of a magnetic semicircular spectrometer
two detectors (and hence, the velocity) in a time-of-ight
spectrometer. Alternatively, if the velocity is known,
masses can be determined in a time-of-ight mass spec- where m and v are mass and velocity of the particle. The
trometer.
focussing principle of the oldest and simplest magnetic
spectrometer, the semicircular spectrometer,[3] invented
by J. K. Danisz, is shown on the left. A constant magnetic
eld is perpendicular to the page. Charged particles of
1.4 Magnetic spectrometer
momentum p that pass the slit are deected into circular
paths of radius r = p/qB. Evidently, they hit the horizontal
When a fast charged particle (charge q, mass m) enters line at nearly the same place, the focus, where a particle
a constant magnetic eld B at right angles, it is deected counter should be placed. Varying B, this makes possiinto a circular path of radius r, due to the Lorentz force. ble to measure the energy spectrum of alpha particles in
The momentum p of the particle is then given by
an alpha particle spectrometer, of beta particles in a beta
particle spectrometer,[1] of particles (e.g., fast ions) in a
particle spectrometer, or to measure the relative content
p = mv = qBr
of the various masses in a mass spectrometer.
1

CHAPTER 1. SPECTROMETER

Since Danysz' time, many types of magnetic spectrometers more complicated than the semicircular type have
been devised.[1]

1.5 Resolution
Generally, the resolution of an instrument tells us how
well two close-lying energies (or wavelengths, or frequencies, or masses) can be resolved. Generally, for an instrument with mechanical slits, higher resolution will mean
lower intensity.[1]

1.6 References
[1] K. Siegbahn, Alpha-, Beta- and Gamma-Ray Spectroscopy, North-Holland Publishing Co. Amsterdam
(1966)
[2] mass
spectrometer
doi:10.1351/goldbook.M03732.

(PDF).

2009.

[3] Jan Kazimierz Danysz, Le Radium 9, 1 (1912); 10, 4

(1913)

Chapter 2

Prism
This article is about a prism in optics. For a prism in ge- light into components with dierent polarizations.
ometry, see Prism (geometry). For other uses, see Prism
(disambiguation).
Prismatic redirects here. For other uses, see Prismatic 2.1 How prisms work
(disambiguation).
In optics, a prism is a transparent optical element with

A triangular prism, dispersing light; waves shown to illustrate the

diering wavelengths of light. (Click to view animation)

Light changes speed as it moves from one medium to another (for example, from air into the glass of the prism).
This speed change causes the light to be refracted and
to enter the new medium at a dierent angle (Huygens
principle). The degree of bending of the lights path depends on the angle that the incident beam of light makes
with the surface, and on the ratio between the refractive
indices of the two media (Snells law). The refractive
index of many materials (such as glass) varies with the
wavelength or color of the light used, a phenomenon
known as dispersion. This causes light of dierent colors to be refracted dierently and to leave the prism at
dierent angles, creating an eect similar to a rainbow.
This can be used to separate a beam of white light into
its constituent spectrum of colors. Prisms will generally
disperse light over a much larger frequency bandwidth
than diraction gratings, making them useful for broadspectrum spectroscopy. Furthermore, prisms do not suffer from complications arising from overlapping spectral
orders, which all gratings have.

A plastic prism

at, polished surfaces that refract light. At least two of

the at surfaces must have an angle between them. The
exact angles between the surfaces depend on the application. The traditional geometrical shape is that of a
triangular prism with a triangular base and rectangular
sides, and in colloquial use prism usually refers to this
type. Some types of optical prism are not in fact in the
shape of geometric prisms. Prisms can be made from any
material that is transparent to the wavelengths for which
they are designed. Typical materials include glass, plastic
and uorite.

A dispersive prism can be used to break light up into its

constituent spectral colors (the colors of the rainbow). Prisms are sometimes used for the internal reection at
Furthermore, prisms can be used to reect light, or to split the surfaces rather than for dispersion. If light inside the
3

CHAPTER 2. PRISM

prism hits one of the surfaces at a suciently steep angle, total internal reection occurs and all of the light is
reected. This makes a prism a useful substitute for a
mirror in some situations.

2.1.1

2.2 Prisms and the nature of light

Deviation angle and dispersion

0
1

0
0

2
1

A ray trace through a prism with apex angle . Regions 0, 1, and

2 have indices of refraction n0 , n1 , and n2 , and primed angles
indicate the rays angle after refraction.

Ray angle deviation and dispersion through a prism can

be determined by tracing a sample ray through the element and using Snells law at each interface. For the prism
A triangular prism, dispersing light
shown at right, the indicated angles are given by
Before Isaac Newton, it was believed that white light was
colorless, and that the prism itself produced the color.
0
Newtons experiments demonstrated that all the colors already existed in the light in a heterogeneous fashion, and
1
that corpuscles (particles) of light were fanned out be1
cause particles with dierent colors traveled with dierent speeds through the prism. It was only later that Young
2
and Fresnel combined Newtons particle theory with Huygens wave theory to show that color is the visible maniAll angles are positive in the direction shown in the image.
festation of lights wavelength.
For a prism in air n0 = n2 1 . Dening n = n1 , the
Newton arrived at his conclusion by passing the red color
deviation angle is given by
from one prism through a second prism and found the
color unchanged. From this, he concluded that the colors
(
[
(1
)]) must already be present in the incoming light thus, the
= 0 +2 = 0 +arcsin n sin arcsin
sin 0

prism did not create colors, but merely separated colors

n
that are already there. He also used a lens and a secIf the angle of incidence 0 and prism apex angle are ond prism to recompose the spectrum back into white
both small, sin and arcsinx x if the angles are light. This experiment has become a classic example of
expressed in radians. This allows the nonlinear equation the methodology introduced during the scientic revoluin the deviation angle to be approximated by
tion. The results of this experiment dramatically transformed the eld of metaphysics, leading to John Locke's
primary vs secondary quality distinction.
)])
( [(
1
= 0 +n0 = (n1)
.
0 + n 0
Newton
discussed prism dispersion in great detail in his
n
book Opticks.[1] He also introduced the use of more
The deviation angle depends on wavelength through n, so than one prism to control dispersion.[2] Newtons descripfor a thin prism the deviation angle varies with wavelength tion of his experiments on prism dispersion was qualiaccording to
tative, and is quite readable. A quantitative description
of multiple-prism dispersion was not needed until multiple prism laser beam expanders were introduced in the
() [n() 1]
1980s.[3]
(n
)
0
= arcsin
sin 0
n1

= 0
(n
)
1
= arcsin
sin 1
n2

= 1

2.3. TYPES OF PRISMS

2.3 Types of prisms

2.3.2 Reective prisms

2.3.1

Reective prisms are used to reect light, in order to ip,

invert, rotate, deviate or displace the light beam. They are
typically used to erect the image in binoculars or singlelens reex cameras without the prisms the image would
be upside down for the user. Many reective prisms use
total internal reection to achieve high reectivity.

Dispersive prisms

The most common reective prisms are:

Porro prism
PorroAbbe prism
Amici roof prism
Pentaprism and roof pentaprism

AbbeKoenig prism
SchmidtPechan prism
Bauernfeind prism
Dove prism

2
Comparison of the spectra obtained from a diraction grating
by diraction (1), and a prism by refraction (2). Longer wavelengths (red) are diracted more, but refracted less than shorter
wavelengths (violet).

Main article: Dispersive prism

Retroreector prism
Beam-splitting prisms
Some reective prisms are used for splitting a beam into
two or more beams:
Beam splitter cube
Dichroic prism

2.3.3 Polarizing prisms

Dispersive prisms are used to break up light into its con- There are also polarizing prisms which can split a beam
stituent spectral colors because the refractive index de- of light into components of varying polarization. These
pends on frequency; the white light entering the prism is a are typically made of a birefringent crystalline material.
mixture of dierent frequencies, each of which gets bent
slightly dierently. Blue light is slowed down more than
Nicol prism
red light and will therefore be bent more than red light.
Wollaston prism
Triangular prism
Nomarski prism a variant of the Wollaston prism
with advantages in microscopy
Abbe prism
PellinBroca prism
Amici prism
Compound prism
Grism, a dispersive prism with a diraction grating
on its surface

Rochon prism
Snarmont prism
GlanFoucault prism
GlanTaylor prism
GlanThompson prism

CHAPTER 2. PRISM

2.3.4

Deecting prisms

Wedge prisms are used to deect a beam of light by a xed

angle. A pair of such prisms can be used for beam steering; by rotating the prisms the beam can be deected into
any desired angle within a conical eld of regard. The
most commonly found implementation is a Risley prism
pair.[4] Two wedge prisms can also be used as an anamorphic pair to change the shape of a beam. This is used to
make a round beam from the elliptical output of a laser
diode.
Rhomboid prisms are used to laterally displace a beam of
light without inverting the image.
Deck prisms were used on sailing ships to bring daylight
below deck, since candles and kerosene lamps are a re
hazard on wooden ships.

2.4 In optometry
By shifting corrective lenses o axis, images seen through
them can be displaced in the same way that a prism displaces images. Eye care professionals use prisms, as well
as lenses o axis, to treat various orthoptics problems:
Diplopia (double vision)
Positive and negative fusion problems
Positive relative accommodation and negative relative accommodation problems.
Prism spectacles with a single prism perform a relative
displacement of the two eyes, thereby correcting eso-,
exo, hyper- or hypotropia.
In contrast, spectacles with prisms of equal power for
both eyes, called yoked prisms (also: conjugate prisms,
ambient lenses or performance glasses) shift the visual
eld of both eyes to the same extent.[5]

2.5 See also

Minimum deviation
Multiple-prism dispersion theory
Prism compressor
Prism dioptre
Prism spectrometer
Prism (geometry)
Theory of Colours
Triangular prism (geometry)
Superprism
Eyeglass prescription

2.6 References
[1] I. Newton (1704). Opticks. London: Royal Society. ISBN
0-486-60205-2.
[2] The Discovery of the Spectrum of Light. Retrieved 19
December 2009.
[3] F. J. Duarte and J. A. Piper (1982). Dispersion
theory of multiple-prism beam expanders for pulsed
dye lasers.
Opt.
Commun.
43 (5): 303
307. Bibcode:1982OptCo..43..303D. doi:10.1016/00304018(82)90216-4.
[4] B.D. Duncan; et al. (2003). Wide-angle achromatic prism beam steering for infrared countermeasure applications.
Opt.
Eng.
42 (4):
10381047.
Bibcode:2003OptEn..42.1038D.
doi:10.1117/1.1556393.
[5] Kaplan, M; Carmody, D. P.; Gaydos, A (1996). Postural
orientation modications in autism in response to ambient
lenses. Child Psychiatry and Human Development 27 (2):
8191. PMID 8936794.

2.7 Further reading

Hecht, Eugene (2001). Optics (4th ed.). Pearson
Education. ISBN 0-8053-8566-5.

2.8 External links

Java applet of refraction through a prism

Chapter 3

Minimum deviation
prism or water drop is deected twice: once entering, and
again when exiting. The sum of these two deections is
called the deviation angle.
The deviation angle in a prism depends upon:
Refractive index of the prism: The refractive index depends on the material and the wavelength of the light. The
larger the refractive index, the larger the deviation angle.
Angle of the prism: The larger the prism angle, the
larger the deviation angle.

Light is deected as it enters a material with refractive index > 1.

Angle of incidence: The deviation angle depends on the

angle that the beam enters the object, called angle of incidence. The deviation angle rst decreases with increasing
incidence angle, and then it increases.
There is an angle of incidence at which the sum of the
two deections is a minimum. The deviation angle at this
point is called the minimum deviation angle, or angle
of minimum deviation.[1] At the minimum deviation angle, the incidence and exit angles of the ray are identical.
This is a consequence of the principle of time reversibility; if the incidence and exit angles were not identical,
then reversing the paths (exit becomes entrance, and vice
versa) would indicate erroneously that there were two incidence angles resulting in minimum deviation. One of
the factors that causes a rainbow is the bunching of light
rays at the minimum deviation angle that is close to the
rainbow angle.

A ray of light is deected twice in a prism. The sum of these

deections is the deviation angle.

A convenient way to measure the refractive index of a

prism is to direct a light ray through the prism so it produces the minimum deviation angle. This yields a simple
formula:[2]
A+D

n =

sin( 2 )
sin( A
2 )

where n is the refractive index at a wavelength , D is the

angle of minimum deviation, and A is the internal angle
of the prism.
When the entrance and exit angles are equal, the deviation angle
of a ray passing through a prism will be a minimum.

3.1 References

As a ray of light enters a transparent material, the rays

direction is deected, based on both the entrance angle
(typically measured relative to the perpendicular to the
surface) and the materials refractive index, and according
to Snells Law. A beam passing through an object like a

[1] Mark A. Peterson. Minimum Deviation by a Prism.

Mount Holyoke College.
[2] Derivation of Angle of Deviation through a Prism.

Chapter 4

Angle of incidence
for nearly 50 years until a closed-form result was derived
by mathematicians Allen R Miller and Emanuel Vegh in
1991.[1]

ed
ct

Total internal
reection

Re
f

y
t ra
en
Inc
id

n1

Critical angle

ra

n2

ra

Air

Water

Refraction of light at the interface between two media.

4.1.1 Grazing angle

Angle of incidence

When dealing with a beam that is nearly parallel to a surface, it is sometimes more useful to refer to the angle beAngle of incidence is a measure of deviation of some- tween the beam and the surface, rather than that between
thing from straight on, for example:
the beam and the surface normal, in other words 90 minus the angle of incidence. This small angle is called a
in the approach of a ray to a surface, or
glancing angle or grazing angle. Incidence at grazing
angles is called grazing incidence.
the angle at which the wing or horizontal tail of an
airplane is installed on the fuselage, measured rela- Grazing incidence diraction is used in X-ray spectroscopy and atom optics, where signicant reection can
tive to the axis of the fuselage.
be achieved only at small values of the grazing angle.
Ridged mirrors are designed for reection of atoms coming at small grazing angle. This angle is usually measured
4.1 Optics
in milliradians. In optics, there is Lloyds mirror.
In geometric optics, the angle of incidence is the angle
between a ray incident on a surface and the line perpendicular to the surface at the point of incidence, called the
normal. The ray can be formed by any wave: optical,
acoustic, microwave, X-ray and so on. In the gure above,
the red line representing a ray makes an angle with the
normal (dotted line). The angle of incidence at which
light is rst totally internally reected is known as the
critical angle. The angle of reection and angle of refraction are other angles related to beams.

4.2 Angle of incidence of xedwing aircraft

On xed-wing aircraft, the angle of incidence (sometimes

referred to as the mounting angle[2] ) is the angle between
the chord line of the wing where the wing is mounted to
the fuselage, and a reference axis along the fuselage (often
the direction of minimum drag, or where applicable, the
Determining the angle of reection with respect to a pla- longitudinal axis). The angle of incidence is xed in the
nar surface is trivial, but the computation for almost any design of the aircraft, and with rare exceptions, cannot be
other surface is signicantly more dicult. The exact so- varied in ight.
lution for a sphere (which has important applications in The term can also be applied to horizontal surfaces in genastronomy and computer graphics) was an open problem eral (such as canards or horizontal stabilizers) for the an8

4.5. EXTERNAL LINKS

[3] Kermode, A.C. (1972), Mechanics of Flight, Chapter 3,

8th edition, Pitman Publishing, London. ISBN 0-27331623-0

4.5 External links

Weisstein, Eric W.,
MathWorld.

Angle of incidence of an airplane wing on an airplane.

gle they make relative the longitudinal axis of the fuselage.

The gure to the right shows a side view of an airplane.
The extended chord line of the wing root (red line) makes
an angle with the longitudinal axis (roll axis) of the aircraft (blue line). Wings are typically mounted at a small
positive angle of incidence, to allow the fuselage to be
have a low angle with the airow in cruising ight. Angles of incidence of about 6 are common on most general
aviation designs. Other terms for angle of incidence in
this context are rigging angle and riggers angle of incidence. It should not be confused with the angle of attack,
which is the angle the wing chord presents to the airow
in ight. Note that some ambiguity in this terminology
exists, as some engineering texts that focus solely on the
study of airfoils and their medium may use either term
when referring to angle of attack. The use of the term
angle of incidence to refer to the angle of attack occurs
chiey in British usage.[3]

4.3 See also

Eect of sun angle on climate
Reection (physics)
Refraction
Season
Total internal reection

4.4 Notes
[1] Allen R Miller and Emanuel Vegh (1993).
Exact Result for the Grazing Angle of Specular Reection from a Sphere. SIAM Review 35: 472480.
doi:10.1137/1035091.
[2] Phillips, Warren F. (2010). Mechanics of Flight (2nd ed.).
Wiley & Sons. ISBN 978-0-470-53975-0.

Angle of incidence,

geometry : rebound on the strip billiards Flash animation

Chapter 5

Refractive index
torically rst use of refractive indices and is described by
Snells law of refraction, n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2 , where 1
and 2 are the angles of incidence and refraction, respectively, of a ray crossing the interface between two media
with refractive indices n1 and n2 . The refractive indices
also determine the amount of light that is reected when
reaching the interface, as well as the critical angle for total
internal reection and Brewsters angle.[1]
The refractive index can be seen as the factor by which
the speed and the wavelength of the radiation are reduced
with respect to their vacuum values: the phase velocity of
light in a medium is v = c/n, and similarly the wavelength
in that medium is = 0 /n, where 0 is the wavelength
A ray of light being refracted in a plastic block.
of that light in vacuum. This implies that vacuum has a
In optics the refractive index or index of refraction refractive index of 1, and that the frequency (f = v/) of
n of an optical medium is a dimensionless number that the wave is not aected by the refractive index.
describes how light, or any other radiation, propagates The refractive index varies with the wavelength of light.
through that medium. It is dened as
This is called dispersion and causes the splitting of white
light into its constituent colors in prisms and rainbows,
and chromatic aberration in lenses. Light propagation in
c
n= ,
absorbing materials can be described using a complexv
valued refractive index.[2] The imaginary part then hanwhere c is the speed of light in vacuum and v is the phase
dles the attenuation, while the real part accounts for revelocity of light in the medium.
fraction.

refractive index
n1 n2

Refraction of a light ray.

interface

normal

The concept of refractive index is widely used within

the full electromagnetic spectrum, from X-rays to radio
waves. It can also be used with wave phenomena such as
sound. In this case the speed of sound is used instead of
that of light and a reference medium other than vacuum
must be chosen.[3]

5.1 Denition
The refractive index n of an optical medium is dened as
the ratio of the speed of light in vacuum, c = 299792458
m/s, and the phase velocity v of light in the medium,[1]

n=

c
.
v

The refractive index determines how much light is bent, The phase velocity is the speed at which the crests or the
or refracted, when entering a material. This is the his- phase of the wave moves, which may be dierent from
10

5.3. TYPICAL VALUES

the group velocity, the speed at which the pulse of light
or the envelope of the wave moves.

11

5.3 Typical values

The denition above is sometimes referred to as the

absolute refractive index or the absolute index of
refraction to distinguish it from denitions where the
speed of light in other reference media than vacuum is
used.[1] Historically air at a standardized pressure and
temperature have been common as a reference medium.

5.2 History

Diamonds have a very high refractive index of 2.42.

See also: List of refractive indices

For visible light most transparent media have refractive
indices between 1 and 2. A few examples are given in
the table to the right. These values are measured at the
yellow doublet sodium D-line, with a wavelength of 589
nanometers, as is conventionally done.[11] Gases at atmospheric pressure have refractive indices close to 1 because
of their low density. Almost all solids and liquids have
refractive indices above 1.3, with aerogel as the clear exception. Aerogel is a very low density solid that can be
produced with refractive index in the range from 1.002
to 1.265.[12] Diamond lies at the other end of the range
with a refractive index as high as 2.42. Most plastics have
refractive indices in the range from 1.3 to 1.7, but some
high-refractive-index polymers can have values as high as
1.76.[13]
Thomas Young coined the term index of refraction.

Thomas Young was presumably the person who rst used,

and invented, the name index of refraction, in 1807.[4]
At the same time he changed this value of refractive
power into a single number, instead of the traditional ratio of two numbers. The ratio had the disadvantage of
dierent appearances. Newton, who called it the proportion of the sines of incidence and refraction, wrote it
as a ratio of two numbers, like 529 to 396 (or nearly
4 to 3"; for water).[5] Hauksbee, who called it the ratio
of refraction, wrote it as a ratio with a xed numerator,
like 10000 to 7451.9 (for urine).[6] Hutton wrote it as a
ratio with a xed denominator, like 1.3358 to 1 (water).[7]

For infrared light refractive indices can be considerably

higher. Germanium is transparent in the wavelength region from 2 to 14 m and has a refractive index of about
4, making it an important material for infrared optics.[14]

5.3.1 Refractive index below unity

According to the theory of relativity, no information can

travel faster than the speed of light in vacuum, but this
does not mean that the refractive index cannot be lower
than 1. The refractive index measures the phase velocity
of light, which does not carry information.[15] The phase
velocity is the speed at which the crests of the wave move
and can be faster than the speed of light in vacuum, and
thereby give a refractive index below 1. This can occur
Young did not use a symbol for the index of refraction, close to resonance frequencies, for absorbing media, in
in 1807. In the next years, others started using dier- plasmas, and for X-rays. In the X-ray regime the refracent symbols: n, m, and .[8][9][10] The symbol n gradually tive indices are lower than but very close to 1 (exceptions
prevailed.
close to some resonance frequencies).[16] As an exam-

12

CHAPTER 5. REFRACTIVE INDEX

ple, water has a refractive index of 0.99999974 = 1 radiated in other directions or even at other frequencies
2.6107 for X-ray radiation at a photon energy of 30 (see scattering).
keV (0.04 nm wavelength).[16]
Depending on the relative phase of the original driving
wave and the waves radiated by the charge motion, there
are several possibilities:

5.3.2

Negative refractive index

See also: Negative index metamaterials

Recent research has also demonstrated the existence of

A split-ring resonator array arranged to produce a negative index

of refraction for microwaves.

materials with a negative refractive index, which can occur if permittivity and permeability have simultaneous
negative values.[17] This can be achieved with periodically
constructed metamaterials. The resulting negative refraction (i.e., a reversal of Snells law) oers the possibility
of the superlens and other exotic phenomena.[18]

5.4 Microscopic explanation

At the microscale, an electromagnetic waves phase velocity is slowed in a material because the electric eld
creates a disturbance in the charges of each atom (primarily the electrons) proportional to the electric susceptibility
of the medium. (Similarly, the magnetic eld creates a
disturbance proportional to the magnetic susceptibility.)
As the electromagnetic elds oscillate in the wave, the
charges in the material will be shaken back and forth
at the same frequency.[1]:67 The charges thus radiate their
own electromagnetic wave that is at the same frequency,
but usually with a phase delay, as the charges may move
out of phase with the force driving them (see sinusoidally
driven harmonic oscillator). The light wave traveling in
the medium is the macroscopic superposition (sum) of all
such contributions in the material: the original wave plus
the waves radiated by all the moving charges. This wave
is typically a wave with the same frequency but shorter
wavelength than the original, leading to a slowing of the
waves phase velocity. Most of the radiation from oscillating material charges will modify the incoming wave,
changing its velocity. However, some net energy will be

If the electrons emit a light wave which is 90 out

of phase with the light wave shaking them, it will
cause the total light wave to travel more slowly. This
is called normal refraction, is observed for transparent materials like glass or water, and corresponds
to a refractive index which is real and greater than
1.[19]
If the electrons emit a light wave which is 270 out of
phase with the light wave shaking them, it will cause
the total light wave to travel more quickly. This is
called anomalous refraction, and is observed close
to absorption lines, with X-rays, and in some microwave systems. It corresponds to a refractive index less than 1. (Even though the phase velocity of
light is greater than the speed of light in vacuum c,
the signal velocity is not, as discussed above.) If the
response is suciently strong and out-of-phase, the
result is a negative refractive index.[19]
If the electrons emit a light wave which is 180 out
of phase with the light wave shaking them, it will destructively interfere with the original light to reduce
the total light intensity. This is light absorption in
opaque materials and corresponds to an imaginary
refractive index.
If the electrons emit a light wave which is in phase
with the light wave shaking them, it will amplify the
light wave. This is rare, but occurs in lasers due to
stimulated emission. It corresponds to an imaginary
index of refraction, with the opposite sign to that of
absorption.
For most materials at visible-light frequencies, the phase
is somewhere between 90 and 180, corresponding to a
combination of both refraction and absorption.

5.5 Dispersion
Main article: Dispersion (optics)
The refractive index of materials varies with the wavelength (and frequency) of light.[20] This is called dispersion and causes prisms and rainbows to divide white light
into its constituent spectral colors.[21] As the refractive
index varies with wavelength, so will the refraction angle as light goes from one material to another. Dispersion also causes the focal length of lenses to be wavelength dependent. This is a type of chromatic aberration, which often needs to be corrected for in imaging
systems. In regions of the spectrum where the material

5.6. COMPLEX REFRACTIVE INDEX

13

The variation of refractive index with wavelength for various

glasses.

V =

Light of dierent colors has slightly dierent refractive indices

in water and therefore shows up at dierent positions in the
rainbow.

nyellow 1
.
nblue nred

For a more accurate description of the wavelength dependence of the refractive index, the Sellmeier equation
can be used.[22] It is an empirical formula that works well
in describing dispersion. Sellmeier coecients are often
quoted instead of the refractive index in tables.
Because of dispersion, it is usually important to specify
the vacuum wavelength of light for which a refractive index is measured. Typically, measurements are done at
various well-dened spectral emission lines; for example,
nD usually denotes the refractive index at the Fraunhofer
D line, the centre of the yellow sodium double emission
at 589.29 nm wavelength.[11]

5.6 Complex refractive index

See also: Mathematical descriptions of opacity
When light passes through a medium, some part of it will
always be attenuated. This can be conveniently taken into
account by dening a complex refractive index,
In a prism dispersion causes dierent colors to refract at dierent
angles, splitting white light into a rainbow of colors.

n = n + i.
does not absorb light, the refractive index tends to decrease with increasing wavelength, and thus increase with
frequency. This is called normal dispersion, in contrast
to anomalous dispersion, where the refractive index increases with wavelength.[20] For visible light normal dispersion means that the refractive index is higher for blue
light than for red.

Here, the real part n is the refractive index and indicates

the phase velocity, while the imaginary part is called
the extinction coecientalthough this can also refer
to the mass attenuation coecient[23]:3 and indicates
the amount of attenuation when the electromagnetic wave
propagates through the material.[1]:128

That corresponds to attenuation can be seen by inserting

this refractive index into the expression for electric eld of
For optics in the visual range, the amount of dispersion of a plane electromagnetic wave traveling in the z-direction.
a lens material is often quantied by the Abbe number:[21] We can do this by relating the complex wave number k to

14

CHAPTER 5. REFRACTIVE INDEX

tion signicantly, reducing the materials transparency to
these frequencies.
The real, n, and imaginary, , parts of the complex refractive index are related through the KramersKronig relations. In 1986 A.R. Forouhi and I. Bloomer deduced an
equation describing as a function of photon energy, E,
applicable to amorphous materials. Forouhi and Bloomer
then applied the KramersKronig relation to derive the
corresponding equation for n as a function of E. The same
formalism was applied to crystalline materials by Forouhi
and Bloomer in 1988.

A graduated neutral density lter showing light absorption in the

upper half.

The refractive index and extinction coecient, n and

, cannot be measured directly. They must be determined indirectly from measurable quantities that depend
on them, such as reectance, R, or transmittance, T, or
ellipsometric parameters, and . The determination of
n and from such measured quantities will involve developing a theoretical expression for R or T, or and
in terms of a valid physical model for n and . By tting
the theoretical model to the measured R or T, or and
using regression analysis, n and can be deduced.

For X-ray and extreme ultraviolet radiation the complex

refractive index deviates only slightly from unity and usually has a real part smaller than 1. It is therefore normally
the complex refractive index n through k = 2n/0 , with written as n = 1 + i (or n = 1 i with the alter0 being the vacuum wavelength; this can be inserted into native convention mentioned above).[2]
the plane wave expression as
[
]
[
]
[
]
0
E(z, t) = Re E0 ei(kzt) = Re E0 ei(2(n+i)z/0 t) 5.7
= e2z/
Re E0 ei(kzt)
.
Relations
to other
Here we see that gives an exponential decay, as expected from the BeerLambert law. Since intensity is 5.7.1
proportional to the square of the electric eld, it will depend on the depth into the material as exp(4z/0 ),
and the attenuation coecient becomes = 4/0 .[1]:128
This also relates it to the penetration depth, the distance
after which the intensity is reduced by 1/e, = 1/ =
0 /(4).

quantities

Optical path length

Both n and are dependent on the frequency. In most circumstances > 0 (light is absorbed) or = 0 (light travels
forever without loss). In special situations, especially in
the gain medium of lasers, it is also possible that < 0,
corresponding to an amplication of the light.
An alternative convention uses n = n i instead of n = n
+ i, but where > 0 still corresponds to loss. Therefore
these two conventions are inconsistent and should not be
confused. The dierence is related to dening sinusoidal
time dependence as Re[exp(it)] versus Re[exp(+it)]. The colors of a soap bubble are determined by the optical path
See Mathematical descriptions of opacity.
length through the thin soap lm in a phenomenon called thinDielectric loss and non-zero DC conductivity in materials cause absorption. Good dielectric materials such as
glass have extremely low DC conductivity, and at low
frequencies the dielectric loss is also negligible, resulting
in almost no absorption. However, at higher frequencies
(such as visible light), dielectric loss may increase absorp-

lm interference.

Optical path length (OPL) is the product of the geometric

length d of the path light follows through a system, and
the index of refraction of the medium through which it
propagates,[24]

5.7. RELATIONS TO OTHER QUANTITIES

15

OPL = nd.
This is an important concept in optics because it determines the phase of the light and governs interference
and diraction of light as it propagates. According to
Fermats principle, light rays can be characterized as
those curves that optimize the optical path length.[1]:6869

5.7.2

Refraction

n1
v1

n2 index
v2 velocity

Total internal reection can be seen at the air-water boundary.

normal

interface

Refraction of light at the interface between two media of dierent

refractive indices, with n2 > n1 . Since the phase velocity is lower
in the second medium (v2 < v1 ), the angle of refraction 2 is less
than the angle of incidence 1 ; that is, the ray in the higher-index
medium is closer to the normal.

When light moves from one medium to another, it

changes direction, i.e. it is refracted. If it moves from
a medium with refractive index n1 to one with refractive
index n2 , with an incidence angle to the surface normal of
1 , the refraction angle 2 can be calculated from Snells
law:[25]

n1 sin 1 = n2 sin 2 .
When light enters a material with higher refractive index,
the angle of refraction will be smaller than the angle of incidence and the light will be refracted towards the normal
of the surface. The higher the refractive index, the closer
to the normal direction the light will travel. When passing into a medium with lower refractive index, the light
will instead be refracted away from the normal, towards
the surface.

5.7.3

Total internal reection

going to a less optically dense material, i.e., one with

lower refractive index. To get total internal reection the
angles of incidence 1 must be larger than the critical
angle[27]
(

)
n2
c = arcsin
.
n1

5.7.4 Reectivity
Apart from the transmitted light there is also a reected
part. The reection angle is equal to the incidence angle,
and the amount of light that is reected is determined by
the reectivity of the surface. The reectivity can be calculated from the refractive index and the incidence angle
with the Fresnel equations, which for normal incidence
reduces to[26]:44


 n1 n2 2

 .
R0 = 
n1 + n2 
For common glass in air, n1 = 1 and n2 = 1.5, and thus
about 4% of the incident power is reected.[28] At other
incidence angles the reectivity will also depend on the
polarization of the incoming light. At a certain angle
called Brewsters angle, p-polarized light (light with the
electric eld in the plane of incidence) will be totally
transmitted. Brewsters angle can be calculated from the
two refractive indices of the interface as [1]:245

If there is no angle 2 fullling Snells law, i.e.,

( )
n2
B = arctan
.
n1

n1
sin 1 > 1,
n2

5.7.5 Lenses

the light cannot be transmitted and will instead undergo The focal length of a lens is determined by its refractotal internal reection.[26]:4950 This occurs only when tive index n and the radii of curvature R1 and R2 of its

16

CHAPTER 5. REFRACTIVE INDEX

and the complex refractive index n, with real and imaginary parts n and (the latter called the extinction coefcient), follow the relation
r = r + i
r = n2 = (n + i)2 ,
and their components are related by:[33]
r = n2 2 ,

The power of a magnifying glass is determined by the shape and

refractive index of the lens.

surfaces. The power of a thin lens in air is given by the

Lensmakers formula:[29]
(
)
1
1
1
= (n 1)

,
f
R1
R2
where f is the focal length of the lens.

5.7.6

Microscope resolution

r = 2n,
and:

n=

|r | + r
,
2

|r | r
.
2

where |r | = 2r + 2r is the complex modulus.

=

5.7.8 Density

The resolution of a good optical microscope is mainly determined by the numerical aperture (NA) of its objective
lens. The numerical aperture in turn is determined by the
refractive index n of the medium lling the space between
the sample and the lens and the half collection angle of
light according to[30]:6

NA = n sin .
For this reason oil immersion is commonly used to obtain high resolution in microscopy. In this technique the
objective is dipped into a drop of high refractive index Relation between the refractive index and the density of silicate
immersion oil on the sample under study.[30]:14
and borosilicate glasses.[34]

5.7.7

In general, the refractive index of a glass increases with

Relative permittivity and permeabil- its density. However, there does not exist an overall linity
ear relation between the refractive index and the density

The refractive index of electromagnetic radiation equals

n=

r r ,

where is the materials relative permittivity, and

is its relative permeability.[31]:229 The refractive index
is used for optics in Fresnel equations and Snells law;
while the relative permittivity and permeability are used
in Maxwells equations and electronics. Most naturally
occurring materials are non-magnetic at optical frequencies, that is r is very close to 1, [32] therefore n is approximately . In this particular case, the complex relative
permittivity , with real and imaginary parts and ,

for all silicate and borosilicate glasses. A relatively high

refractive index and low density can be obtained with
glasses containing light metal oxides such as Li2 O and
MgO, while the opposite trend is observed with glasses
containing PbO and BaO as seen in the diagram at the
right.
Many oils (such as olive oil) and ethyl alcohol are examples of liquids which are more refractive, but less dense,
than water, contrary to the general correlation between
density and refractive index.
For gases, n 1 is proportional to the density of the gas
as long as the chemical composition does not change.[35]
This means that it is also proportional to the pressure and
inversely proportional to the temperature for ideal gases.

5.8. NONSCALAR, NONLINEAR, OR NONHOMOGENEOUS REFRACTION

5.7.9

17

Group index

A 2010 study suggested that both equations are correct,

with the Abraham version being the kinetic momentum
Sometimes, a group velocity refractive index, usually and the Minkowski version being the canonical momencalled the group index is dened:
tum, and claims to explain the contradicting experimental
results using this interpretation.[39]
ng =

c
,
vg

5.7.11 Other relations

where v is the group velocity. This value should not

be confused with n, which is always dened with respect As shown in the Fizeau experiment, when light is transto the phase velocity. When the dispersion is small, the mitted through a moving medium, its speed relative to a
group velocity can be linked to the phase velocity by the stationary observer is:
relation[26]:22
(
)
c
1
V = +v 1 2 .
dv
n
n
vg = v ,
d
The refractive index of a substance can be related to its
where is the wavelength in the medium. In this case
polarizability with the LorentzLorenz equation or to the
the group index can thus be written in terms of the wavemolar refractivities of its constituents by the Gladstone
length dependence of the refractive index as
Dale relation.
ng =

n
.
1 + n dn
d

When the refractive index of a medium is known as a

function of the vacuum wavelength (instead of the wavelength in the medium), the corresponding expressions for
the group velocity and index are (for all values of dispersion) [36]
(
)1
dn
vg = c n 0
,
d0
dn
,
d0
where 0 is the wavelength in vacuum.

5.7.12 Refractivity
In atmospheric applications, the refractivity is taken as N
= n 1. Atmospheric refractivity is often expressed as
either[40] N = 106 (n 1)[41][42] or N = 108 (n 1)[43] The
multiplication factors are used because the refractive index for air, n deviates from unity by at most a few parts
per ten thousand.
Molar refractivity, on the other hand, is a measure of the
total polarizability of a mole of a substance and can be
calculated from the refractive index as

ng = n 0

5.7.10

In 1908, Hermann Minkowski calculated the momentum

p of a refracted ray as follows:[37]
nE
,
c

M n2 1
,
n2 + 2

Momentum (AbrahamMinkowski where is the density, and M is the molar mass.[26]:93

controversy)

Main article: AbrahamMinkowski controversy

p=

A=

5.8 Nonscalar, nonlinear, or nonhomogeneous refraction

So far, we have assumed that refraction is given by linear
equations involving a spatially constant, scalar refractive
index. These assumptions can break down in dierent
ways, to be described in the following subsections.

where E is energy of the photon, c is the speed of light in

vacuum and n is the refractive index of the medium. In
5.8.1 Birefringence
1909, Max Abraham proposed the following formula for
this calculation:[38]
Main article: Birefringence
In some materials the refractive index depends on the
polarization
and propagation direction of the light.[44]
E
p=
.
This is called birefringence or optical anisotropy.
nc

18

CHAPTER 5. REFRACTIVE INDEX

scribed by the eld of crystal optics, the dielectric constant
is a rank-2 tensor (a 3 by 3 matrix). In this case the propagation of light cannot simply be described by refractive
indices except for polarizations along principal axes.

5.8.2 Nonlinearity
A calcite crystal laid upon a paper with some letters showing
double refraction.

Main article: Nonlinear optics

The strong electric eld of high intensity light (such as
output of a laser) may cause a mediums refractive index to vary as the light passes through it, giving rise to
nonlinear optics.[1]:502 If the index varies quadratically
with the eld (linearly with the intensity), it is called the
optical Kerr eect and causes phenomena such as selffocusing and self-phase modulation.[1]:264 If the index
varies linearly with the eld (a nontrivial linear coecient
is only possible in materials that do not possess inversion
symmetry), it is known as the Pockels eect.[1]:265

5.8.3 Inhomogeneity

Birefringent materials can give rise to colors when placed between

crossed polarizers. This is the basis for photoelasticity.

In the simplest form, uniaxial birefringence, there is only

one special direction in the material. This axis is known
as the optical axis of the material.[1]:230 Light with linear polarization perpendicular to this axis will experience an ordinary refractive index n while light polarized
in parallel will experience an extraordinary refractive index n.[1]:236 The birefringence of the material is the difference between these indices of refraction, n = n
n.[1]:237 Light propagating in the direction of the optical axis will not be aected by the birefringence since
the refractive index will be n independent of polarization. For other propagation directions the light will split
into two linearly polarized beams. For light traveling perpendicularly to the optical axis the beams will have the
same direction.[1]:233 This can be used to change the polarization direction of linearly polarized light or to convert between linear, circular and elliptical polarizations
with waveplates.[1]:237
Many crystals are naturally birefringent, but isotropic materials such as plastics and glass can also often be made
birefringent by introducing a preferred direction through,
e.g., an external force or electric eld. This can be utilized in the determination of stresses in structures using
photoelasticity. The birefringent material is then placed
between crossed polarizers. A change in birefringence
will alter the polarization and thereby the fraction of light
that is transmitted through the second polarizer.
In the more general case of trirefringent materials de-

A gradient-index lens with a parabolic variation of refractive index (n) with radial distance (x). The lens focuses light in the
same way as a conventional lens.

If the refractive index of a medium is not constant, but

varies gradually with position, the material is known as
a gradient-index or GRIN medium and is described by
gradient index optics.[1]:273 Light traveling through such
a medium can be bent or focused, and this eect can be
exploited to produce lenses, some optical bers and other
devices. Introducing GRIN elements in the design of an
optical system can greatly simplify the system, reducing
the number of elements by as much as a third while maintaining overall performance.[1]:276 The crystalline lens of
the human eye is an example of a GRIN lens with a refractive index varying from about 1.406 in the inner core to
approximately 1.386 at the less dense cortex.[1]:203 Some
common mirages are caused by a spatially varying refractive index of air.

5.9 Refractive index measurement

5.9. REFRACTIVE INDEX MEASUREMENT

5.9.1

Homogeneous media

19
chemical and pharmaceutical industry for process control.

Main articles: Refractometry and Refractometer

In gemology a dierent type of refractometer is used
The refractive index of liquids or solids can be meato measure index of refraction and birefringence of
gemstones. The gem is placed on a high refractive index prism and illuminated from below. A high refractive
index contact liquid is used to achieve optical contact between the gem and the prism. At small incidence angles
most of the light will be transmitted into the gem, but
at high angles total internal reection will occur in the
prism. The critical angle is normally measured by looking through a telescope.[47]

5.9.2 Refractive index variations

The principle of many refractometers.

Main article: Phase-contrast imaging

Unstained biological structures appear mostly transpar-

sured with refractometers. They typically measure some

angle of refraction or the critical angle for total internal
reection. The rst laboratory refractometers sold commercially were developed by Ernst Abbe in the late 19th
century.[45] The same principles are still used today. In
this instrument a thin layer of the liquid to be measured
is placed between two prisms. Light is shone through the
liquid at incidence angles all the way up to 90, i.e., light
rays parallel to the surface. The second prism should have
an index of refraction higher than that of the liquid, so
that light only enters the prism at angles smaller than the
critical angle for total reection. This angle can then be
measured either by looking through a telescope, or with
a digital photodetector placed in the focal plane of a lens.
The refractive index n of the liquid can then be calculated
from the maximum transmission angle as n = nG sin ,
where nG is the refractive index of the prism.[46]
A dierential interference contrast microscopy image of yeast
cells.

ent under Bright-eld_microscopy as most cellular structures do not attenuate appreciable quantities of light.
Nevertheless, the variation in the materials that constitutes these structures also corresponds to a variation in
the refractive index. The following techniques convert
such variation into measurable amplitude dierences:

A handheld refractometer used to measure sugar content of

fruits.

This type of devices are commonly used in chemical laboratories for identication of substances and for quality
control. Handheld variants are used in agriculture by,
e.g., wine makers to determine sugar content in grape
juice, and inline process refractometers are used in, e.g.,

To measure the spatial variation of refractive index in a

sample phase-contrast imaging methods are used. These
methods measure the variations in phase of the light wave
exiting the sample. The phase is proportional to the
optical path length the light ray has traversed, and thus
gives a measure of the integral of the refractive index
along the ray path. The phase cannot be measured directly at optical or higher frequencies, and therefore needs
to be converted into intensity by interference with a reference beam. In the visual spectrum this is done using
Zernike phase-contrast microscopy, dierential interference contrast microscopy (DIC) or interferometry.

20
Zernike phase-contrast microscopy introduces a phase
shift to the low spatial frequency components of the image
with a phase-shifting annulus in the Fourier plane of the
sample, so that high-spatial-frequency parts of the image can interfere with the low-frequency reference beam.
In DIC the illumination is split up into two beams that
are given dierent polarizations, are phase shifted dierently, and are shifted transversely with slightly dierent
amounts. After the specimen, the two parts are made to
interfere, giving an image of the derivative of the optical path length in the direction of the dierence in transverse shift.[30] In interferometry the illumination is split
up into two beams by a partially reective mirror. One of
the beams is let through the sample before they are combined to interfere and give a direct image of the phase
shifts. If the optical path length variations are more than
a wavelength the image will contain fringes.
There exist several phase-contrast X-ray imaging techniques to determine 2D or 3D spatial distribution of refractive index of samples in the X-ray regime.[48]

5.10 Applications
The refractive index is a very important property of the
components of any optical instrument that uses refraction.
It determines the focusing power of lenses, the dispersive
power of prisms, and generally the path of light through
the system. It is the increase in refractive index in the core
that guides the light in an optical ber, and the variations
in refractive index that reduces the reectivity of a surface
treated with an anti-reective coating.

CHAPTER 5. REFRACTIVE INDEX

ClausiusMossotti relation
Ellipsometry
Index-matching material
Index ellipsoid
Optical properties of water and ice

5.12 References
[1] Hecht, Eugene (2002). Optics. Addison-Wesley. ISBN
0-321-18878-0.
[2] Attwood, David (1999). Soft X-rays and extreme ultraviolet radiation: principles and applications. p. 60. ISBN
0-521-02997-X.
[3] Kinsler, Lawrence E. (2000). Fundamentals of Acoustics.
John Wiley. p. 136. ISBN 0-471-84789-5.
[4] Young, Thomas (1807). A course of lectures on natural
philosophy and the mechanical arts. p. 413.
[5] Newton, Isaac (1730). Opticks: Or, A Treatise of the Reections, Refractions, Inections and Colours of Light. p.
247.
[6] Hauksbee, Francis (1710). A Description of the Apparatus for Making Experiments on the Refractions of Fluids.
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London
27 (325336): 207. doi:10.1098/rstl.1710.0015.
[7] Hutton, Charles (1795). Philosophical and mathematical
dictionary. p. 299.

Since refractive index is a fundamental physical property [8] von Fraunhofer, Joseph (1817). Bestimmung des
of a substance, it is often used to identify a particular subBrechungs und Farbenzerstreuungs Vermogens verstance, conrm its purity, or measure its concentration.
schiedener Glasarten. Denkschriften der Kniglichen
Refractive index is used to measure solids, liquids, and
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Mnchen 5: 208. Exgases. Most commonly it is used to measure the concenponent des Brechungsverhltnisses is index of refraction
tration of a solute in an aqueous solution. It can also be
used as a useful tool to dierentiate between dierent [9] Brewster, David (1815). On the structure of doubly
refracting crystals. Philosophical Magazine 45: 126.
types of gemstone, due to the unique chatoyance each indoi:10.1080/14786441508638398.
dividual stone displays. A refractometer is the instrument
used to measure refractive index. For a solution of sugar, [10] Herschel, John F.W. (1828). On the Theory of Light. p.
the refractive index can be used to determine the sugar
368.
content (see Brix).
[11] Forensic Science Communications, Glass Refractive In-

In GPS, the index of refraction is utilized in ray-tracing to

dex Determination. FBI Laboratory Services. Retrieved
account for the radio propagation delay due to the Earths
2014-09-08.
electrically neutral atmosphere. It is also used in Satellite
link design for the computation of radiowave attenuation [12] Tabata, M.; et al. (2005). Development of Silica Aerogel with Any Density (PDF). 2005 IEEE Nuclear Science
in the atmosphere.
Symposium Conference Record.

5.11 See also

Fermats principle
Calculation of glass properties

[13] Naoki Sadayori and Yuji Hotta Polycarbodiimide having

high index of refraction and production method thereof
US patent 2004/0158021 A1 (2004)
[14] Tosi, Jerey L., article on Common Infrared Optical Materials in the Photonics Handbook, accessed on 2014-0910

5.12. REFERENCES

[15] Als-Nielsen, J.; McMorrow, D. (2011). Elements of Modern X-ray Physics. Wiley-VCH. p. 25. ISBN 978-0-47097395-0. One consequence of the real part of n being less
than unity is that it implies that the phase velocity inside
the material, c/n, is larger than the velocity of light, c. This
does not, however, violate the law of relativity, which requires that only signals carrying information do not travel
faster than c. Such signals move with the group velocity,
not with the phase velocity, and it can be shown that the
group velocity is in fact less than c.
[16] X-Ray Interactions With Matter. The Center for X-Ray
Optics. Retrieved 2011-08-30.
[17] Veselago, V. G. (1968).
The electrodynamics of substances with simultaneously negative
values of and ".
Soviet Physics Uspekhi 10
(4):
509514.
Bibcode:1968SvPhU..10..509V.
doi:10.1070/PU1968v010n04ABEH003699.

21

[30] Carlsson, Kjell (2007). Light microscopy (PDF). Retrieved 2015-01-02.

[31] Bleaney, B.; Bleaney, B.I. (1976). Electricity and Magnetism (Third ed.). Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19851141-8.
[32] Urzhumov, Yaroslav A.; Urzhumov, Yaroslav A (2005).
Electric and magnetic properties of sub-wavelength plasmonic crystals. Journal of Optics A: Pure and Applied Optics 7 (2): S23. Bibcode:2005JOptA...7S..23S.
doi:10.1088/1464-4258/7/2/003.
[33] Wooten, Frederick (1972). Optical Properties of Solids.
New York City: Academic Press. p. 49. ISBN 0-12763450-9.(online pdf)
[34] Calculation of the Refractive Index of Glasses. Statistical Calculation and Development of Glass Properties.

[18] Shalaev, V. M. (2007).

Optical negative-index
metamaterials.
Nature Photonics (Nature Publishing Group) 1: 4148. Bibcode:2007NaPho...1...41S.
doi:10.1038/nphoton.2006.49. Retrieved 2014-09-07.

[35] Stone, Jack A.; Zimmerman, Jay H. (2011-12-28). Index

of refraction of air. Engineering metrology toolbox. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST). Retrieved 2014-01-11.

[19] Feynman, Richard P. (2011). Feynman Lectures on

Physics 1: Mainly Mechanics, Radiation, and Heat. Basic Books. ISBN 978-0-465-02493-3.

[36] Bor, Z.; Osvay, K.; Rcz, B.; Szab, G. (1990).

Group refractive index measurement by Michelson interferometer. Optics Communications 78 (2): 109
112. Bibcode:1990OptCo..78..109B. doi:10.1016/00304018(90)90104-2.

[20] R. Paschotta, article on chromatic dispersion in the

Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology, accessed
on 2014-09-08
[21] Carl R. Nave, page on Dispersion in HyperPhysics, Department of Physics and Astronomy, Georgia State University, accessed on 2014-09-08
[22] R. Paschotta, article on Sellmeier formula in the
Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology, accessed
on 2014-09-08
[23] Dresselhaus, M. S. (1999). Solid State Physics Part II
Optical Properties of Solids (PDF). Course 6.732 Solid
State Physics. MIT. Retrieved 2015-01-05.
[24] R. Paschotta, article on optical thickness in the
Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology, accessed
on 2014-09-08
[25] R. Paschotta, article on refraction in the Encyclopedia of
Laser Physics and Technology, accessed on 2014-09-08
[26] Born, Max; Wolf, Emil (1999). Principles of Optics (7th
expanded ed.). ISBN 978-0-521-78449-8.
[27] R. Paschotta, article on [href="https://www.rp-photonics.
com/total_internal_reflection.html total internal reection] in the Encyclopedia of Laser Physics and Technology, accessed on 2014-09-08
[28] Swenson, Jim; Incorporates Public Domain material from
the U.S. Department of Energy (November 10, 2009).
Refractive Index of Minerals. Newton BBS, Argonne
National Laboratory, US DOE. Retrieved 2010-07-28.
[29] Carl R. Nave, page on the Lens-Makers Formula in
HyperPhysics, Department of Physics and Astronomy,
Georgia State University, accessed on 2014-09-08

[37] Minkowski, Hermann (1908). Die Grundgleichung fr

die elektromagnetischen Vorgnge in bewegten Krpern.
Nachrichten von der Gesellschaft der Wissenschaften zu
Gttingen, Mathematisch-Physikalische Klasse: 53111.
[38] Abraham, Max (1909). "Zur Elektrodynamik bewegter
Krper". Rendiconti del Circolo Matematico di Palermo
28 (1).
[39] Barnett, Stephen (2010-02-07). Resolution of the
Abraham-Minkowski Dilemma. Phys. Rev. Lett. 104
(7):
070401.
Bibcode:2010PhRvL.104g0401B.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.104.070401.
PMID
20366861.
[40] Young, A. T. (2011), Refractivity of Air, retrieved 31 July
2014
[41] Barrell, H.; Sears, J. E. (1939), The Refraction
and Dispersion of Air for the Visible Spectrum,
Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of
London, A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences
238 (786):
164, Bibcode:1939RSPTA.238....1B,
doi:10.1098/rsta.1939.0004, JSTOR 91351
[42] Aparicio, Josep M.; Laroche, Stphane (2011-0602). An evaluation of the expression of the atmospheric refractivity for GPS signals. Journal of
Geophysical Research (American Geophysical Union)
116 (D11): D11104. Bibcode:2011JGRD..11611104A.
doi:10.1029/2010JD015214. Retrieved 13 January 2014.
[43] Ciddor, P. E. (1996), Refractive Index of Air: New
Equations for the Visible and Near Infrared, Applied Optics 35 (9): 15661573, Bibcode:1996ApOpt..35.1566C,
doi:10.1364/ao.35.001566

22

CHAPTER 5. REFRACTIVE INDEX

[44] R. Paschotta, article on birefringence in the Encyclopedia

of Laser Physics and Technology, accessed on 2014-0909
[45] The Evolution of the Abbe Refractometer. Humboldt
State University, Richard A. Paselk. 1998. Retrieved
2011-09-03.
[46] Refractometers and refractometry. Refractometer.pl.
2011. Retrieved 2011-09-03.
[47] Refractometer.
2011-09-03.

The Gemology Project.

Retrieved

[48] Fitzgerald, Richard (July 2000).

PhaseSensitive
XRay Imaging.
Physics Today 53 (7):
23.
Bibcode:2000PhT....53g..23F. doi:10.1063/1.1292471.

5.13 External links

NIST calculator for determining the refractive index
of air
Dielectric materials
Science World
Filmetrics online database Free database of refractive index and absorption coecient information
RefractiveIndex.INFO Refractive index database
featuring online plotting and parameterisation of
data
sopra-sa.com Refractive index database as text les
(sign-up required)
LUXPOP Thin lm and bulk index of refraction and
photonics calculations

Chapter 6

Prism spectrometer
which in turn is slightly dependent on the wavelength of
light that is traveling through it.

6.1 Theory
Light is emitted from a source such as a vapor lamp. A
slit selects a thin strip of light which passes through the
collimator where it gets parallelized. The aligned light
then passes through the prism in which it is refracted
twice (once when entering and once when leaving). Due
to the nature of a dispersive element the angle with which
light is refracted depends on its wavelength. This leads to
a spectrum of thin lines of light, each being observable at
a dierent angle.

Setup of a prism spectrometer

Replacing the prism with a diraction grating would result in a grating spectrometer. Optical gratings are less
expensive, provide much higher resolution, and are easier to calibrate, due to their linear diraction dependency.
A prisms refraction angle varies nonlinearly with wavelength. On the other hand, gratings have signicant intensity losses.

Setup of a prism spectrometer (low angle with light)

6.2 Usage
6.2.1 Spectroscopy
A prism spectrometer may be used to determine the composition of a material from its emitted spectral lines.

Setup of a prism spectrometer (high angle with light)

6.2.2 Measurement of refractive index

A prism spectrometer is an optical spectrometer which

uses a dispersive prism as its dispersive element. The
prism refracts light into its dierent colors (wavelengths).
The dispersion occurs because the angle of refraction is
dependent on the refractive index of the prisms material,

A prism spectrometer may be used to measure the refractive index of a material if the wavelengths of the light
used are known. The calibration of a prism spectrometer
is carried out with known spectral lines from vapor lamps
or laser light.

23

24

6.3 External links

The prism spectrometer Physics Laboratory Guide,
Durham University
The Prism Spectrometer
Spectrometer, Refractive Index of the material of a
prism Virtual Laboratory, Amrita University

CHAPTER 6. PRISM SPECTROMETER

6.4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

25

6.4 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

6.4.1

Text

Spectrometer Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrometer?oldid=676465986 Contributors: Vsmith, Kkmurray, HPaul, Ronningt,

Download, Tom.Reding, ClueBot NG, BG19bot, Crystallizedcarbon, KasparBot and Anonymous: 3
Prism Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prism?oldid=683039989 Contributors: DrBob, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Glenn, Tantalate,
Saltine, Robbot, Hankwang, Chris 73, Altenmann, DHN, Hadal, Xanzzibar, Reytan, Mintleaf~enwiki, Fudoreaper, BenFrantzDale, var
Arnfjr Bjarmason, AJim, Andycjp, Chris Howard, Bumphoney, Magic5ball, Vsmith, Pavel Vozenilek, El C, Huntster, Semper discens,
Smalljim, Flammifer, Einar Myre, Mareino, Jumbuck, Snowolf, Lokedhs, Sakus, Alai, HenryLi, Kazvorpal, Kmg90, Xiong, Nanite, Saperaud~enwiki, TeemuN, Johnrpenner, FlaBot, RexNL, Srleer, Spencerk, Johnpenner, Bgwhite, YurikBot, RobotE, RussBot, SpuriousQ,
Eleassar, Wimt, ErkDemon, DeadEyeArrow, BorgQueen, JoanneB, Alexandrov, GrinBot~enwiki, Cmglee, SmackBot, Gilliam, Saros136,
DHN-bot~enwiki, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, MastaTKK367, Lizzielizzielizzie, SundarBot, CanDo, Baby-g, Jidanni, Robosh, IronGargoyle, Grumpyyoungman01, Dicklyon, Citicat, Tawkerbot2, NickSpiker, Karenjc, Meno25, Gogo Dodo, Quibik, Vanished User jdksfajlasd, Justinp93, PKT, Michael Fourman, Thijs!bot, Headbomb, Rlupsa, Escarbot, AntiVandalBot, Widefox, BailesB, Tomorrow Never
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Trueemo, Spinningspark, AlleborgoBot, Symane, SieBot, Trent17 99, Gerakibot, Dawn Bard, Caltas, Flyer22, Aruton, Oxymoron83, Antonio Lopez, WingkeeLEE, BenoniBot~enwiki, ClueBot, Frdayeen, Adrian dakota, Manishearth, Paul Pot, Computer97, Thingg, Versus22,
Adrian Teh, Darkicebot, XLinkBot, RP459, Addbot, Guoguo12, Jncraton, CanadianLinuxUser, Chzz, Tide rolls, Arnoques, Luckas-bot,
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KasparBot, Bobtobs, G.Edenhofer and Anonymous: 226
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Kwamikagami, SmackBot, Pieter Kuiper, Wayne Miller, Biscuittin, WingkeeLEE, KathrynLybarger, ClueBot, Yobot, Capricorn42,
PhysicsR, GoingBatty, Gowtham vmj, Scientic29, Cjb9212, Mogism, SiBr4, Supdiop and Anonymous: 18
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Maury Markowitz, Michael Hardy, Sergiusz Patela, Theresa knott, GRAHAMUK, Syclop, UtherSRG, BenFrantzDale, Frencheigh, Vessbot, Tomruen, Trevor MacInnis, Rich Farmbrough, CanisRufus, Bobo192, Meggar, Mac Davis, IMeowbot, Shoey, Eaolson, Rjwilmsi,
Vegaswikian, Maustrauser, Srleer, Kri, Chobot, Splintercellguy, Ssbohio, Moralis, Bluebot, Viewnder, Eynar, UVnet, Patau, 16@r,
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Spooky1966, Dolphin51, Muhends, ClueBot, Ideal gas equation, Ariadacapo, DumZiBoT, WikHead, RyanCross, Addbot, Fgnievinski,
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DexDor, Mikko raikkonen, Torturella, Wikipelli, Hhhippo, Joshua Doubek, MonoAV, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Jay8g, Mrt3366,
Josell2, Filedelinkerbot, Neilstraus and Anonymous: 59
Refractive index Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Refractive_index?oldid=684659646 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Tarquin,
XJaM, Fredbauder, DrBob, Bdesham, Michael Hardy, W~enwiki, Fwappler, Looxix~enwiki, Ellywa, Stevenj, Tantalate, Andrevan, Maximus Rex, Donarreiskoer, Gentgeen, Robbot, Hankwang, Eman, RedWolf, Yelyos, Chris Roy, Robinh, Diberri, Syntax~enwiki, Centrx,
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Rhkramer, JMO, Stefano85, Lambiam, Akhlesh, Nick Green, Mksword, Patau, Jonasbinding, Mr Stephen, Rogerbrent, Erwin, MTSbot~enwiki, Vincecate, DabMachine, Pgadfor, Mrainer, Andreas Rejbrand, Jaksmata, Tawkerbot2, Hammer Raccoon, Kingoomieiii, Domanix, Chrumps, NickSpiker, Aubrey Jaer, Icek~enwiki, Cydebot, Diuoroethene, Skittleys, SteveMcCluskey, Msebast~enwiki, ,
Barticus88, Frozenport, Headbomb, Pjvpjv, John254, Timbercon, Ingolfson, CosineKitty, Swpb, Georgeasdf, UnaLaguna, Daarznieks, JJ
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Yuhuach, VoteITP, Racerx11, Koilon, , Brandmeister, Donner60, Carmichael, RockMagnetist, Hiukkas, Mjbmrbot, Thuytnguyen48,
ClueBot NG, Ulund, Pradeep717, Gilderien, Wgolf, Touchlee, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot, Yosemite29brandon, Nsda,
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Philg88, Revent, Yobot, Elee, Josve05a, BattyBot and G.Edenhofer

26

CHAPTER 6. PRISM SPECTROMETER

6.4.2

Images

File:Aircraft_Angle_of_Incidence_(improved)-$-$1080x660-$-$25Mar2009.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/

en/0/0e/Aircraft_Angle_of_Incidence_%28improved%29-$-$1080x660-$-$25Mar2009.jpg License: PD Contributors:
Own work
Original artist:
Gummer85 (talk) (Uploads)
File:Angle_of_incidence.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/Angle_of_incidence.svg License: Public
domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Andreas 06
File:Brillanten.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/Brillanten.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
Self-photographed Original artist: Mario Sarto
File:Calcite.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7a/Calcite.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Comparison_refraction_diffraction_spectra.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Comparison_
refraction_diffraction_spectra.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Cmglee
File:Deflection_of_light_ray_passing_through_prism.png
Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/
Deflection_of_light_ray_passing_through_prism.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: created in powerpoint Original artist:
PhysicsR
File:Density-nd.GIF Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/3b/Density-nd.GIF License: PD Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
File:Deviation_angle_of_a_beam_of_light_entering_a_medium_with_refractive_index.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/
wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Deviation_angle_of_a_beam_of_light_entering_a_medium_with_refractive_index.png License: CC0 Contributors: PowerPoint Original artist: PhysicsR
File:Dispersion-curve.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/20/Dispersion-curve.png License: CC-BY-SA3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: DrBob at English Wikipedia
File:Experiment_setup.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/90/Experiment_setup.svg License: CC BY-SA
4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Gordian Edenhofer
File:Experiment_setup_(high_angle_with_light).svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/da/Experiment_setup_
%28high_angle_with_light%29.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
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Gordian Edenhofer
File:Experiment_setup_(low_angle_with_light).svg Source:
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%28low_angle_with_light%29.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
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Original artist:
Gordian Edenhofer
File:Focus01.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Focus01.png License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors:
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File:FuerzaCentripetaLorentzP.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/FuerzaCentripetaLorentzP.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jfmelero
File:Gradndfilter.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Gradndfilter.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Ziggur at English Wikipedia
File:Grin-lens.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2c/Grin-lens.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
File:Lens_triplet.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Lens_triplet.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Image:Lens triplet.png Original artist: Panther, Antilived
File:Light_dispersion_conceptual_waves.gif Source:
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conceptual_waves.gif License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Light_dispersion_of_a_mercury-vapor_lamp_with_a_flint_glass_prism_IPNr0125.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.
org/wikipedia/commons/1/1f/Light_dispersion_of_a_mercury-vapor_lamp_with_a_flint_glass_prism_IPNr%C2%B00125.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 at Contributors: Own work Original artist: D-Kuru
File:Lupa.na.encyklopedii.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/Lupa.na.encyklopedii.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Julo
File:Minimum_deflection_of_light_ray_passing_through_prism.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/
e0/Minimum_deflection_of_light_ray_passing_through_prism.png License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: created in powerpoint Original
artist: PhysicsR
File:Plastic_Protractor_Polarized_05375.jpg Source:
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Polarized_05375.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own Photograph Original artist: Nevit Dilmen
File:Prism-side-fs_PNr0117.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Prism-side-fs_PNr%C2%B00117.
jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 at Contributors: Own work Original artist: D-Kuru

6.4. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

27

File:Prism_rainbow_schema.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Prism_rainbow_schema.png License:

CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Prism_ray_trace.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7d/Prism_ray_trace.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
File:Pulfrich_refraktometer_en.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ed/Pulfrich_refraktometer_en.png
License: CC BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: No machine-readable source provided. Own work assumed (based on copyright claims). Original artist: No machine-readable author provided. Kodak17~commonswiki assumed (based on copyright claims).
File:Question_book-new.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
File:RefractionReflextion.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/RefractionReflextion.svg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Josell7
File:Refraction_at_interface.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Refraction_at_interface.svg License:
CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Ulund
File:Refraction_photo.png Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/85/Refraction_photo.png License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.docstoc.com/docs/130534946/Chapter-7-Refractive-index Original artist: ajizai
File:Refractometer.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Refractometer.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Fernando G. (FGM)
File:S_cerevisiae_under_DIC_microscopy.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/S_cerevisiae_under_
DIC_microscopy.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Masur
File:Snells_law.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d1/Snells_law.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: Cristan at English Wikipedia
File:Soap_bubble_sky.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Soap_bubble_sky.jpg License: CC-BY-SA3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Brocken Inaglory
File:Split-ring_resonator_array_10K_sq_nm.jpg Source:
https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/82/Split-ring_
resonator_array_10K_sq_nm.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: NASA Glenn Research Original artist: Jerey.D.Wilson@nasa.gov
(Glenn research contact)
File:Thomas_Young_(scientist).jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9f/Thomas_Young_%28scientist%
29.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: National Portrait Gallery: NPG 1899D7714, also on gutenberg.org Original artist: After
Thomas Lawrence
File:Total_internal_reflection_of_Chelonia_mydas.jpg Source:
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internal_reflection_of_Chelonia_mydas.jpg License: GFDL Contributors: Own work Original artist: Brocken Inaglory
File:WhereRainbowRises.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/27/WhereRainbowRises.jpg License: CC
BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: self-made; at Jasper National Park, Alberta, Canada (along Yellowhead Highway 16 between intersection to
Malign Valley Road and intersection to Snaring River Campground, overlooking Colin Range in the south). Original artist: Wing-Chi Poon

6.4.3

Content license

Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0