The Liver & Neem: Antioxidants
The Liver & Neem: Antioxidants
Overview
Throughout its long history, neem has often been recommended as blood cleanser. The truth of
the matter may be it that helps protect the liver from damage, which in turn helps cleanse
blood. The studies detailed below are extremely complex, but appear to indicate that neem
boosts levels of protective enzymes and decreases level of damaging chemicals, perhaps by
functioning as an antioxidant.
Liver weight and function also are often used as the canary in the mine to test for adverse
effects of chemical compounds and drugs. The largest single gland in the body and the secondlargest organ, the liver filters about a quart of blood every minute, detoxifying blood by
filtering toxins and other chemicals from it. When possible, it converts toxics to less harmful
chemicals through various reactions that typically create free radicals. Antioxidants, like those
found in neem as well as vitamins C and E and other natural carotenoids, neutralize the free
radicals to prevent damage to the liver (see separate section on antioxidants).
Neem leaf appears to minimize chemically induced liver damage in rats, stabilizing serum
levels of serum marker enzymes. Livers of sacrificed rats pretreated with neem leaf show
normal lobular structure with minimum damage from the paracetamol. Additionally, many of
these reports tie back to cancer, particularly mestasizing cancer, because the liver is often the
first organ to be affected. It also plays a key role in controlling cancer, producing critical
enzymes like glutathione and other antioxidants.
From a users perspective, the only report which noted any damage to the liver was a series of
tests on subchronic use of a pesticide made of neem oil (which is not recommended for internal
use) at extremely high levels, up to 320 mg per kilogram. It also noted that all major organs
significantly recovered once the toxins were removed. Optimum dosages for neem in human
beings have not been established and large quantities are likely to adversely impact its
immunostimulatory effects.
Recent Research
Am J Ther. 2007 Jul-Aug;14(4):369-74.
Fractionated neem leaf extract is safe and increases CD4+ cell levels in
HIV/AIDS patients.
Mbah AU, Udeinya IJ, Shu EN, Chijioke CP, Nubila T, Udeinya F, Muobuike A,
Mmuobieri A, Obioma MS.
Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine, University of Nigeria,
Enugu Campus, Enugu, Nigeria.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17667213?ordinalpos=1&itool=EntrezSystem2.PEntrez.
Pubmed.Pubmed_ResultsPanel.Pubmed_RVDocSum
The safety and effect of an acetone-water neem leaf extract (IRAB) on CD4 cells was
investigated in 60 HIV/AIDS patients as part of an ongoing study to determine the influence of
neem on immunity and viral load in HIV/AIDS. Patients were confirmed as HIV I or II
positive, as having CD4 cell count, less than 300 cells/microL, and as antiretrovirally nave.
They were given oral IRAB (1.0 g daily for 12 weeks). Clinical and laboratory tests were
carried out at baseline and at 4 weekly intervals. Thus, the patients served as their own
controls. Sixty patients completed treatment. Fifty (83.33%) were completely compliant with
respect to laboratory tests. Increase in mean CD4 cells, 266 cells/microL (159%), for the 50
patients was significant (P < 0.001) between baseline and week 12. Erythrocyte sedimentation
rate (64 mm/hr at baseline) was 16 mm/hr at week 12, whereas total number of incidences of
HIV/AIDS-related pathologies decreased from 120 at baseline to 5. Mean bodyweight,
hemoglobin concentration, and lymphocyte differential count increased significantly by 12%
(P < 0.05), 24% (P < 0.0001), and 20% (P < 0.0001), respectively. There were no adverse
effects and no abnormalities in kidney and liver function parameters. The results support the
safety of IRAB in HIV/AIDS, and its significant influence on CD4 cells may be useful in the
formulation of multidrug combination therapies for HIV/AIDS. However, its antiretroviral
activity is being evaluated in our laboratory.
PMID: 17667213 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
21 days old pups of F(2B) generation suggest the safe use of technical azadirachtin as a
biopesticide.
PMID: 17084955 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
subcutaneous administration of neem extract yielded significantly increased spleen weight and
significant enhancement of peritoneal macrophage activity in the chemiluminescence assay,
and activation marker CD-44 expression. The thymus weight and thymocyte counts did not
show significant differences in the control and neem extract-treated groups, however,
determination of peripheral blood cells revealed significant up-regulations of leukocyte
subsets, the lymphocytes and monocytes. Flow cytometric analaysis of lymphocyte
supopulations documented increased counts of CD-4 and CD-8 cells and an inreased activation
marker expression on lymphocytes (CD-25) and monocytes (MAC-3) in neem-treated mice
compared to the control animals. To evaluate the antimetastatic activity of neem extract,
sarcoma L-1 cells and lymphosarcoma RAW cells were intravenously inoculated into BALB/cmice. In these model systems the number of experimental lung and liver metastases decreased
relevantly, however, biometrically non-significantly in neem extract-treated animals, as
compared to the control mice which received injections of saline solutions. Neem extract can
be regarded as an immunomodulating and antimetastatic substance which holds promise for
further experimental and clinical investigation.
PMID: 16634526 [PubMed - in process]
with AAILE further caused a decrease in the activity of cytochrome P450 and cytochrome b5,
whereas it up-regulated the activity of glutathione-S-transferase. The significance of these
observations with respect to the progress of the process of carcinogenesis is explained in the
present research article. Copyright 2006 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
PMID: 16521106 [PubMed - in process]
We have previously shown that the flowers of neem tree (Azadirachta indica A. Juss, family
Meliaceae), Thai variety, strongly induced the activity of glutathione S-transferase (GST)
while resulting in a significant reduction in the activities of some cytochrome P(450)dependent monooxygenases in rat liver, and possess cancer chemopreventive potential against
chemically-induced mammary gland and liver carcinogenesis in rats. In the present study, 2
chemicals possessing strong QR inducing activity were fractionated from neem flowers using a
bioassay based on the induction of QR activity in mouse hepatoma Hepa 1c1c7 cultured cells.
Spectroscopic characteristics revealed that these compounds were nimbolide and chlorophylls,
having CD (concentration required to double QR specific activity) values of 0.16 and 3.8
mug/ml, respectively. Nimbolide is a known constituent of neem leaves, but was found for the
first time here in the flowers. Both nimbolide and chlorophylls strongly enhanced the level of
QR mRNA in Hepa 1c1c7 cells, as monitored by northern blot hybridization, indicating that
the mechanism by which these constituents of neem flowers induced QR activity is the
induction of QR gene expression. These findings may have implication on cancer
chemopreventive potential of neem flowers in experimental rats previously reported.
PMID: 16235984 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
liver, kidney, and lung tissues of both male and female rats caused by this compound were
statistically significant, and the changes were also dose and time dependent. The alterations in
male rats were not statistically significant when compared with female rats, indicating that
there were no sexual differences. The withdrawal study (28 days post-treatment) revealed
significant recovery, indicating reversal of the toxic symptoms once the toxicant was removed.
There was a high degree of positive correlation between results for serum as compared to those
for kidney, lung, and liver (AkP only for liver). However, there was a high negative correlation
between AcP results for serum as compared with those for liver. The alterations in these
enzymes indicated that lung tissue was the most susceptible, followed by liver and kidney. AcP
and AkP are marker enzymes, and their increase in serum, with parallel increases in different
tissues, might be due to the increased permeability of plasma membranes. The decrease in liver
AcP may be due to the necrosis of cellular tissues. The changes observed in these enzyme
activities could be useful as biomarkers of exposure to Vepacide.
PMID: 15388273 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&li
st_uids=15468891&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_docsum
Neem, Azadirachta indica, is a plant from the family Meliaceae, known as "Pokok Semambu"
in Malay community. It has been extensively used in India as traditional Ayurvedic and
folklore minedicine for the treatment of various diseases. This study aimed to determine the
distribution of selenium in the liver of rats during hepatocarcinogenesis when neem aqueous
extract and dietary selenium was supplemented.
PMID: 15468891 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
indica A. Juss. (family: Meliaceae), contains at least 35 biologically active principles and is
widely grown all over the tropics. The effect of two different doses (250 and 500 mg per
kilogram body weight) of 80% ethanolic extract of the leaves of Azadirachta indica were
examined on drug metabolizing Phase-I and Phase-II enzymes, antioxidant enzymes,
glutathione content, lactate dehydrogenase, and lipid peroxidation in the liver of 7-week-old
Swiss albino mice. Also anticarcinogenic potential of Azadirachta indica leaf extract was
studied adopting protocol of benzo(a)pyrene-induced fore-stomach and 7,12-dimethyl
benz(a)anthracene (DMBA)-induced skin papillomagenesis. Our primary findings reveal its
potential to induce only the Phase-II enzyme activity associated mainly with carcinogen
detoxification in liver of mice. The hepatic glutathione S-transferase (P < 0.005) and DTdiaphorase specific activities (P < 0.01) were elevated above basal level. With reference to
antioxidant enzymes the investigated doses were effective in increasing the hepatic glutathione
reductase (GR), glutathione peroxidase (GPX), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase
(CAT) activities significantly (from P < 0.005 to P < 0.001). Reduced glutathione measured as
non-protein sulphydryl was found to be significantly elevated in liver (P < 0.005) and in
extrahepatic organs (from P < 0.005 to P < 0.001) examined in our study. Glutathione Stransferase (GST) and DT-diaphorase (DTD) showed a dose-dependent increase in
extrahepatic organs. Chemopreventive response was measured by the average number of
papillomas per mouse, as well as percentage of tumor-bearing animals. There was a significant
inhibition of tumor burden, in both the tumor model system studied (from P < 0.005 to P <
0.001). Tumor incidence was also reduced by both the doses of Azadirachta indica extract.
Copyright 2003 Elsevier Ireland Ltd.
PMID: 15099843 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
Protective effects of ethanolic neem leaf extract on N-methyl-N'-nitro-Nnitrosoguanidine-induced genotoxicity and oxidative stress in mice.
Subapriya R, Kumaraguruparan R, Abraham SK, Nagini S.
Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar-608
002, Tamil Nadu, India.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&li
st_uids=15038245&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_docsum
We evaluated the effects of pretreatment with ethanolic neem leaf extract on N-methyl-N'nitro-N-nitrosoguanidine (MNNG)-induced genotoxicity and oxidative stress in male Swiss
albino mice. The frequency of micronuclei (MN), concentrations of lipid peroxides and the
status of the antioxidants, reduced glutathione (GSH), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and
glutathione-S-transferase (GST) were used as intermediate biomarkers of chemoprotection.
Animals were divided into four groups of five animals each. Animals in group 1 were given
MNNG (40 mg/kg body weight) by intragastric intubation. Animals in group 2 received
intragastric administration of ethanolic neem leaf extract at a concentration of 200 mg/kg body
weight for 5 days followed by MNNG 1.5 h after the final feeding. Group 3 animals received
ethanolic neem leaf extract alone for five days. Group 4 received the same volume of normal
saline and served as control. The animals were sacrificed by cervical dislocation 27 h after the
carcinogen exposure. In MNNG-treated mice, enhanced lipid peroxidation with compromised
antioxidant defences in the stomach, liver and erythrocytes was accompanied by increase in
bone marrow micronuclei. Pretreatment with ethanolic neem leaf extract significantly reduced
MNNG-induced micronuclei and lipid peroxides and enhanced GSH-dependent antioxidant
activities. The results of the present study demonstrate that ethanolic neem leaf extract exerts
protective effects against MNNG-induced genotoxicity and oxidative stress by augmenting
host antioxidant defence mechanisms.
PMID: 15038245 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
The liver is often the first organ to be infected by metastasizing cancer. Hepatocarcinogenesis
is one of the most prevalent and deadly cancers worldwide, which ranks seventh among
cancers in order of frequency of occurrence. Numbers of natural and synthetic antioxidants are
known to treat initiation and promotion of chemical carcinogenesis in experimental animal
models. The effect of 5% w/v of Azadirachta indica extract in diethylnitrosamine and
acetylaminofluorene induced hepatocellular carcinoma, which is a vital mechanism in cancer
treatment, was studied in male Sprague dawly rats. The result of microscopic observation of
the lesion score during hepatocarcinogenesis revealed that cells of cancer group without
treatment were severely necrotic at week 12. However, cells of cancer group with Azadirachta
indica treatment appeared nearly normal. The tracking of the elements during
hepatocarcinogenesis was done using energy filtering transmission electron microscope
(EFTEM). According to EFTEM results, some of antioxidant elements such Na, Ca, and P is
highly distributed in Azadirachta indica treated normal and cancer group. However, the
distribution is too low in normal control and cancer control group without Azadirachta indica
treatment. The obtained results have shown a significant, decrease (P=0.05) of liver cytosol
Glutathione S-transferase in cancer control group rats. Meanwhile, treatment with Azadirachta
indica caused overall increase in liver GST activity nearly to control group. Distinct evidence
from this study contribute that oral administration of 5% Azadirachta indica extract
demonstrated anticancer activity by increasing the distribution of antioxidant elements and
GST activity may to protect cells in preneoplastic nodules in cancer treated groups. However,
there was no evidence of side effects of Azadirachta indica towards normal cells indicating
Azadirachta indica as a potential preventive agent for cancer.
PMID: 15294745 [PubMed - in process]
Ethanolic neem leaf extract protects against N-methyl -N'-nitro-Nnitrosoguanidine-induced gastric carcinogenesis in Wistar rats.
Subapriya R, Nagini S.
nrgopal@satyam.net.in
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&li
st_uids=14507242&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_docsum
We evaluated the effects of ethanolic neem leaf extract on N-methyl-N'-nitro-Nnitrosoguanidine (MNNG)-induced gastric carcinogenesis in Wistar rats. The extent of lipid
peroxidation and the status of the antioxidants superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT),
reduced glutathione (GSH), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and glutathione-S-transferase (GST)
in the stomach, liver and erythrocytes were used as biomarkers of chemoprevention. Animals
were divided into four groups of six animals each. Rats in group 1 were given MNNG (150
mg/kg bw) by intragastric intubation three times with a gap of 2 weeks in between the
treatments. Rats in group 2 administered MNNG as in group 1, in addition received intragastric
intubation of ethanolic neem leaf extract (200 mg/kg bw) three times per week starting on the
day following the first exposure to MNNG and continued until the end of the experimental
period. Group 3 animals were given ethanolic neem leaf extract alone, while group 4 served as
controls. All the animals were killed after an experimental period of 26 weeks. Diminished
lipid peroxidation in the stomach tumour tissue was associated with enhanced antioxidant
levels. In contrast to tumour tissue, enhanced lipid peroxidation with compromised antioxidant
defences was found in the liver and erythrocytes of tumour bearing animals. Administration of
ethanolic neem leaf extract significantly reduced the incidence of stomach tumours, modulated
lipid peroxidation and enhanced antioxidant status in the stomach, liver and blood. From the
results of our study, we suggest that ethanolic neem leaf extract may exert its chemopreventive
effects by modulating lipid peroxidation and enhancing the antioxidant status in the stomach,
liver and erythrocytes.
PMID: 14507242 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
Chemoprotective effects of ethanolic extract of neem leaf against MNNGinduced oxidative stress.
Subapriya R, Kumaraguruparan R, Chandramohan KV, Nagini S.
Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Annamalai University, Annamalainagar,
Tamil Nadu, India.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&li
st_uids=12889539&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_docsum
We evaluated the modifying effects of ethanolic extract of neem leaves (Azadirachta indica A.
Juss) on oxidative stress induced by the potent gastric carcinogen N-methyl-N'-nitro-N-
nitrosoguanidine (MNNG) in male Wistar rats. The extent of lipid peroxidation and the status
of the antioxidants superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), reduced glutathione (GSH),
glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and glutathione S-transferase (GST) were used as intermediate
endpoints of chemoprevention. Three different concentrations of ethanolic neem leaf extract
(100, 200 and 400 mg kg(-1) body weight) were administered by intragastric intubation (i.g)
for five consecutive days followed by MNNG (i.g) 1.5 h after the final administration.
Enhanced lipid peroxidation was accompanied by compromised antioxidant defences in the
stomach, liver and erythrocytes of MNNG-treated rats. Pretreatment with ethanolic neem leaf
extract at a dose of 200 mg/kg body weight (bw) significantly lowered the concentration of
lipid peroxides and increased antioxidant levels. Our results demonstrate that neem leaf exerts
its chemoprotective effects on MNNG- induced oxidative stress by decreasing lipid
peroxidation and enhancing the antioxidant status.
Indian J Exp Biol. 2003 Jun;41(6):636-40.
depletion of sulfhydryl groups in liver cells. There was an increase in serum marker enzymes
of hepatic damage (aspartate transaminase, alanine transaminase and alkaline phosphatase)
after paracetamol administration. Azadirachta indica pretreatment stabilized the serum levels of
these enzymes. Histopathological observations of liver tissues corroborated these findings.
potential. In the present study, we examined the inhibitory effects of neem flowers on 9,10dimethyl-1,2-benzanthracene (DMBA)-induced mammary gland carcinogenesis in female
Sprague Dawley rats and on aflatoxin B(1)(AFB(1))-induced hepatocarcinogenesis in male
Wistar rats. Young animals were fed with AIN-76 purified diets containing either 10-12.5%
ground freeze-dried neem flowers for 1 week prior to, during, and for 1 week after the
administration of each carcinogen. Interestingly, it was found that neem flowers resulted in a
marked reduction of the incidence of mammary gland (about 35.2%) and liver tumors (61.7%
and 80.1% for benign and malignant tumors, respectively). Furthermore, the multiplicity of
tumors per rats was also lower in the neem flower groups, i.e. those for mammary gland tumors
and benign and malignant liver tumors were reduced to 44.0%, 87.9% and 88.9%, respectively.
These results clearly demonstrated that neem flowers contain some chemopreventive agents
capable of inhibiting AFB(1) and DMBA induced liver and mammary gland carcinogenesis in
rats.
PMID: 12718580 [PubMed - as supplied by publisher]
Garlic and neem leaf extracts enhance hepatic glutathione and glutathione
How safe is neem extract with respect to thyroid function in male mice?
Panda S, Kar A.
School of Life Sciences, Vigyan Bhawan, Khandwa Road, Indore, 452 017, India.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&li
st_uids=10704265&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_DocSum
In this investigation we attempted to find out the hitherto unstudied adverse effects of neem
(Azardirachta indica) leaf extract on the thyroid function of male mice. Neem leaf extract was
orally administered in two different doses (40 mg and 100 mg kg(-1)day(-1)for 20 days). The
extract exhibited differential effects. While the higher dose decreased serum tri-iodothyonine
(T(3)) and increased serum thyroxine (T(4)) concentrations, no significant alterations of levels
were observed in the lower dose group, indicating that the high concentrations of neem extract
can be inhibitory to thyroid function, particularly in the conversion of T(4)to T(3), the major
source of T(3)generation. A concomitant increase in hepatic lipid peroxidation (LPO) and a
decrease in glucose-6-phosphatase (G-6-Pase) activity in the higher dosed group also indicated
the adverse effect of neem extract despite an enhancement in the activities of two defensive
enzymes, superoxide dismutase (SOD) and catalase (CAT). Thus, it appears that the higher
concentration of neem extract may not be safe with respect to thyroid function and lipid
peroxidation. Copyright 2000 Academic Press.
PMID: 10704265 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
Fifteen kinds of commonly consumed Thai vegetables were sequentially extracted with
hexane, chloroform and methanol, and then tested for antimutagenic activities against directacting (AF-2 and NaN3) and indirect-acting (AFB1 and B(a)P) mutagens using Ames'
Salmonella mutagenicity test with Salmonella typhimurium TA100 as tester strain. It was
found that only the methanol extract of neem leaves contain weak antimutagen inhibiting the
mutagenicities of both direct-acting mutagens. Interestingly, all vegetables studied were found
to contain chemical compounds, mainly nonpolar ones, capable of inhibiting the mutagenicity
of AFB1, while only some vegetables contain chemical compounds capable of inhibiting the
mutagenicity of B(a)P, which is also an indirect-acting mutagen. Studies on anticarcinogenic
potentials demonstrated that Thai bitter gourd fruits, but not sweet basil leaves, at the
concentration of 6.25% and 12.5% in the diet, partially inhibited DMBA-induced mammary
gland carcinogenesis in female Sprague-Dawley rats when fed to the animals 2 weeks prior to
DMBA. Results in the present study therefore demonstrated that most Thai vegetables contain
antimutagens inhibiting the mutagenicity of some indirect-acting mutagen, particularly AFB1.
The mechanism of their antimutagenicity may probably be the inhibition of the activity of
metabolic-activating enzymes in rat liver homogenates. Very interestingly, our results clearly
reveal that Thai bitter gourd fruits, which possess Phase II enzymes inducing property, as well
as the ability to reduce Phase I enzyme activities in rat liver, contain some anticarcinogens or
chemopreventive agents. However, sweet basil leaves that possess both Phase I and Phase II
enzyme-inducing properties may not contain any anticarcinogen, at least against DMBAinduced mammary gland carcinogenesis. Copyright 1998 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights
reserved.
PMID: 9675301 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
Effects of neem flowers, Thai and Chinese bitter gourd fruits and sweet basil
leaves on hepatic monooxygenases and glutathione S-transferase activities, and
in vitro metabolic activation of chemical carcinogens in rats.
Kusamran WR, Ratanavila A, Tepsuwan A.
Biochemistry and Chemical Carcinogenesis Section, Research Division, National Cancer
Institute, Bangkok, Thailand.
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?cmd=Retrieve&db=pubmed&dopt=Abstract&li
st_uids=9674955&query_hl=1&itool=pubmed_DocSum
The objectives of this study were to determine the effects of feeding of four vegetables
commonly consumed in Thailand, namely, flowers of the neem tree (Azadirachta indica var.
siamensis), fruits of Thai and the Chinese bitter gourd (Momordica charantia Linn.) and leaves
of sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum Linn) on the levels of phase I enzymes, which include
cytochrome P450 (P450), aniline hydroxylase (ANH) and aminopyrine-N-demethylase (AMD)
as well as the capacity to activate the mutagenicities of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1) and
benzo[a]pyrene (BaP), and to induce the phase II enzymes [i.e. glutathione S-transferase
(GST)] in rat liver. It was found that feeding of the diets containing 12.5% neem flowers and
Thai bitter gourd fruits for 2 weeks strongly enhanced GST activity, 2.7- and 1.6- fold of the
pair-fed control values, respectively, while resulting in a marked reduction of the levels of
most phase I reactions. Fruits of the Chinese bitter gourd, which is in the same species as Thai
bitter gourd, had no effect on GST activity but decreased AMD activity and the in vitro
metabolic activation of AFB1 and BaP. On the other hand, however, dietary sweet basil leaves
caused a significant increase in the levels of both GST and all phase I enzymes. Results in the
present study clearly demonstrate that neem flowers and Thai bitter gourd fruits contain
monofunctional phase II enzyme inducers and compounds capable of repressing some
monooxygenases, especially those involved in the metabolic activation of chemical
carcinogens, while sweet basil leaves contain compounds, probably bifunctional inducers,
capable of inducing both phase I and phase II enzymes and Chinese bitter gourd fruits contain
only compounds capable of repressing some monooxygenases. These results therefore suggest
that neem flowers and Thai bitter gourd fruits may possess chemopreventive potential, while
those of Chinese bitter gourd fruits and sweet basil leaves are uncertain.
PMID: 9674955 [PubMed - indexed for MEDLINE]
Most of this research data was compiled from the National Library of Medicine at the National Institutes of Health
website (www.pubmed.com) and is presented here as a service. Using Neem does not sell neem products.