Elementary

Information on
Gears
The Role Gears are Playing
Gears are some of the most important elements used in machinery. There are few mechanical devices that do
not have the need to transmit power and motion between rotating shafts. Gears not only do this most
satisfactorily, but can do so with uniform motion and reliability. In addition, they span the entire range of
applications from large to small. To summarize:
1. Gears offer positive transmission of power.
2. Gears range in size from small miniature instrument installations, that measure in only several
millimeters in diameter, to huge powerful gears in turbine drives that are several meters in ameter.

3. Gears can provide position transmission with very high angular or linear accuracy, such as used
in servomechanisms and precision instruments.
4. Gears can couple power and motion between shafts whose axes are parallel, intersecting or skew.
5. Gear designs are standardized in accordance with size and shape which provides for
widespread interchangeability.
This introduction is written as an aid for the designer who is a beginner or only superficially knowledgeable about gearing. It
provides fundamental, theoretical and practical information. When you select KHK products for your applications

please utilize it along with KHK3009 catalog.

Table of Contents

1 ..........................GearTypesandTerminology 3
1.1
Type of Gears ................................... 3
1.2 Symbols and Terminology......................... 5
2 Gear Trains......................................................... 7
2.1 Single - Stage Gear Train.............................. 7
2.2 Double - Stage Gear Train............................ 8
3 ...........................................InvoluteGearing 9
3.1 Module Sizes and Standards.................... 9
3.2 The Involute Curve.................................... 10
3.3 Meshing of Involute Gearing................. 11
3.4 The Generating of a Spur Gear................ 11
3.5 Undercutting............................................. 12
3.6 Profile Shifting........................................... 12
4
..........CalculationofGearDimensions 13
4.1 Spur Gears................................................... 13
4.2 Internal Gears........................................... 18
4.3 Helical Gears............................................ 21
4.4 Bevel Gears.............................................. 28
4.5 Screw Gears............................................. 34
4.6 Cylindrical Worm Gear Pair....................... 36

Elementary Information on Gears

1 Gear Types and Terminology

Fig.1.1
Spur
gear (b) Spur Rack

1.1 Type of gears

In accordance with the orientation of axes, there are three

categories of gears:
1. Parallel axes gears
2. Intersecting axes gears
3. Nonparallel and nonintersecting axes gears
Spur and helical gears are the parallel axes gears. Bevel
gears are the intersecting axes gears. Screw or crossed
helical gears and worm gears handle the third category.
Table 1.1 Lists the gear types per axes orientation.

Table 1.1 Types of gears and their categories

Categories of gears

Types of gears

Efficiency(%)

Spur gear
Spur rack
Parallel axes

Internal gear

gears

Helical gear
Helical rack
Double helical gear
Straight bevel gear
Intersecting axes Spiral bevel gear
gears
Zerol bevel gear
Nonparallel and Worm gear
nonintersecting

axes gears

Screw gear

98.0 ~ 99.5

This is a linear shaped

gear which can mesh
with a spur gear with
any number of teeth.
The spur rack is a
portion of a spur gear
with an infinite radius.

(c) Internal Gear

This is a cylindrical
shaped gear but with the
teeth inside the circular
ring. It can mesh with a
spur gear. Internal gears
are often used in
planetary gear systems
and also in gear
couplings.

(d) Helical Gear

98.0 ~ 99.0
30.0 ~ 90.0
70.0 ~ 95.0

Also, included in table 1.1 Is the theoretical efficiency range of

the various gear types. These figures do not include bearing and
lubricant losses. Also, they assume ideal mounting in regard to
axis orientation and center distance. Inclusion of these realistic
considerations will downgrade the efficiency numbers.

This is a cylindrical
shaped gear with
helicoid teeth. Helical
gears can bear more load
than spur gears, and
work more quietly. They
are widely used in
industry. A negative is
the axial thrust force the
helix form causes.

(e) Helical Rack

(1) Parallel Axes Gears
(a) Spur Gear
This is a cylindrical shaped gear
in which the teeth are parallel to
the axis. It has the largest
applications and, also, it is the
easiest to manufacture.

This is a linear shaped gear

which meshes with a helical
gear. Again, it can be
regarded as a portion of a
helical gear with infinite
radius.

(f) Double Helical Gear

This is a gear with both left-hand and right-hand helical
teeth. The double helical form balances the inherent thrust
forces.
Fig.1.2 Spur rack

Fig.1.3 Internal gear

and spur gear

Fig.1.4 Helical gear

Fig.1.5 Helical rack

Fig.1.6 Double helical gear

Elementary Information on Gears

(b) Screw Gear

(Crossed Helical Gear)

(2) Intersecting Axes Gears

(a) Straight Bevel Gear

This is a gear in which the teeth
have tapered conical elements
that have the same direction as
the pitch cone base line
(generatrix). The straight bevel
gear is both the simplest to
produce and the most widely
applied in the bevel gear family.

A pair of cylindrical gears used

to drive non-parallel and nonintersecting shafts where the
teeth of one or both members of
the pair are of screw form.

Fig.1.7 Straight bevel gear

Screw gears are used in the

combination of screw gear / screw
gear, or screw gear / spur gear.
Screw gears assure smooth, quiet
operation. However, they are not
suitable for transmission of high
Fig.1.11 Screw gear

horsepower.

(b) Spiral Bevel Gear

(4) Other Special Gears

This is a bevel gear with a

helical angle of spiral teeth. It is
much
more
complex
to
manufacture, but offers a higher
strength and lower noise.

(a) Face Gear

Fig.1.8 Spiral bevel gear

(c) Zerol Bevel Gear

Zerol bevel gear is a special
case of spiral bevel gear. It is a
spiral bevel with a spiral angle
of zero. It has the characteristics
of both the straight and spiral
bevel gears. The forces acting
upon the tooth are the same as
for a straight bevel gear.

(b) Enveloping
Gear Pair

Fig.1.9 Zerol bevel gear

(3) Nonparallell and

Nonintersecting
Axes Gears

Worm

Worm gear pair is the name

for a meshed worm and
worm wheel.

Fig.1.10 Worm gear pair

Fig.1.12 Face gear

This worm gear pair uses a

special worm shape in that it
partially envelops the worm
wheel as viewed in the direction
of the worm wheel axis. Its big
advantage over the standard
worm is much higher load
capacity. However, the worm
wheel is very complicated to
Fig.1.13 Enveloping worm gear pair
design and produce.

(c) Hypoid Gear

(a) Worm Gear Pair

The outstanding feature is that

it offers a very large gear ratio
in a single mesh. It also
provides quiet and smooth
action. However, transmission
efficiency is very poor.

This is a pseudobevel gear that

is limited to 90O intersecting
axes. The face gear is a
circular disc with a ring of
teeth cut in its side face; hence
the name face gear

This is a deviation from a

bevel gear that originated as a
special development for the
automobile industry. This
permitted the drive to the rear
axle to be nonintersecting, and
thus allowed the auto body to
be lowered. It looks very
much like the spiral bevel
gear.
However,
it
is
complicated to design and is
the most difficult to produce
on a bevel gear generator.

Fig.1.14 Hypoid gear

Elementary Information on Gears

1.2

Symbols and Terminology

Table 1.2 through 1.6 indicate the symbols and the terminology
used in this catalog. JIS B 0121:1999 and JIS B0102:1999 cancel
and replace former JIS B0121 (symbols) and JIS B0102
(vocabulary) respectively. This revision has been made to
conform to International Standard Organization (ISO) Standard.
Table 1.2 Linear dimensions and circular dimensions

Terms

Symbols

Centre distance
Reference pitch
Transverse pitch
Normal pitch
Axial pitch
Base pitch
Transverse base pitch
Normal base pitch

a
p
pt
pn
px
pb
pbt
pbn

Tooth depth

Addendum
Dedendum
Chordal height
Constant chord height
Working depth
Tooth thickness

Normal tooth thickness

Transverse tooth thickness
Crest width
Base thickness
Chordal tooth thickness
Constant chord
Span measurement over k teeth
Tooth space
Tip and root clearance
Circumferential backlash
Normal backlash
Radial backlash
Angular backlash
Facewidth
Effective facewidth
Lead
Length of path of contact
Length of approach path
Length of recess path
Overlap length
Reference diameter
Pitch diameter
Tip diameter
Base diameter
Root diameter
Center reference diameter
Inner tip diameter
Reference radius
Pitch radius
Tip radius
Base radius
Root radius
Radius of curvature of tooth profile
Cone distance
Back cone distance

ha
hf
ha

hc
h'
s

sn
st
sa
sb
s
sc
W
e
c
jt
jn
jr
j
b
b'
pz
g

gf
ga
g
d
d'
da
db
df
dm
di
r
r'
ra
rb
rf
r

R
Rv

Table 1.3 Angular dimensions

Terms
Reference pressure angle
Working pressure angle
Cutter pressure angle
Transverse pressure angle
Normal pressure angle
Axial pressure angle
Transverse working pressure angle
Tip pressure angle
Normal working pressure angle
Reference cylinder helix angle
Pitch cylinder helix angle
Mean spiral angle
Tip cylinder helix angle
Base cylinder helix angle
Reference cylinder lead angle
Pitch cylinder lead angle
Tip cylinder lead angle
Base cylinder lead angle
Shaft angle
Reference cone angle
Pitch angle
Tip angle
Root angle
Addendum angle

Dedendum angle
Transverse angle of transmission
Overlap angle
Total angle of transmission
Tooth thickness half angle
Tip tooth thickness half angle
Spacewidth half angle
Angular pitch of crown gear
Involute function

Symbols

'
o
t
n
x
't
a

'
m
a

'n

'
a
b

'
a
f
a
f

inv

Table 1.4 Size numbers, ratios & speed terms

Terms
Number of teeth

Equivalent number of teeth

Number of threads, or number of teeth in pinion
Gear ratio
Transmission ratio
Module
Transverse module
Normal module
Axial module
Diametral pitch
Transverse contact ratio
Overlap ratio
Total contact ratio
Angular speed

Tangential speed
Rotational speed
Profile shift coefficient
Normal profile shift coefficient
Transverse profile shift coefficient
Center distance modification coefficient

Symbols
z

zv
z1
u
i
m
mt
mn
mx
P

v
n
x
xn
xt
y

Elementary Information on Gears

Table 1.5 Others

Terms

Tangential force
Axial force
Radial force
Pin diameter
Ideal pin diameter
Measurement over rollers (pin)
Pressure angle at pin center
Coefficient of friction
Circular thickness factor

Symbols

Ft
Fx
Fr
dp
d'p
M

Table 1.6 Accuracy/Error terms

Terms

Single pitch deviation

Pitch deviation
Total cumulative pitch deviation
Total profile deviation
Runout
Total helix deviation

Symbols

fpt
fv or fpu
Fp
Fa
Fr
Fb

A numerical subscript is used to distinguish "pinion" from

"gear" (Example: z1, z2), "worm" from "worm wheel",
"drive gear" from "driven gear", and so forth.

Table 1.7 indicates the Greek alphabet, the internatioal

phonetic alphabet.
Table 1.7 The Greek alphabet
Upper case Lower case
letters
letters

Spelling
Alpha
Beta
Gamma
Delta
Epsilon
Zeta
Eta
Theta
lota
Kappa
Lambda
Mu
Nu
Xi
Omicron
Pi
Rho
Sigma
Tau
Upsilon
Phi
Chi
Psi
Omega

Elementary Information on Gears

The transmission ratio is then:

2 Gear Trains
The objective of gears is to provide a desired motion, either
rotation or linear. This is accomplished through either a
simple gear pair or a more involved and complex system of
several gear meshes. Also, related to this is the desired
speed, direction of rotation and the shaft arrangement.

z2
Transmission ratio = z1

n1
= n2

(2.1)

Gear trains can be classified into three types:

2.1 Single-Stage Gear Train

Transmission ratio < 1 , increasing : n1 < n2

Transmission ratio = 1 , equal speeds: n1 = n2
Transmission ratio > 1 , reducing
: n1 > n2
Figure 2.1 illustrates four basic forms. For the very common

A meshed gear is the basic form of a single-stage gear train.

It consists of z1 and z2 numbers of teeth on the driver and
driven gears, and their respective rotations, n1 & n2.

cases of spur and bevel gear meshes, Figures 2.1(A) and (B),
the direction of rotation of driver and driven gears are
reversed. In the case of an internal gear mesh, Figure 2.1(C),
both gears have the same direction of rotation. In the case of
a worm mesh, Figure 2.1(D), the rotation direction of z2 is
determined by its helix hand.

Gear 2

Gear 1

Gear 2

Gear 1

(z2 ,n2)

(z1 ,n1)

(z2 ,n2)

(z1 ,n1)

(A) A Pair of spur gears

(B) Bevel gears

Gear 2

Gear 1

Right-hand worm gear

Left-hand worm gear

(z2 ,n2)

(z1 ,n1)

(z1 ,n1)

(z1 ,n1)

(C) Spur gear and internal gear

Right-hand worm wheel

Left-hand worm wheel

(z2 ,n2)

(z2 ,n2)
(D) Worm gear pair

Fig. 2.1 Single-stage gear trains

Elementary Information on Gears

In addition to these four basic forms, the combination of a rack

and pinion can be considered a specific type. The displacement
of a rack, l, for rotation of the mating pinion is:

z1
pm
360
where: pm is the reference pitch
z1 is the number of teeth of the pinion.
l=

(2.2)

In the double-stage gear train, Figure 2.2, gear 1 rotates in the

same direction as gear 4. If gears 2 and 3 have the same number
of teeth, then the train simplifies as in Figure 2.3. In this
arrangement, gear 2 is known as an idler, which has no effect
on the transmission ratio. The transmission ratio is then:

z2
Transmission Ratio = z1

z3
z2

z3
= z1

(2.4)

2.2 Double-Stage Gear Train

A double-stage gear train uses two single-stages in a series.
Figure 2.2 represents the basic form of an external gear
double-stage gear train.
Let the first gear in the first stage be the driver. Then the
transmission ratio of the double-stage gear train is:

Transmission Ratio =

z2
z1

z4
z3

n1
= n2

n3
n4

(2.3)

Gear 3

Gear 2

Gear 1

(z3 ,n3)

(z2 ,n2)

(z1 ,n1)

In this arrangement, n2 = n3

Fig.2.3 Single-stage gear train with an idler

Gear 4

Gear 3

Gear 2

Gear 1

(z4 ,n4)

(z3 ,n3)

(z2 ,n2)

(z1 ,n1)

Fig.2.2 Double-stage gear train

Elementary Information on Gears

3 Involute Gearing
The invoute profile is the one most commonly used today
for gear-tooth forms that are used to transmit power. The
beauty of involute gearing is its ease of manufacture and its
smooth meshing despite the misalignment of center distance
in some degree.

M1

M1.5

3.1 Module Sizes and Standards

Module m represents the size of involute gear tooth. The unit of
module is mm. Module is converted to pitch p , by the

factor .
p = m

M2

M2.5

(3.1)

Table 3.1 is extracted from JIS B 1701-1973 which defines

the tooth profile and dimensions of involute gears. It
divides the standard module into three series. Figure 3.1
shows the comparative size of various rack teeth.

M3

M4

Table 3.1 Standard values of module

Series 1 Series 2 Series 3

0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5

0.8

0.25

0.35

0.55

8
0.65

10
12

0.9

16

1
1.25
1.5

1.75

25

2.25

32

2.5

2.75

40

20

3.25

3.75

5.5
7

M6

6.5

9
11

M10

14
18
22
28
36
45

50

NOTE: The preferred choices are in the series order beginning with 1.

Diametral Pitch P(D.P.), the unit to denote the size of the

gear-tooth, is used in the USA, the UK, etc. The
transformation from Diametral Pitch P(D.P.) to module m is
accomplished by the following equation:
m = 25.4 / P

M5

4.5

0.45

0.7
0.75

Series 1 Series 2 Series 3

3.5

0.15

0.6

unit: mm

Fig.3.1 Comparative size of various rack teeth

Elementary Information on Gears

3.2 The Involute Curve

Figure 3.3 shows an element of involute curve. The definition of
involute curve is the curve traced by a point on a straight line
which rolls without slipping on the circle. The circle is called the
base circle of the involutes. We can see, from Figure 3.3, the length
of base circle arc ac equals the length of straight line bc.

/2

h ha hf

pb

tan=

d
d

bc
oc

rb
= rb = (radian)

Module m
Reference pressure angle 20
Addendum
ha = m
Dedendum
hf 1.25m
Tooth depth
h 2.25m
Working depth h' = 2.00m
Tip and root clearance c 0.25 m
Reference pitch p = m
Base pitch
pb = p cos
Reference diameter d = mz
Base diameter db = d cos
=

Fig.3.2 The tooth profile and dimension of standard rack

Pitch, p, is also used to represent tooth size when a special

desired spacing is wanted, such as to get an integral feed in
a mechanism. In this case, a pitch is chosen that is an integer
or a special fractional value. This is often the choice in
designing position control systems.
Most involute gear teeth have the standard whole depth and a
standard pressure angle = 20. Figure 3.2 shows the tooth
profile of a full depth standard rack tooth and mating gear. It
has an addendum of ha = 1m and dedendum hf 1m.If25tooth
depth is shorter than full depth teeth it is called a stub tooth;
and if deeper than full depth teeth it is a high depth tooth.

The most widely used stub tooth has an addendum ha =

0.8m and dedendum hf = 1m. Stub teeth have more strength
than a full depth gear, but contact ratio is reduced. On the
other hand, a high tooth can increase contact ratio.
In the standard involute gear, pitch (p) times the number of
teeth becomes the length of reference circle:
d mz
=

The in Figure 3.3 can be expressed as inv + , then

Formula (3.4) will become:
inv= tan-

(3.5)

Function of , or inv, is known as involute function.

Involute function is very important in gear design. Involute
function values can be obtained from appropriate tables.
With the center of the base circle O at the origin of a
coordinate system, the involute curve can be expressed by
values of x and y as follows:

x = r cos ( inv)

= b cos ( inv) cos

y = r sin ( inv)
rb
= cos sin ( inv

(3.6)

where, r = rb / cos

The drawings of involute tooth-form can be easily created

with this equation.

(3.2)

Reference diameter (d) is then:

d = mz

(3.4)

(3.3)
r
b

b
x

a
inv

Fig.3.3 The involute curve

10

Elementary Information on Gears

3.3 Meshing of Involute Gear

The contact ratio can be expressed by the following equation:

Figure 3.4 shows a pair of standard gears meshing together.

The contact point of the two involutes, as Figure 3.4 shows,
slides along the common tangent of the two base circles as
rotation occurs. The common tangent is called the line of
contact, or line of action.
A pair of gears can only mesh correctly if the pitches and
the pressure angle are the same. That the pressure angles
must be identical becomes obvious from the following
equation for base pitch:
pb = mcos
(3.7)
Thus, if the pressure angles are different, the base pitches
cannot be identical.
The contact length ab shown Figure 3.4 is described as
"Length of path of contact.

O1
O2

Transverse Contact ratio =

Length of path of contact ab

Base
pitch pb

It is good practice to maintain a transverse contact ratio of

1.2 or greater.
Under no circumstaces should the ratio drop below 1.1.
Module m and the pressure angle are the key items in the
meshing of gears.
3.4 The Generating of a Spur Gear
Involute gears can be readily generated by rack type cutters.
The hob is in effect a rack cutter. Gear generation is also
accomplished with gear type cutters using a shaper or planer
machine.
Figure 3.5 illustrates how an involute gear tooth profile is
generated. It shows how the pitch line of a rack cutter
rolling on a pitch circle generates a spur gear.
Gear shapers with pinion cutters can also be used to
generate involute gears. Gear shapers can not only generate
external gears but also generate internal gears.

Rack form tool

d1

db1

O1

length of pass of Contact

O2

d
sin 2
2

b
db2
d2

d db
O

O1
O2

Fig. 3.5 The generating of a standard spur gear

( = 20, z = 10, x = 0 )

Fig.3.4 The meshing of involute gear

(3.8)

11

Elementary Information on Gears

3.5 Undercutting
Undercutting is the phenomenon that some of tooth
dedendum is cut by the edge of a generating tool. In case
gears with small number of teeth is generated as is seen in
Figure 3.5, undercut occurs when the cutting is made deeper
than interfering point I. The condition for no undercutting in
a standard spur gear is given by the expression:

The condition to prevent undercut in a spur gear is:

m - xm

2
zm

2 sin

(3.11)

The number of teeth without undercut will be:

m

mz
sin 2
2

(3.9)

z=

(3.12)

The profile shift coefficient without undercut is:

z
x = 1 - 2 sin 2

and the minimum number of teeth is:

2

2(1-x)
sin 2

(3.10)
=sin 2
For pressure angle 20 degrees, the minimum number of
teeth free of undercutting is 17. However, the gears with 16
teeth or under can be usable if its strength or contact ratio
pose any ill effect.
3.6 Profile Shifting

(3.13)

Profile shift is not merely used to prevent undercut. It can be

used to adjust center distance between two gears.
If a positive correction is applied, such as to prevent undercut
in a pinion, the tooth tip is sharpened.
Table 3.2 presents the calculation of top land thickness ( Crest
width ).
Table 3.2 The calculations of top land thickness ( Crest width )
No.

As Figure 3.5 shows, a gear with 20 degrees of pressure

angle and 10 teeth will have a huge undercut volume. To
prevent undercut, a positive correction must be introduced.
A positive correction, as in Figure 3.6, can prevent undercut.
Undercutting will get worse if a negative correction is
applied. See Figure 3.7. The extra feed of gear cutter (xm) in
Figures 3.6 and 3.7 is the amount of shift or correction. And
x is the profile shift coefficient.

Item
Tip pressure
angle
Tip tooth

thickness half

angle

Crest width

Rack form tool

Symbol

Formula
-1

cos

2z

sa

a . da

db
da

2x tan
+ (inv- inva)
z

Example
m = 2 = 20 z = 16
x = + 0.3 d = 32
db = 30.07016
da = 37.2
a = 36.06616

inv a= 0.098835
(radian) a = 1.59815
(0.027893 radian)
sa = 1.03762
inv = 0.014904

Rack form tool

xm

a
Sa

sin2

xm

d
2

( )

db

db

(S)

Fig.3.6 Generating of positive shifted spur gear

Fig.3.7 The generating of negative shifted spur gear

( = 20, z = 10, x = +0.5 )

( = 20, z = 10, x = - 0.5 )

12

Fig. 3.8 Top land thickness

( Crest width )

Elementary Information on Gears

4 Calculation of Gear Dimensions

The following should be taken into consideration in due
order at the early stage of designing:
To calculate the required strength
To calculate the dimensions
To calclate the tooth thickness
To calculate the necessary amount of backlash
To calculate the forces to be acting on the gear

to determine the specifications, the materials to be used, and the degree of accuracy.
in order to provide the necessary data for the gear shaping.
in order to provide the necessary data for cutting and grinding.

to provide the necessary information useful for selecting the proper shafts
and bearings.
To consider what kind of lubrication is necessary and appropriate.
a

The explanation is given, hereafter, as to items necessary for

the design of gears. The calculation of the dimentions comes
first. The dimentions are to be calculated in accordance with the
fundamental specifications of each type of gears. The processes

db2

d1

of turning etc. are to be carried out on the basis of that data.

db1

O1

4.1 Spur Gears

d2 da2

df2
O2

(1) Standard Spur Gear

Figure 4.1 shows the meshing of standard spur gears. The
meshing of standard spur gears means reference circles of
two gears contact and roll with each other. The calculation
formulas are in Table 4.1.

df1

a1

Fig.4.1 The meshing of standard spur gears

( = 20, z1 = 12, z2 = 24, x1 = x2 = 0 )

Table 4.1 The calculation of standard spur gears

No.

Item

Symbol

Module

Reference pressure angle

Number of teeth

Center distance

Reference diameter

Base diameter

Addendum

Tooth depth

Tip diameter

10

Root diameter

d
db
ha
h
da
df

Example

Formula

Pinion

Gear

3
20
12
( z1 + z2 ) m
2
zm
d cosa
1.00m
2.25m
d + 2m
d - 2.5m

NOTE : The subscripts 1 and 2 of z1 and z2 denote pinion and gear.

NOTE

24
54.000

36.000
33.829
3.000
6.750
42.000
28.500

72.000
67.658
3.000
6.750
78.000
64.500

13

Elementary Information on Gears

All calculated values in Table 4.1 are based upon given

module (m) and number of teeth (z 1 and z2 ). If instead
module (m), center distance (a) and speed ratio (i) are given,
then the number of teeth , z1 and z2, would be calculated with
the formulas as shown in Table 4.2.
Table 4.2 The calculation of number of teeth
No.

Item

Symbol

Module

Center distance

Transmission ratio

m
a
i

Sum of No. of teeth

z1 + z2

Number of teeth

Formula

Example

3
54.000
0.8
2a
m
z1 + z2
i +1

36
i ( z1 + z2 )
i +1

Note that the number of teeth probably will not be integer

values by calculation with the formulas in Table 4.2. In
that case, it will be necessary to resort to profile shifting or

to employ helical gears to obtain as near transmission

ratio as possible.

14

16

20

Elementary Information on Gears

(2) Profile Shifted Spur Gear

Figure 4.2 shows the meshing of a pair of profile shifted
gears. The key items in profile shifted gears are the
operating (working) pitch diameters (d') and the working
(operating) pressure angle (').
These values are obtainable from the modified center
distance and the following formulas:
z1
d'1 = 2a
z1 + z2
z2

d'2 = 2a

d1

db2
df2

db1
'

O1

(4.1)

z1 + z2
db1 + db2

-1

d'2 da2
d2

d'1

O2
'

df1

' = cos

2a
In the meshing of profile shifted gears, it is the operating pitch
circle that are in contact and roll on each other that portrays gear

action.
Table 4.3 presents the calculation where the profile shiht
coefficient has been set at x1 and x2 at the beginning. This
calculation is based on the idea that the amount of the tip and
root clearance should be 0.25 m.

Fig. 4.2 The meshing of profile shifted gears

( = 20, z1 = 12, z2 = 24, x1 = + 0.6, x2 = + 0.36 )

Table 4.3 The calculation of profile shifted spur gear (1)

No.
1

Item

Symbol

Module

Reference pressure angle

Number of teeth

Profile shift coefficient

z
x

Involute function '

6
7

Working pressure angle

Center distance

inv '

'
y

modification coefficient
8

Center distance

Reference diameter

10 Base diameter

d
db

11 Working pitch diameter

d'

12 Addendum
13 Tooth depth
14 Tip diameter
15 Root diameter

ha1
ha2
h
da
df

Formula

Example
Pinion (1)

Gear (2)

3
20
12
0.6
x1 + x2
z1 + z2

2 tan

0.034316

+ inv

26.0886

Find from Involute Function Table

z1 + z2

cos

-1

2
cos
'
z1 +z2
+y
2
zm
d cos
db
cos '
(1 + y-x2) m
(1 + y- x1) m
{2.25 + y - ( x1 + x2 )}m
d + 2ha
da -2h

A standard spur gear is, according to Table

4.3, a profile shifted gear with 0 coefficient
of shift; that is , x1 = x2 = 0.

24
0.36

0.83329

56.4999

36.000
33.8289

72.000
67.6579

37.667

75.333

4.420

3.700

44.840
32.100

6.370
79.400
66.660

15

Elementary Information on Gears

Table 4.4 is the inverse formula of items from 4 to 8 of

Table 4.3.
Table 4.4 The calculation of profile shifted spur gear (2)
No.

Item

1 Center distance

Symbol

Formula

Example

56.4999

2 Center distance
modification coefficient

a
m

3 Working pressure angle

'

cos

z1 + z2
2

0.8333

cos

Sum of profile shift

4 coefficient
5 Profile shift coefficient

x1 + x2

-1

z1

26.0886

2y
+

z2 + 1

( z1 + z2 ) (inv

2 tan

'- inv )

0.9600

0.6000

There are several theories concerning how to distribute the sum

of profile shift coefficient (x1 + x2) into pinion (x1) and gear (x2)
separately. BSS (British) and DIN (German) standards are the
most often used. In the example above, the 12 tooth pinion was
given sufficient correction to prevent undercut, and the residual
profile shift was given to the mating gear.

16

0.3600

Elementary Information on Gears

(3) Rack and Spur Gear

Table 4.5 presents the method for calculating the mesh of a
rack and spur gear.
Figure 4.3(1) shows the the meshing of standard gear and a
rack. In this meshing, the reference sircle of the gear
touches the pitch lin of the rack.
Figure 4.3(2) shows a profile shifted spur gear, with positive

correction xm, meshed with a rack. The spur gear has a larger
pitch radius than standard, by the amount xm. Also, the pitch
line of the rack has shifted outward by the amount xm.

Table 4.5 presents the calculation of a meshed profile

shifted spur gear and rack. If the profile shift coefficient x1 is
0, then it is the case of a standard gear meshed with the rack.

Table 4.5 The calculation of dimensions of a profile shifted spur gear and a rack
Item

Symbol

Module

Reference pressure angle

Number of teeth

Profile shift coefficient

Height of pitch line

Working pressure angle

z
x
H
'

Mounting distance

Reference diameter

Base diameter

a
d
db

10 Working pitch diameter

d'

11 Addendum

ha
h
da
df

12 Tooth depth
13 Tip diameter
14 Root diameter

Formula

Example
Spur gear

Rack

3
20
12
0.6

32.000
20

zm
2 + H + xm
zm
d cos
db
cos'
m(1+x)
2.25 m
d + 2ha
da - 2h

51.800
36.000
33.829

36.000
4.800

3.000
6.750

45.600
32.100

One rotation of the spur gear will displace the rack l one
circumferential length of the gear's reference circle, per the
formula:
l = p mz
(4.2)

The rack displacement, l, is not changed in any way by the

profile shifting. Equation (4.2) remains applicable for any
amount of profile shift.

db

db

Hxm

2
d

2
d

No.

Fig.4.3(1) The meshing of standard spur gear and rack

( = 20, z1 = 12, x1 = 0 )

Fig.4.3(2) The meshing of profile shifted spur gear and rack

( = 20, z1 = 12, x1 = + 0.6 )
17

Elementary Information on Gears

4.2 Internal Gears

(1) Internal Gear Calculations
Figure 4.4 presents the mesh of an internal gear and external
gear. Of vital importance is the working pitch diameters (d' ) and
working pressure angle ('). They can be derived from center
distance (a' ) and Equations (4.3).

'

O1
a

'

z1
z2 -z1
z2
d'2 = 2 a z2 -z1
db2-db1
-1
d'1 = 2 a

db2
da2
d2
df 2

O2

(4.3)

' = cos

2a
Table 4.6 shows the calculation steps. It will become a
standard gear calculation if x1 = x2 = 0.
Fig.4.4 The meshing of internal gear and external gear
( = 20, z1 = 16, z2= 24, x1 = x2 = + 0.5 )

Table 4.6 The calculation of a profile shifted internal gear and externl gear (1)
No.

Item

Symbol

Module

Reference pressure angle

Number of teeth

Profile shift coefficient

z
x

Involute function'

6
7

Working pressure angle

Center distance

inv'
'
y

modification coefficient
8

Center distance

Reference diameter

10

Base diameter

d
db

11

Working pitch diameter

d'

12

Addendum

13

Tooth depth

14

Tip diameter

15

Root diameter

ha1
ha2
h
da1
da2
df1
df2

Example

Formula

External gear

Internal gear

3
20
16
0
2 tan

x2-x1
z2-z1

0.060401

+ inv

Find from involute Function Table

z2-z1
cos'
2
z2-z1
2
zm
d cos
db
cos '
( 1 + x1 ) m
( 1 - x2 ) m
2.25 m
d1 + 2ha1
d2 - 2ha2
da1- 2h
da2 + 2h
cos

24
+ 0.5

31.0937

0.389426

ym

13.1683

48.000
45.105

72.000
67.658

52.673

79.010

3.000

1.500

6.75

18

54.000

69.000

40.500

82.500

Elementary Information on Gears

If the center distance (a) is given, x1 and x2 would be

obtained from the inverse calculation from item 4 to item 8
of Table 4.6. These inverse formulas are in Table 4.7.
Table 4.7 The calculation of profile shifted internal gear and external gear (2)
No.

Item

Center distance

Center distance

Symbol

Example

13.1683
a
z2 - z1
m
2

modification coefficient
Working pressure angle

x2- x1

coefficient

cos

z2 - z1

(z2 - z ) (inv
1

0.38943
cos

-12y

'

Difference of profile shift

Formula

31.0937

+1

'- inv )

0.5

2tan

Profile shift coefficient

0.5

Pinion cutters are often used in cutting internal gears and

external gears. The actual value of tooth depth and root
diameter, after cutting, will be slightly different from the
calculation. That is because the cutter has a profile shift
coefficient. In order to get a correct tooth profile, the profile
shift coefficient of cutter should be taken into consideration.
(2) Interference In Internal Gears
Three different types of interference can occur with internal
gears:
(a) Involute Interference,
(b) Trochoid Interference, and
(c) Trimming Interference.
(a) Involute Interference
This occurs between the dedendum of the external gear and the
addendum of the internal gear. It is prevalent when the number
of teeth of the external gear is small. Involute interference can

be avoided by the conditions cited below:

z1
tana2
1z2
tan'
where
tooth.

(4.4)

a2 is the pressure angle at a tip of the internal gear

-1

db2

This refers to an interference occurring at the addendum of

the external gear and the dedendum of the internal gear
during recess tooth action. It tends to happen when the
difference between the numbers of teeth of the two gears is
small. Equation (4.8) presents the condition for avoiding
trochoidal interference.

z1
z2

-1

(4.5)

da2
' : working pressure angle
' = cos -1

(z2-z1) m cos
2a

wherea1 is

+ inv

-1

a1

a2

(4.7)

For a standard internal gear, where = 20, Equation (4.7)

is valid only if the number of teeth is z2 > 34.

a1-inv'

(4.9)

2ara2
the pressure angle of the spur gear tooth tip:

(4.6)

gear is bigger than the base circle:

(4.8)

ra22-ra12-a2
2ara1

2 = cos-1 a +ra2 -ra1

Equiation (4.5) is true only if the tip diameter of the internal

db2

+ inv'- inva2

Here
1 = cos

a2 = cos

da2

(b) Trochoid Interference

= cos
= cos

-1

db1
da1
db2

(4.10)

da2
In the meshing of an external gear and a standard internal
gear = 20, trochoid interference is avoided if the
difference of the number of teeth, z1 - z2, is larger than 9.

19

Elementary Information on Gears

Table 4.8(1) The limit to prevent an internal gear

(c) Trimming Interference

From trimming interference

This occurs in the radial direction in that it prevents pulling the

gears apart. Thus, the mesh must be assembled by sliding the
gears together with an axial motion. It tends to happen when the
numbers of teeth of the two gears are very close. Equation
(4.11) indicates how to prevent this type of interference.

z2
z1 (2 + inva2-inv' )

1 + inva1-inv'
1 = sin
2 = sin

-1

-1

1-(cosa1 / cosa2) 2
2
1-( z1 / z2 )
(cosa2 / cosa1) 2-1

z0
z2
z0
z2
z0
z2

a0 =20 x0 = x2 =0

15 16
34 34

17
35

18
36

19
37

20
38

21 22
39 40

24
42

25
43

28 30
46 48

31
49

32
50

33
51

34
52

35 38
53 56

40
58

42
60

44 48
62 66

50
68

56
74

60
78

64
82

66 80
84 98

96
114

100
118

27
45

There will be an involute interference between the internal

gear and the pinion cutter if the number of teeth of the
pinion cutter ranges from 15 to 22 (z0 = 15 to 22).
Table 4.8(2) shows the limit for a profile shifted pinion
cutter to prevent trimming interference while cutting a
standard internal gear. The correction (x0) is the magnitude
of shift which was assumed to be: x0 = 0.0075 z0 + 0.05.

(4.11)

(4.12)

( z2 / z1 ) -1

Table 4.8(2) The limit to prevent an internal gear

from trimming interference

This type of interference can occur in the process of cutting

an internal gear with a pinion cutter. Should that happen,
there is danger of breaking the tooling.
Table 4.8(1) shows the limit for the pinion cutter to prevent
trimming interference when cutting a standard internal gear,
with pressure angle a0 = 20, and no profile shift, i.e., x0 = 0.

z0
x0
z2
z0
x0
z2
z0
x0
z2

15

16

17

18

19

20

a0= 20 , x2 =0

21

22

24
0.23

47

0.1625

0.17

0.1775

0.185

0.1925

0.2

0.2075

0.215

36

38

39

40

41

42

43

45

25

0.2375 0.2525

48

28

30

31

32

33

34

35

38

40

42

0.26

0.275

0.2825

0.29

0.2975

0.305

0.3125

0.335

0.35

0.365

52

54

55

56

58

59

60

64

66

68
100

44

48

50

56

60

64

66

80

96

0.38

0.41

0.425

0.47

0.5

0.53

0.545

0.65

0.77

71

76

78

86

90

95

98

115 136

27
50

0.8

141

There will be an involute interference between the internal

gear and the pinion cutter if the number of teeth of the
pinion cutter ranges from 15 to 19 (z0 = 15 to 19).

Interference

Involute interference

Fig.4.5 Involute interference and trochoid interference

Interference

Interference

Trochoid interference

Fig.4.6 Trimming interference

20

Elementary Information on Gears

4.3 Helical Gears

hob if module mn and pressure angle an are constant, no

matter what the value of helix angle b.

A helical gear such as shown in Figure 4.7 is a cylindrical gear in

which the teeth flank are helicoid. The helix angle in reference
cylinder is
b , and the displacement of one rotation is the
lead, pz .

The tooth profile of a helical gear is an involute curve from

an axial view, or in the plane perpendicular to the axis. The
helical gear has two kinds of tooth profiles one is based on
a normal system, the other is based on an transverse system.
Pitch measured perpendicular to teeth is called normal pitch, pn.

In meshing helical gears, they must have the same helix

angle but with opposite hands.

And

It is not that simple in the transverse system. The gear hob

design must be altered in accordance with the changing of
helix angle b, even when the module mt and the pressure
angle at are the same.
Obviously, the manufacturing of helical gears is easier with
the normal system than with the transverse system in the
plane perpendicular to the axis.

n divided by is then a normal module, mn.

pn
mn =

(4.13)

The tooth profile of a helical gear with applied normal module,

mn, and normal pressure angle an belongs to a normal system.

In the axial view, the pitch on the reference is called the

transverse pitch, pt. And pt divided by pis the transverse
module, mt.
mt =

pt

(4.14)

These transverse module mt and transverse pressure angle

a

are
the basic configuration of transverse system helical gear.
In the normal system, helical gears can be cut by the same gear

pt

dReference diameter

Length of reference circle

px

n
p

Helix angle

pz =

d / tan

Lead

Fig.4.7 Fundamental relationship of a helical gear (Right-hand)

21

Elementary Information on Gears

(1) Normal System Helical Gear

In the normal system, the calculation of a profile shifted
helical gear, the working pitch diameter d' and transverse
working pressure angle 't is done per Equations (4.15). That
is because meshing of the helical gears in the transverse
plane is just like spur gears and the calculation is similar.
d'1 = 2a
d'2 = 2a

't = cos

z1

z 1 + z2

z2

z1 + z2
-1

(4.15)

db1 + db2

2a

Table 4.9 shows the calculation of profile shifted helical

gears in the normal system. If normal profile shift
coefficients xn1, xn2 are zero, they become standard gears.
Table 4.9 The calculation of a profile shifted helical gear in the normal system (1)
No.

Item

Symbol

Normal module

mn

Normal pressure angle

Reference cylinder helix angle

Number of teeth &helical hand

Transverse pressure

Involute function't

Transverse woking pressure angle

tan

-1

tan

inv't

'
y

modification coefficient
Center distance

22.79588

xn

Center distance

10

+ 0.09809
xn1 + xn2

2 tann

z1 + z2
2cos
z1 + z2

cos

+y

125.000

12 Base diameter

db

13 Working pitch diameter

d'

14 Addendum

ha1
ha2

zmn
cos
d cost
db
cos't
( 1+ y-xn2 ) mn
( 1+ y- xn1 ) mn

h
da
df

{2.25 + y- (xn1+xn2 )} mn
d + 2ha
da -2h

17 Root diameter

0.09744

cos 't

11 Reference diameter

16 Tip diameter

23.1126

-1

0.023405

+ invt

z1 + z2

Find from involute Function Table

2cos

15 Tooth depth

60(R)

cos

Gear

12(L)

Normal profile shift coefficient

Pinion

3
20
30

angle
6

Example

Formula

41.569

207.846

38.322

191.611

41.667

208.333

3.292

2.998
6.748

48.153
34.657

22

213.842
200.346

Elementary Information on Gears

If center distance, a, is given, the normal profile shift

coefficients xn1 and xn2 can be calculated from Table 4.10. These
are the inverse equations from items 4 to 10 of Table 4.9.

Table 4.10 The calculations of a profile shifted helical gear in the normal system (2)
No.
1

Item
Center distance

Symbol

modification coefficient
Transverse working

pressure angle

Sum of profile shift

coefficient

Normal profile shift coefficient

Example

Center distance
2

Formula

125
a
z 1 + z2
mn - 2cos
cost
-1

't
xn1 + xn2

cos
(z1

0.097447

2y cos
+
z

+ z2) (inv

2tan

+1

23.1126

' - inv
t

)
t

0.09809

xn

0.09809

The transformation from a normal system to a transverse

system is accomplished by the following equations:
xt = xn cos
mn
mt = cos

= tan

-1

(4.16)

tann
cos

23

Elementary Information on Gears

(2) Transverse System Helical Gear

Table 4.11 shows the calculation of profile shifted helical gears
in a transverse system. They become standard if xt1 = xt2 = 0.
Table 4.11 The calculation of a profile shifted helical gear in the transverse system (1)
No.

Item

Symbol

Transverse module

mt

Transverse pressure angle

Reference cylinder helix angle

Number of teeth & helical hand

Transverse profile shift coefficient

Involute function 't

Transverse working pressure angle

Pinion

inv't

'

12 (L)
0.34462
xt1 + xt2
z1
+ z2

2 tant

Find from Involute Function Table

Center distance

z1 + z2

cos

0.33333

-1

cos't

2
z1 + z2

109.0000

11 Base diameter

d
db

12 Working pitch diameter

d'

13 Addendum

ha1
ha2
h
da
df

{2.25 + y - (xt1 + xt2 )} mt

d + 2ha
da - 2h

14 Tooth depth
15 Tip diameter
16 Root diameter

21.3975

2
zmt
d cost
db
cos't
( 1 + y-xt2 ) mt
( 1+ y -xt1 ) mt

10 Reference diameter

60 (R)
0
0.0183886

+ invt

Center distance

Gear

3
20
30

z
xt

modification coefficient
9

Example

Formula

36.000
33.8289

180.000
169.1447

36.3333

181.6667

4.000

2.966

44.000
30.568

6.716
185.932
172.500

Table 4.12 presents the inverse calculation of items 5 to 9 of

Table 4.11.
Table 4.12 The calculation of a profile shifted helical gear in the transverse system (2)
No.

Item

Center distance

Center distance

modification coefficient
Transverse working

pressure angle

Symbol

Formula

Example

a
y

't

109
a
z1 + z2
mt
2
cos

0.33333
cost

-1 2y
z1

21.39752

+1

z2

+
4

Sum of profile shift

coefficient

Transverse profile shift coefficient

xt1 + xt2

(z1 + z2) (inv 't - inv

2tan t

)
t

0.34462

xt

0.34462
xt
xn =

The transformation from a transverse to a normal system is

described by the following equations:

cos

(4.17)

mn = mt cos
n = tan -1 (tant
24

cos)

Elementary Information on Gears

(3) Sunderland Double Helical Gear

A representative application of transverse system is a double
helical gear, or herringbone gear, made with the Sunderland
machine.
The transverse pressure angle, t, and helix angle, , are
specified as 20 and 22.5, respectively.
The only differences from the transverse system equations of
Table 4.11 are those for addendum and tooth depth.
Table4.13 presents equations for a Sunderland gear.
Table 4.13 The calculation of a double helical gear of SUNDERLAND tooth profile
No.

Item

Symbol

Transverse module

mt

Transverse pressure angle

Reference cylinder helix angle

Number of teeth

Transverse profile shift coefficient

Involute function't

Transverse working pressure

angle
Center distance

inv't

'

10 Reference diameter

11 Base diameter

d
db

12

d'

Working pitch diameter

13 Addendum
14

Tooth depth

15 Tip diameter
16

Root diameter

ha1
ha2
h
da
df

Gear

3
20
22.5
12
0.34462
xt1 + xt2

2 tant

z1

z2

Find from Involute Function Table

z1

z2

cos

21.3975

-1

0.33333

2 cos't
z1 + z2
+y

60
0
0.0183886

+ invt

Center distance

Pinion

z
xt

modification coefficient
9

Example

Formula

109.0000

mt

2
zmt
d cost
db
cos't
( 0.8796 + y -xt2 ) mt
( 0.8796 + y - xt1 ) mt

36.000
33.8289

180.000
169.1447

36.3333

181.6667

3.639

{1.8849 + y - (xt1 + xt2 )}mt

d + 2ha
da -2h

25

43.278
32.036

2.605
5.621
185.210
173.968

Elementary Information on Gears

(4) Helical Rack

module and normal pressure angle. Similarily, Table 4.15
presents examples for a helical rack in the transverse system
(i.e., perpendicular to gear axis).

Viewed in the transverse plane, the meshing of a helical rack and

gear is the same as a spur gear and rack. Table 4.14 presents the
calculation examples for a mated helical rack with normal
Table 4.14 The calculation of a helical rack in the normal system
No.
1

Item

Symbol

Normal module

mn

Normal pressure angle

Reference cylinder helix angle

Number of teeth & helical hand

z
xn
H

5
6

Normal profile shift coefficient

Pitch line height
Transverse pressure

Mounting distance

Reference diameter

11 Addendum
12 Tooth depth
13 Tip diameter
14 Root diameter

Gear

Rack

2.5
20
10 57' 49"
20 (R)
- (L)
0
27.5
tan

-1

tan

20.34160

cos

angle

10 Base diameter

Example

Formula

db
ha
h
da
df

zmn
+ H + xn mn
2cos
zmn
cos
d cost
mn ( 1 + xn )
2.25mn
d + 2ha
da - 2h

52.965
50.92956

47.75343
2.500
2.500
5.625
55.929
44.679

The formulas of a standard helical rack are similar to those

of Table 4.14 with only the normal profile shift coefficient xn
= 0. To mesh a helical gear to a helical rack, they must have
the same helix angle but with opposite hands.
The displacement of the helical rack, l, for one rotation of
the mating gear is the product of the transverse pitch and
number of teeth.
mn
l = cos z
(4.18)
According to the equations of Table 4.14, let transverse pitch
pt = 8 mm and displacement l = 160 mm. The transverse
pitch and the displacement could be modified into integers,
if the helix angle were chosen properly.

26

Elementary Information on Gears

Table 4.15 The calculation of a helical rack in the transverse system

No.

Item

Symbol

Transverse module

mt

Transverse pressure angle

Reference cylinder helix angle

Number of teeth & helical hand

Transverse profile shift coefficient

Pitch line height

z
xt
H

Example

Formula

Gear

Rack

2.5
20
10'49" 57
20 (R)
- (L)
0
27.5

Mounting distance

Reference diameter

Base diameter

d
db

zmt
+ H + xt mt
2
zmt
d cost

10 Addendum
11 Tooth depth

ha
h

mt ( 1 + xt )
2.25mt

12 Tip diameter
13 Root diameter

da
df

d + 2ha
da -2h

52.500
50.000
46.98463
2.500

2.500

5.625
55.000
43.750

In the meshing of transverse system helical rack and

helical gear, the movement, l, for one turn of the helical gear
is the transverse pitch multiplied by the number of teeth.
l =mt z
(4.19)

27

Elementary Information on Gears

tan1 =

4.4 Bevel Gears

Bevel gears, whose pitch surfaces are cones, are used to
drive intersecting axes. Bevel gears are classified according
to their type of the tooth forms into Straight Bevel Gear,
Spiral Bevel Gear, Zerol Bevel Gear, Skew Bevel Gear etc.
The meshing of bevel gears means pitch cone of two gears
contact and roll with each other.
Let z1 and z2 be pinion and gear tooth numbers; shaft angle
S; and reference cone angles 1 and 2; then:

sin S

z2

z1

tan2 =

+ cos S
sin S

(4.20)

z1
z2 + cos S

Generally, shaft angle S= 90 is most used. Other angles

(Figure 4.8) are sometimes used. Then, it is called bevel
gear in nonright angle drive. The 90 case is called bevel
gear in right angle drive.
When S= 90, Equation (4.20) becomes:
z1
1 = tan z2
-1

z2

(4.21)

= tan z1

Miter gears are bevel gears with S= 90 and z1

transmission ratio z2 / z1 = 1.

m
1
z

-1

= z2. Their

Figure 4.9 depicts the meshing of bevel gears.

The meshing must be considered in pairs. It is because the

reference cone angles 1 and 2 are restricted by the gear ratio

z1 / z 2. In the facial view, which is normal to the contact line

of pitch cones, the meshing of bevel gears appears to be
similar to the meshing of spur gears.

z2 m
Fig. 4.8 The reference cone angle of bevel gear

d
2

Rv2

Rv1

Fig. 4.9 The meshing of bevel gears

28

Elementary Information on Gears

(1) Gleason Straight Bevel Gears

A straight bevel gear is a simple form of bevel gear having
straight teeth which, if extended inward, would come together
at the intersection of the shaft axes. Straight bevel gears can be
grouped into the Gleason type and the standard type.

d
d

di

In this section, we discuss the Gleason straight bevel gear.

The Gleason Company defined the tooth profile as: tooth
depth h = 2.188 m; tip and root clearance c = 0.188m; and
working depth h' = 2.000m.
The characteristics are:

specified profile shifted gears:

Design
In the Gleason system, the pinion

is positive shifted
and the gear is negative shifted. The reason is to
distribute the proper strength between the two gears.
Miter gears, thus, do not need any shifted tooth profile.

90

The face cone of the blank is turnd parallel to the root

The tip and root clearance is designed to be parallel:

Xb

cone of the mate in order to eliminate possible fillet

interference at the small ends of the teeth.

Table 4.16 shows the minimum number of teeth to prevent
undercut in the Gleason system at the shaft angle S= 90.

Fig. 4.10 Dimentions and angles of bevel gears

Table 4.16 The minimum numbers of teeth to prevent undercut
Combination of number of teeth z1 / z2

Pressure angle

(14.5) 29/29 and higher 28/29 and higher 27/31 and higher 26/35 and higher 25/40 and higher 24/57 and higher

20
(25)

16/16 and higher 15/17 and higher 14/20 and higher 13/30 and higher
13/13 and higher

Table 4.17 presents equations for designing straight bevel

gears in the Gleason system. The meanings of the
dimensions and angles are shown in Figure 4.10 above. All
the equations in Table 4.17 can also be applied to bevel
gears with any shaft angle.
The straight bevel gear with crowning in the Gleason system
is called a Coniflex gear. It is manufactured by a special
Gleason Coniflex machine. It can successfully eliminate
poor tooth contact due to improper mounting and assembly.

29

Elementary Information on Gears

Tale 4.17 The calcultions of straight bevel gears of the gleason system
No.

Item

Symbol

Shaft angle

Module

Reference pressure angle

Number of teeth

Reference diameter

z
d

20
60
-1

Cone distance

Facewidth

b
ha1

Addendum

ha2

10

Dedendum

hf

11

Dedendum angle

12

Addendum angle

Root angle

15

Tip diameter

16

67.08204
22

It should not exceed R/3 or 10m

2.000m - ha2

a1

a2

0.460m
0.540m + z2 cos1

4.035

1.965

z1 cos2
2.188m - ha
tan-1 ( hf / R )

2.529
2.15903

4.599
3.92194

3.92194

2.15903

30.48699
24.40602
67.2180
58.1955

65.59398
59.51301
121.7575
28.2425

f2

f1

a
f

+ a
- f

Pitch apex to crown

da
X

17

Axial facewidth

Xb

18

Inner tip diameter

di

d + 2ha cos
R cos- ha sin
b cosa
cosa
da - 2b sina
cosa

The first characteristics of a Gleason Straight Bevel Gear is

its profile shifted tooth. From Figure 4.11, we can see the
tooth profile of Gleason Straight Bevel Gear and the same of
Standard Straight Bevel Gear.

Fig. 4.11 The tooth profile of straight bevel gears

Gleason straight bevel gear

63.43495

S- 1
2 sin2

14

26.56505

d2

Tip angle

+ cosS
z1

Reference cone angle

40
120

z2 sinS

tan

Gear (2)

90
3
20

zm
1

13

Pinion (1)

Example

Formula

Standard straight bevel gear

30

19.0029

9.0969

44.8425

81.6609

Elementary Information on Gears

(2) Standard Straight Bevel Gears

A bevel gear with no profile shifted tooth is a standard straight
bevel gear. The applicable equations are in Table 4.18.
Table 4.18 Calculation of a standard straight bevel gears
No.

Item

Symbol

Shaft angle

Module

Reference pressure angle

Number of teeth

Reference diameter

z
d

20
60
z sinS
+ cosS
z1

2
Cone distance

Facewidth

Addendum

10

Dedendum

b
ha
hf

Deddendum angle

12

Addendum angle

13

Tip angle

40
120

-1 2

tan

Reference cone angle

Gear (2)

90
3
20

zm
1

11

Pinion (1)

Example

Formula

f
a
a
f

14

Root angle

15

Tip ciameter

16

Pitch apex to crown

da
X

17

Axial facewidth

Xb

18

Inner tip diameter

di

26.56505

63.43495

S- 1
d2

67.08204

2 sin2
It should not exceed R/3 or 10m

1.00m
1.25m
tan-1 ( hf / R )
tan-1 ( ha / R )
+ a
- f
d + 2ha cos
R cos- ha sin
b cosa
cosa
2b sina
da cosa

These equations can also be applied to bevel gear sets with

other than 90 shaft angle.

31

22
3.00
3.75
3.19960
2.56064
29.12569
65.99559
23.36545
60.23535
65.3666
122.6833
58.6584
27.3167
19.2374

8.9587

43.9292

82.4485

Elementary Information on Gears

(3) Gleason Spiral Bevel Gears

dc

A spiral bevel gear is one with a spiral tooth flank as in Figure

4.12. The spiral is generally consistent with the curve of a cutter
with the diameter dc. The spiral angle bis the angle between a
generatrix element of the pitch cone and the tooth flank. The spiral
angle just at the tooth flank center is called mean spiral angle bm.
In practice, spiral angle means mean spiral angle.

All equations in Table 4.21 are dedicated for the

manufacturing method of Spread Blade or of Single Side
from Gleason. If a gear is not cut per the Gleason system,
the equations will be different from these.
R

The tooth profile of a Gleason spiral bevel gear shown here

has the tooth depth h = 1.888m; tip and root clearance c =
0.188m; and working depth h' = 1.700m. These Gleason
spiral bevel gears belong to a stub gear system. This is
applicable to gears with modules m > 2.1.

b b/2
b/2

Table 4.19 shows the minimum number of teeth to avoid

undercut in the Gleason system with shaft angle S= 90 and
pressure angle an = 20.

Rv

Fig.4.12 spiral bevel gear (Left-hand)

Table 4.19 The minimum numbers of teeth to prevent undercut
Pressure angle
20

= 35

Combination of numbers of teeth z1 / z2

17/17 and higher 16/18 and higher 15/19 and higher 14/20 and higher 13/22 and higher 12/26 and higher

If the number of teeth is less than 12, Table 4.20 is used to

determine the gear sizes.
Table 4.20 Dimentions for pinions with number of teeth less than 12
Number of teeth in pinion
Number of teeth in gear

Working depth
Tooth depth
Gear addendum
Pinion addendum

z1
z2
h'
h
ha2
ha1

Tooth thickness of
gear

30

s2

50

40
60

Normal pressure angle

Spiral angle

Shaft angle

10

11

34 and

33 and

32 and

31 and

30 and

29 and

1.500
1.666
0.215
1.285
0.911

1.560
1.733
0.270
1.290
0.957

1.610
1.788
0.325
1.285
0.975

1.650
1.832
0.380
1.270
0.997

1.680
1.865
0.435
1.245
1.023

1.695
1.882
0.490
1.205
1.053

0.803

0.818
0.757

0.837 0.860
0.777 0.828
0.777 0.828
20
35~ 40
90

0.888
0.884
0.883

0.948
0.946
0.945

higher

higher

higher

higher

higher

NOTE: All values in the table are based on m = 1.

32

higher

Elementary Information on Gears

Table 4.21 shows the calculations of spiral bevel gears of the

Gleason system
Table 4.21 The calculations of spiral bevel gears of the Gleason system
No.

Item

Symbol

Shaft angle

Module

Normal pressure angle

Mean spiral angle

n
m

Number of teeth and spiral hand

Transverse pressure angle

tan -1

Reference diameter

zm

tan -1 z2

10 Facewidth

11 Addendum

b
ha1

18 Pitch apex to crown

da
X

19 Axial facewidth

Xb

20 Inner tip diameter

di

+ cos

26.56505

63.43495

S- 1

67.08204

0.390m
0.460m + z2 cos1

ha2

f
a1
a2

17 Tip diameter

20

1.700m - ha2

hf

16 Root angle

sinS

40 (R)

23.95680
60
120

It should be less than 0.3R or 10m

13 Dedendum angle

15 Tip angle

d2
2 sin2

12 Dedendum

14 Addendum angle

tann
cos

z1

Reference cone angle

Cone distance

Gear

20 (L)

Pinion

90
3
20
35

Example

Formula

z1 cos2
1.888m - ha
tan-1 ( hf / R )
f2
f1

a
f

d + 2hacos
Rcos

- ha sin

b cosa
cosa
2b sina
da cosa

All equations in Table 4.21 are also applicable to Gleason bevel

gears with any shaft angle. A spiral bevel gear set requires
matching of hands; left-hand and right-hand as a pair.

3.4275

1.6725

2.2365
1.90952

3.9915
3.40519

3.40519

1.90952

29.97024
24.65553
66.1313
58.4672

65.34447
60.02976
121.4959
28.5041

17.3563

8.3479

46.1140

85.1224

Figure 4.13 is a left-hand

Zerol bevel gear.

(4) Gleason Zerol Bevel Gears

When the spiral angle bm = 0, the bevel gear is called a Zerol
bevel gear. The calculation equations of Table 4.17 for
Gleason straight bevel gears are applicable. They also
should take care again of the rule of hands; left and right of
a pair must be matched.

Fig. 4.13 Left-hand zerol bevel gear

33

Elementary Information on Gears

4.5 Screw Gears

Screw gearing includes various types of gears used to drive
nonparallel and nonintersecting shafts where the teeth of one
or both members of the pair are of screw form. Figure 4.14
shows the meshing of screw gears.
Two screw gears can only mesh together under the conditions
that normal modules (mn1) and (mn2) and normal pressure
angles (an1, an2) are the same.

S 1

Let a pair of screw gears have the shaft angle Sand helix
angles b1 and b2:

Gear 1
(Right-hand)

(Left-hand)

2
S

If they have the same hands, then:

S= 1 + 2

If they have the opposite hands, then:

S= 1 - 2 or S= 2 - 1

Gear 2
(Right-hand)

(4.22)

Fig.4.14 Screw gears of nonparallel and nonintersecting axes

If the screw gears were profile shifted, the meshing would

become a little more complex. Let '1, '2 represent the
working pitch cylinder;
If they have the same hands,
then: S= '1 + '2
If they have the opposite hands,
then: S= '1 - '2 or S= '2 - '1
(4.23)
Table 4.22 presents equations for a profile shifted screw gear
pair. When the normal profile shift coefficients
xn1 = xn2 = 0, the equations and calculations are the same as for
standard gears.

34

Elementary Information on Gears

Table 4.22 The equations for a screw gear pair on nonparallel and
Nonintersecting axes in the normal system
No.

Item

Symbol

Normal module

mn

Normal pressure angle

Reference cylinder helix angle

Number of teeth & helical hand

z
z
cos3

zv

Equivalent spur gear

Transverse pressure angle

Normal profile shift coefficient

'n

-1

tan

1
2

( zv1 + zv2

z1

13 Reference diameter

14 Base diameter

db

'n
24.2404

cosn

cos 'n
z2
+
2cos 2

zmn
cos
d cost
2
d1
a
d1 + d2
2
d2
a
d1 + d2

d'1
15 Working pitch diameter

d'2

-1

17 Shaft angle

18 Addendum

ha1
ha2
h
da
df

{2.25 + y - ( xn1 + xn2 )}mn

d + 2ha
da - 2h

'

19 Tooth depth
20 Tip diameter
21 Root diameter

Standard screw gears have relations as follows:

d'2 = d2

-1

0.55977

y m

67.1925

47.8880

83.1384

44.6553

76.6445

49.1155

85.2695

tan d tan
'1 + '2 or '1 - '2
( 1 + y - xn2 ) mn
( 1 + y - xn1 ) mn

'2 =

26.0386

d'

16 Working helix angle

0.2

22.9338

2cos

22.7959

0.0228415

+ invn

zv1 + zv2

tan

12 Center distance

36.9504

xn1 + xn2

2 tann

modification coefficient

'1 =

18.0773

cos

pressure angle
Center distance

30
24 (R)

Find from involute function table

d'1 = d1

20
15 (R)

0.4

10

11

Gear

21.1728

cos

xn
inv'n

Normal working pressure angle

Transverse working

tann

-1

tan

Involute function 'n

Pinion

3
20

Number of teeth of an
5

Example

Formula

(4.24)

20.4706
30.6319
51.1025
4.0793

3.4793

56.0466
42.7880

6.6293
90.0970
76.8384

35

Elementary Information on Gears

4.6 Cylindrical Worm Gear Pair

Type I Worm: The tooth profile is trapezoidal on the axial plane.

Type II Worm: The tooth profile is trapezoid on the plane

Cylindrical worms may be considered cylindrical type gears with

screw threads. Generally, the mesh has a 90 O shaft angle. The
number of threads in the worm is equivalent to the number of teeth
in a gear of a screw type gear mesh. Thus, a one-thread worm is
equivalent to a one-tooth gear; and two-threads equivalent to twoteeth, etc. Referring to Figure 4.15, for a reference cylinder lead
angle g,measured on the pitch cylinder, each rotation of the worm
makes the thread advance one lead pz.

normal to the space.

Type III Worm: The tooth profile which is obtained by
inclining the axis of the milling or grinding, of
which cutter shape is trapezoidal on the cutter axis,
by the lead angle to the worm axis.
Type IV Worm: The tooth profile is of involute curve on
the plane of rotation.
Type III worm is the most popular. In this type, the normal
pressure angle an has the tendency to become smaller than
that of the cutter, a0.
Per JIS, Type III worm uses a axial module mx and cutter
pressure angle a0 = 20 as the module and pressure angle. A
special worm hob is required to cut a Type III worm wheel.
Standard values of axial module, mx , are presented in Table
4.23.

There are four worm tooth profiles in JIS B 1723, as defined

on the right.

Table 4.23 Axial module of cylindrical worm gear pair

1

1.25

1.60

2.00

2.50

3.15

4.00

6.30

8.00

10.00

12.50

16.00

20.00

25.00

Because the worm mesh couples nonparallel and nonintersecting

axes, the axial plane of worm does not correspond with the axial
plane of worm wheel. The axial plane of worm corresponds with
the trsnsverse plane of worm wheel. The transverse plane of worm
corresponds with the axial plane of worm wheel. The common
plane of the worm and worm wheel is the normal plane. Using the
normal module, mn, is most popular. Then, an ordinary hob can be
used to cut the worm wheel.

5.00

pt

Table 4.24 presents the relationships among worm and worm

wheel axial plane, transverse plane, normal plane, module,
pressure angle, pitch and lead.

px
x

Table 4.24 The relations of cross sections of worm gear pair

Worm

mx =

Axial plane

Normal plane

mn
cos

mn

mt =

-1

x = tan

tann

cos

px = mx

pz = d tan

pz = mxz

Fig. 4.15 Cylindrical worm (Right-hand)

Transverse plane

pn = mn

pz =

mn z

cos

Norml plane

Transverse plane

mn
sin

= tan

-1

tann

sin

pt = mt

pz = mt z tan

Axial plane

Worm wheel
NOTE: The transverse plane is the plane perpendicular to the axis.

36

Elementary Information on Gears

ri

f1
1

(1) Axial Module Worm Gear Pair

ddd a1

Reference to Figure 4.15 can help the understanding of the

relationships in Table 4.24. They are similar to the relations in
Formulas (4.16) and (4.17) that the helix angle bbe substituted
by (90 g). We can consider that a worm with lead angle gis
almost the same as a helical gear with helix angle (90 g).

da2
dt
d2
df2

Table 4.25 presents the equations, for dimensions shown in

Figure 4.16, for worm gears with axial module, mx, and normal
pressure angle an = 20.

Fig. 4.16 Dimentions of cylindrical worm gear pair

Table 4.25 The calculations of axial module system worm gear pair
No.

Item

Symbol

Axial module

mx

Normal pressure angle

No. of threads, no. of teeth

Reference diameter

z
d1
d2

(Qmx)
z2 m x

Reference cylinder lead

tan -1

Worm

Wheel

3
(20)
Double(R) *
30 (R)
NOTE 1

44.000

mx z1

90.000
7.76517

d1

angle
6

Example

Formula

Profile shift coefficient

xt2

Center distance

Addendum

ha1
ha2

d1 + d2 + xt2 mx
2
1.00 mx
(1.00 + xt2) mx

Tooth depth

h
da1
da2

2.25 mx
d1 + 2ha1
d2 + 2ha2 + mx

11 Throat diameter

dt

12 Throat surface radius

ri

13

df1
df2

d2 + 2ha2
d1
- ha1
2
da1 - 2h
dt - 2h

10 Tip diameter

Root diameter

0
67.000

3.000

3.000
6.750

NOTE 2

50.000

99.000

96.000

19.000

36.500

82.500

* Double-threaded right-hand worm .

NOTE 1: Diameter factor, Q, means reference diameter of worm, d1, over axial module, mx.

Q = d1
mx
NOTE 2: There are several calculation methods of worm wheel tip diameter

da2 besides

those in Table 4.25.

NOTE 3: The facewidth of worm, b1, would be sufficient if:

b1 = pmx (4.5+ 0.02z2)

NOTE 4: Effective facewidth of worm wheel b' = 2mx Q + 1. So the actual facewidth of b2 b' + 1.5 mx would be enough.

37

Elementary Information on Gears

(2) Normal Module System Worm Gear Pair

The equations for normal module system worm gears are
based on a normal module, mn, and normal pressure angle, an
= 20. See Table 4.26.
Table 4.26 The calculations of normal module system worm gear pair
No.

Item

Symbol

Normal module

mn

Normal pressure angle

No. of threads, No. of teeth

Reference diameter of worm

z
d1

Reference cylinder lead

Formula

sin

-1

angle

mn z1

z2mn
cos

Reference diameter of

Normal profile shift coefficient

xn2

Center distance

Addendum

ha1
ha2

d1 + d2
+ xn2mn
2
1.00 mn
(1.00 + xn2) mn

h
da1
da2

2.25 mn
d1 + 2ha1
d2 + 2ha2 + mn

12 Throat diameter

dt

13 Throat surface radius

ri

14 Root diameter

df1
df2

d2 + 2ha2
d1
- ha1
2
da1 - 2h
dt - 2h

10 Tooth depth
11 Tip diameter

d2

Worm

Worm Wheel

3
( 20)
Double(R) *
30 (R)
44.000
7.83748

d1

worm wheel

Example

90.8486

- 0.1414

67.000
3.000

2.5758
6.75

50.000

99.000

96.000

19.000

36.500

82.500

* Double-threaded right-hand worm .

NOTE: All notes are the same as those of Table 4.25.

(3) Crowning of the Tooth

Crowning is critically important to worm gears. Not only can it

eliminate abnormal tooth contact due to incorrect assembly, but
it also provides for the forming of an oil film, which enhances
the lubrication effect of the mesh. This can favorably impact
endurance and transmission efficiency of the worm mesh. There
are four methods of crowning worm gear pair:
(a) Cut Worm Wheel with a Hob Cutter of Greater Reference
Diameter than the Worm.

A crownless worm wheel results when it is made by using a

hob that has an identical pitch diameter as that of the worm.
This crownless worm wheel is very difficult to assemble
correctly. Proper tooth contact and a complete oil film are
usually not possible.
However, it is relatively easy to obtain a crowned worm wheel

by cutting it with a hob whose

reference diameter is slightly
larger than that of the worm.

This is shown in Figure 4.17.

This creates teeth contact in
the center region with space
for oil film formation.

Hob

Worm

Fig.4.17 The method of using

a greater diameter hob

38

Elementary Information on Gears

(b) Recut With Hob Center Position Adjustment.

(d) Use a Worm with a Larger Pressure Angle than the

Worm Wheel.

The first step is to cut the worm wheel at standard center

distance. This results in no crowning. Then the worm wheel
is finished with the same hob by recutting with the hob axis
shifted parallel to the worm wheel axis by Dh. This results
in a crowning effect, shown in Figure 4.18.

This is a very complex method, both theoretically and

practically. Usually, the crowning is done to the worm
wheel, but in this method the modification is on the worm.
That is, to change the pressure angle and pitch of the worm
without changing base pitch, in accordance with the
relationships shown in Equations 4.25:

(c) Hob Axis Inclining DqFrom Standard Position.

px cosx = px' cosx'

In standard cutting, the hob axis is oriented at the proper angle

to the worm wheel axis. After that, the hob axis is shifted
slightly left and then right, Dq, in a plane parallel to the worm
wheel axis, to cut a crown effect on the worm wheel tooth.

(4.25)

In order to raise the pressure angle from before change, ax',

to after change, ax , it is necessary to increase the axial pitch,
px', to a new value, px , per Equation (4.25). The amount of
crowning is represented as the space between the worm and
worm wheel at the meshing point A in Figure 4.21. This
amount may be approximated by the following equation:

This is shown in Figure 4.19. Only method (a) is popular.

Methods (b) and (c) are seldom used.

Amount of crowning k px - px'

px'

d1
2

where d1 : Reference diameter of worm

k : Factor from Table 4.27 and Figure 4.20
px : Axial pitch after change
px' : Axial pitch before change

Table 4.27 The value of factor k

14.5

17.5

20

22.5

0.55

0.46

0.41

0.375

Fig.4.18 Offsetting up or down

Axial pressure angle ax

Fig. 4.20 The value of factor (k)

Fig. 4.19 Inclining right or left

(4.26)

39

Elementary Information on Gears

Table 4.28 shows an example of calculating worm crowning.

Table 4.28 The calculation of worm crowning
Item

Symbol

Axial module

Normal pressure angle n'

Number of threads of worm

4
5

Reference diameter
of worm
Reference cylinder

mx'
z1

Formula
NOTE: These are the
data before
crowning.

d1
'

7
8
9

mx'z1

-1

tan

Axial pitch
Lead
Amount of
crowning

10 Factor

x'

d1

20
2

tan

m'

CR

cos

p x'
p z'

12

'

20.170236

mx z1

0.04

From Table 4.27

Axial pitch

px

px'

Axial pressure angle

cos

0.41

2CR
kd1
-1

x'

+1

9.466573

p
p

cosax'

20.847973

Reference cylinder
14 lead angle
15 Normal pressure angle
16 Lead

Lead angle g

px
mx

3.013304

-1

n
p
z

Fig.4.21 Position A is the point of determining crowning amount

9.424778
18.849556

13 Axial module

tann'

After crowning
11

30

7.765166

d1
-1

Axial pressure angle

44.000

lead angle
6

Example

Coefficient of friction m

No.

mx z1

tan d1
tan -1 ( tanx cos)

mx z1

Fig. 4.22 The critical limit of self-locking of lead angle gand

7.799179
20.671494
18.933146

* It should be determined by considering the size of tooth contact .

Then,
Ft1 = Fn (cosn sin- cos)

(4) Self-Locking Of Worm Gear Pair

Self-locking is a unique characteristic of worm meshes that can
be put to advantage. It is the feature that a worm cannot be
driven by the worm wheel. It is very useful in the design of
some equipment, such as lifting, in that the drive can stop at
any position without concern that it can slip in reverse.
However, in some situations it can be detrimental if the system
requires reverse sensitivity, such as a servomechanism.

(4.27)

If Ft1 > 0 then there is no self-locking effect at all. Therefore,

Ft1 0 is the critical limit o
Let an in Equation (4.27) be 20, then the condition:
Ft1 0
will become:
(cos20 sing mcosg) 0
Figure 4.22 shows the critical limit of self-locking for lead
angle gand coefficient of friction m. Practically, it is very
hard to assess the exact value of coefficient of friction m.
Further, the bearing loss, lubricant agitation loss, etc. can
add many side effects. Therefore, it is not easy to establish
precise self-locking conditions.
However, it is true that the smaller the lead angle g,the more
likely the self-locking condition will occur.

Self-locking does not occur in all worm meshes, since it requires

special conditions as outlined here. In this analysis, only the
driving force acting upon the tooth surfaces is considered without
any regard to losses due to bearing friction, lubricant agitation, etc.
The governing conditions are as follows:

Let Ft1 = tangential driving force of worm

40