original

article

The work ability index and functional

capacity among older workers
Rosimeire S. Padula1, Maria L. C. Comper1,2, Suzana A. Moraes1,
Catherine Sabbagh3, Wagner Pagliato Junior3, Monica R. Perracini1

ABSTRACT | Background: Decreases in functional ability due to aging can impair work capacity and productivity among
older workers. Objective: This study compares the sociodemographics, health conditions, and physical functioning
abilities of young and old workers as well as correlates of physical functioning capacity with the work ability index
(WAI). Method: This exploratory, cross-sectional study examined employees of a higher education institution (HEI) and
those of a metallurgical industry. Older workers (50 years old or above) were matched for gender and occupation type
with younger workers (less than 50 years old). The following evaluations were applied: the multidimensional assessment
questionnaire (which included sociodemographic, clinical, health perception, and physical health indices), the WAI, and
a battery of physical functional tests. Results: Diseases and regularly used medications were more common among the
group of aging workers. The WAI did not differ between groups (p=0.237). Both groups showed similar physical functional
capacity performances with regard to walking speed, muscle strength, and lower limb physical functioning. Aging workers
showed a poorer performance on a test of right-leg support (p=0.004). The WAI was moderately correlated with the
sit-to-stand test among older female workers (r=0.573, p=0.051). Conclusions: Unfavorable general health conditions
did not affect the assessment of work ability or most of the tests of physical functional capacity in the aging group.

Keywords: aging; work; occupational health; work ability; functional capacity; physical therapy.
HOW TO CITE THIS ARTICLE

Padula RS, Comper MLC, Moraes SA, Sabbagh C, Pagliato Junior W, Perracini MR. The work ability index and functional
capacity among older workers. Braz J Phys Ther. 2013 July-Aug; 17(4):382-391. http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1413-35552012005000107

Introduction
The modern workforce is aging, and older people
represent a growing proportion of the population1. The
segment of workers 50 years old or older is estimated
to increase quickly over the next decades2,3. In 2000,
3.3 million people over the age of 60 worked, and
this number rose to 5.4 million in 20104. In 2006,
54% of all Brazilian workers were 60 years old or
older, and approximately 70% of the elderly had some
occupational activity in 20094.
Aging is characterized by a reduction in the
functional reserve of several physiological systems5,
and its effect on functionality depends on numerous
factors such as genetics, lifestyle habits, and the
presence of chronic diseases6. A decline in work
ability of approximately 12% per year7 is estimated to
occur after 45 years of age, in particular after 50 years
of age8. This decline can compromise productivity
and the ability to work9. In general, this effect is

greater among employees of jobs with high physical

demands than jobs with higher mental demands5. The
prevalence of work ability impairment varies between
5.7% and 46.4% depending on the population and the
type of work performed10.
Socioeconomic conditions are important predictors
of health and work ability. However, these models
are complex and influenced by factors related to the
work itself, living conditions, and health habits11.
The presence of psychological symptoms, chronic
diseases, and poor health perceptions are negatively
correlated with work ability12.
Studies have shown that workers who are involved
in occupational physical activities (whether moderate
or vigorous) maintain their levels of work ability,
especially when these activities involve specific tasks.
The healthy worker effect has been emphasized
because these workers tend to continue working,

Masters and Doctoral Programs in Physical Therapy, Universidade Cidade de So Paulo (UNICID), So Paulo, SP, Brazil
Physical Therapy Program, Unio Metropolitana de Ensino e Cultura (UNIME), Itabuna, BA, Brazil
Undergraduate Course in Physical Therapy, UNICID, So Paulo, SP, Brazil
Received: 10/12/2012 Revised: 12/15/2012 Accepted: 02/20/2013
1
2
3

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http://dx.doi.org/10.1590/S1413-35552012005000107

WAI and functional capacity among older workers

whereas workers in poorer health tend to retire early

or are transferred to occupations with fewer physical
demands13.
Despite these findings, the general health conditions
of older workers compared with younger workers and
the correlation between work ability and physical
functional capacity have been seldom explored.
Thus, this study compared the sociodemographic
profiles, health conditions, and physical functional
capacities of young and old workers and correlated
physical functional capacity measurements with the
work ability index (WAI).

Method
Study design
This exploratory, cross-sectional study examined
employees from a higher education institution (HEI)
and those from a factory related to the metallurgical
industry.
This study is part of a larger project entitled,
Influncia do Envelhecimento e da Experincia
Profissional no Desempenho Fsico, Aspectos
Biopsicossociais e Estratgias Motoras de
Trabalhadores (The Influence of Aging and
Professional Experience on the Physical Performance,
Biopsychological Aspects, and Motor Strategies of
Workers) and was approved by MCT/CNPQ/CT
(Health Public Notice 58/2009; Aging, Work, and
Health; case number 557752/2009-4). The Rede
de estudos sobre envelhecimento, trabalho e sade
(Study Network on Aging, Work, and Health)
developed this project.
Participants
A convenience sample was recruited in which
all older workers (at least 50 years old) were
invited to participate in the study and were matched
with younger workers with respect to gender and
occupation (under 50 years old).
All participants were informed about the study
objectives and procedures and were invited to
volunteer by signing a consent form approved by
the Ethics Committee of the Universidade Cidade de
So Paulo (UNICID), So Paulo, SP, Brazil (protocol
number 0048.1.186.000-10).

Group characteristics
Higher Education Institution (HEI)
The participants of this group belonged to a private
HEI located in So Paulo, SP, Brazil. Their common
job activities were academic or administrative, with
8-hour workdays. These employees commuted to and
from work via public transportation (i.e., subway,
train, or bus).
Metallurgical factory
Over 80% of these workers performed tasks that
required the use of force, load handling, quality
control, and production. These employees commuted
to and from work via bicycle or walking; only those
who lived far away used the bus provided by the
metallurgical company.
Data collection
Instruments
The following measures were used: a
multidimensional questionnaire that evaluated
sociodemographic, clinical (i.e., the number of
illnesses and medications), health perception, and
physical health data; the WAI; and a battery of
physical functional tests. A physical therapist and
final-year students performed these evaluations;
they also discussed the study and received training
concerning evaluation and the study criteria.
Physical Health. Physical health was evaluated
using the Subjective Health or Self-rated Health. The
individual uses this measure to rank their perceptions
of and care for their own health as very good,
good, regular, poor, or very poor. Next,
they rank their health compared with that of their
same-age peers 1 year ago as equal to, better
than, or worse.
WAI. The WAI measures worker ability using
questions that consider the physical and mental
demands of their work, health conditions, and
resources. Work ability is classified into four
categories: Scores ranging from 7 to 27 denote
poor ability; 28 to 36 represent fair ability; 37 to 43
represent good ability; and 44 to 49 denote excellent
ability14.
Physical functioning tests
The physical functioning tests measured normal
and maximum gait speed as well as included the
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Padula RS, Comper MLC, Moraes SA, Sabbagh C, Pagliato Junior W, Perracini MR

sit-to-stand, five-step, right and left unipedal stance,

and handgrip strength (HGS) tests. All tests were
measured using a digital chronometer (Cronobio
model SW2018).
Usual and Maximum Gait Speed. An 8.6-m flat
surface with no irregularities was used. The initial
2 meters were used for acceleration, and the final
2 meters were used for deceleration; the time spent
traveling the remaining 4.6 meters was recorded. All
participants wore shoes. For the usual gait speed test,
the participants were told to Walk at your normal
pace, as if walking down the street to purchase
something at the bakery. Walk to the last mark on
the floor. For the maximum gait speed test, the
participants were told to Walk as fast as possible
without running. These procedures were repeated
three times, and the mean was computed.
Unipedal Stance Test. This test records the time
a participant spends standing on one foot with their
eyes open15. The individuals were instructed to keep
their feet parallel, with a 10-cm distance between their
heels, and their arms parallel to their bodies while
looking straight ahead. Next, they lifted a specific leg
without altering their base or touching their support
leg. The time that the participants were able to remain
in this unipedal stance was recorded (maximum=30
seconds). The timer was stopped when older workers
displaced their support foot, touched their other leg,
or returned their raised foot to the ground. This test
was performed for each leg, and the mean of three
trials was used.
Five-Step Test. This test measures the time
that it takes individuals to climb a 10-cm step five
times while facing forward and return while facing
backward16. The participants begin with the verbal
command go. Time was only recorded when the
participants performed the task as specified.
Hand Grip Strength Test. This isometric strength
test measures the maximum effort maintained for
6 seconds of the dominant upper limb. To identify
the dominant limb, the participants were asked
which hand had greater dexterity. Individuals were
positioned according to the recommendations of the
American Society of Hand Therapy17. Grip strength
was measured using the second handle position of
a dynamometer (SAEHAN model-SH 5001).
Strength scores (kgf) were calculated using the mean
of three trials, with a 60-second rest between each
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Braz J Phys Ther. 2013 July-Aug; 17(4):382-391

trial. Verbal encouragement was provided to ensure

maximum effort when tightening the handle18.
Sit-to-Stand Test. The participants were instructed
to stand up and sit down in an armless chair of normal
height (approximately 46 cm) while keeping their
arms crossed over their chest as quickly as possible.
The time was recorded, and the timer stopped when
individuals returned to a sitting position.
Anthropometric data
The anthropometric data were measured using a
standardized digital scale (G-Tech, model GLASS
3S) and a standard measuring tape (Inmetro). To
record body mass, the participants wore light clothing
without shoes, preferably with empty stomachs and
bladders.
Height was measured using a wall-mounted
ruler. The participants stood upright and looked
straight ahead, with their bare feet together. Waist
circumference was measured in the supine position
at the midpoint between the anterior-superior iliac
spine, and the coastal margin was determined on the
lateral side of the abdomen. The measuring tape was
placed next to the umbilical scar19. Hip circumference
was measured at the widest part of the hips.
The waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) was obtained by
dividing the perimeter of the waist and the hips.
Body mass index (BMI) was calculated by dividing
body mass by height squared (BMI=weight/height2).
The ranges established by the Pan American Health
Organization for BMI cut-off points of underweight,
normal weight, overweight, and obese were <23, 2327.99, 28-29.99, and >30, respectively. These cut-off
points were used to interpret the results.
Procedure
The researchers contacted the human resources
department at the HEI, and all employees were
invited to participate in the study. Those who
volunteered gathered in a private room in groups
of up to twenty. Workers who were unable to
attend were provided the questionnaire in a sealed
envelope, along with information about the study
and the consent form. After reading and signing the
form, the material was returned to the researchers.
Employees of the metallurgical industry were invited
by the Department of Occupational Health to attend
the health unit to answer the questionnaire at work.

WAI and functional capacity among older workers

Afterwards, all older workers were identified.

Younger workers from both companies were
randomly selected and stratified by gender and
occupation type as a comparison group.
Data analyses
Descriptive analyses were performed using
frequencies for categorical variables and measures of
central tendency for each age group, WAI score, and
physical functioning capacity. Normality was tested
using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test and histograms
with normal distribution curves.
The older workers were compared with the
younger workers with respect to the variables of
interest using the chi-square test or Fishers exact test
(categorical variables) and Students t-test or MannWhitney U test (continuous variables).
The relationship between the WAI and the
physical functioning tests was measured using
Pearsons correlation. The level of significance was
p<0.05. All tests were performed using SPSS version
19.0 (IBM).

Results
The meansstandard deviations of age for the
younger and older groups were 31.98.1 years and
54.44.3 years, respectively. Table1 displays the
sociodemographic characteristics of the two groups.
Of the variables analyzed, the groups differed with
regard to marital status, years of education, monthly
income, and self-reports of overall health (p<0.05).
The clinical characteristics, and anthropometric
measures (Table 2) significantly differed between
groups (p<0.05). Diseases and regularly used
medications were more frequent among the older
group. The WHR measurements were inversely
proportional between the groups, such that the
older group had greater values in the upper quartile.
Significant differences were not found with regard
to BMI (p>0.05).
In general, work ability and physical functioning
did not significantly differ between groups. Only the
right unipedal stance was significantly different, with
the younger group able to stand in that position for a
longer time on average (Table3).
Figure1 shows the distribution of WAI scores.
Although the mean WAI score was greater for the
younger group, this difference was not significant.
Most workers had fair (28 to 36) or good work
abilities (37 to 42), regardless of group.

Overall, the relationship between physical

functioning capacity and work ability was not
significant, with the exception of a weak correlation
of HGS for the younger group (r=0.368), and
the Five-Step test for the older group (r=0.304)
(Table4). Regarding gender, a moderate correlation
(r=0.573) was observed between the WAI and the
sit-to-stand test among older females (p=0.051).

Discussion
This study compared young and older workers
with regard to their sociodemographic profiles, health
conditions, and physical functional capacities and
correlated physical functioning measurements with
the WAI. This study was justified given the dearth
of studies that have investigated the relationship
between the changes that result from aging and
maintaining the ability to work.
In general, older workers were married, had
more education and more income, and held poorer
global health perceptions compared with the younger
workers. Approximately 80% of the participants
in the older group reported having a global health
of normal, poor, or very poor, and they reported
more diseases and regular medication use than
younger workers. Older workers had greater BMIs
and significantly larger waist circumferences. Most
older workers (73.9%) were classified in the upper
half of WHR.
Differences in WAI were not observed between
younger and older workers. The physical functional
capacity of younger and older workers was similar
with regard to gait speed, muscle strength, and the
physical functioning of their legs. Older workers
performed worse on the unipedal stance test. WAI
scores were only correlated with the sit-to-stand test
among older women.
Education and income were directly related, and
both were positively correlated with work ability.
This result occurred because a higher educational
level creates an access to more qualified positions
with higher wages and a greater possibility of
continuity at an older age. In turn, these aspects
positively influence health conditions and maintain
the ability to work for longer periods10,20. Studies
of older workers6,21 have shown that those with
more education, higher incomes, and exposure to
richer professional experiences demonstrate better
intellectual performance and health compared with
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Padula RS, Comper MLC, Moraes SA, Sabbagh C, Pagliato Junior W, Perracini MR

Table1. Sociodemographic characteristics and health perceptions of the 79 workers by age.

Group 1 (N=37)

Group 2 (N=42)

Less than 50 years old

50 years old or older

% (N)

% (N)

Female

54.1 (20)

71.4 (30)

Male

45.9 (17)

28.6 (12)

Married

45.9 (17)

76.2 (32)

Single

Variables

p-value

Sociodemographic
Gender
0.11

Marital Status

45.9 (17)

4.8 (2)

Widowed

8.1 (3)

9.5 (4)

Separated

0.0 (0)

9.5 (4)

0 to 4 years

0.0 (0)

9.5 (4)

5 to 8 years

5.4 (2)

23.8 (10)

9 to 12 years

27.0 (10)

28.6 (12)

13 to 16 years

51.4 (19)

11.9 (5)

17 to 20 years

16.2 (6)

21.4 (9)

> 20 years

0.0 (0)

4.8 (2)

<0.001

Education Level
0.007

Monthly Income
Up to 1 MW

5.4 (2)

2.4 (1)

1.1-3.0 MW

62.2 (23)

21.4 (9)

3.1-5.0 MW

13.5 (5)

33.3 (14)

5.1-10.0 MW

8.1 (3)

16.7 (7)

Over 10 MW

10.8 (4)

26.2 (11)

0.004

Self-rated health
Good and Very Good

45.9 (17)

19.0 (8)

Regular

40.5 (15)

64.3 (27)

Poor and Very Poor

13.5 (5)

16.7 (7)

Equal to

18.9 (7)

16.7 (7)

Better than

10.8 (4)

16.7 (7)

Worse

70.3 (26)

66.7 (28)

51.4 (19)

28.6 (12)

0.035

Comparative Health
0.749

Comparative Activity
Better than
Worse

13.5 (5)

9.5 (4)

Equal to

35.1 (13)

61.9 (26)

Administrative

29.7 (11)

26.2 (11)

Technical

13.5 (5)

16.7 (7)

0.057

Type of Work

General

10.8 (4)

14.3 (6)

Physical

45.9 (17)

42.9 (18)

MW = minimum wage in Brazilian Reals (R$)

386

Braz J Phys Ther. 2013 July-Aug; 17(4):382-391

0.93

WAI and functional capacity among older workers

Table2. Clinical and anthropometric characteristics of the 79 workers by age.

Variables

Group 1 (N=37)

Group 2 (N=42)

Less than 50 years old

% (N)

50 years old or older

% (N)

Number of diseases

p-value

0.001

No disease

78.4 (29)

38.1 (16)

1 to 2

21.6 (8)

54.8 (23)

3 or more

0.0 (0)

7.1 (3)

Number of Medications

0.011

No medication

64.9 (24)

31.0 (13)

1 to 3

32.4 (12)

64.3 (27)

2.7 (1)

4.8 (2)

25.4 (4.1)

27.2 (3.5)

0.046

2.7 (1)

0.0 (0)

0.332

Normal

43.2 (16)

28.6 (12)

Overweight

40.5 (15)

50.0 (21)

Obese

13.5 (5)

21.4 (9)

1st Quartile (<0.81)

43.2 (16)

9.5 (4)

2nd Quartile (0.81-0.88)

32.4 (12)

16.7 (7)

3rd Quartile (0.88-0.94)

18.9 (7)

31.0 (13)

4th Quartile (>0.94)

5.4 (2)

42.9 (18)

82.7 (8.9)

91.0 (13.1)

4 or more
BMI (mean, SD)
BMI Category
Underweight

WHR

Waist Circumference (mean, SD)

<0.001

0.002

Table3. Means and standard deviations of the WAI and physical functioning variables by age.

Group 1 (N=37)

Group 2 (N=42)

Less than 50 years old

50 years old or older

M (SD)

M (SD)

WAI total

38.7 (36.7)

37.3 (35.9)

0.237

Usual Gait Speed

0.56 (0.08)

0.55 (0.08)

0.959

Maximum Gait Speed

1.87 (0.26)

1.88 (0.28)

0.891

Five-Step Test

9.05 (1.90)

9.33 (1.75)

0.498

Hand Grip Strength

40.3 (14.71)

38.8 (11.3)

0.398

Sit-to-Stand Test

10.6 (2.4)

10.6 (1.6)

0.866

Right Unipedal Stance Time

87.5 (6.4)

76.9 (21.0)

0.004

Left Unipedal Stance Time

62.7 (16.6)

62.25 (16.0)

0.398

Variables

p-value

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Padula RS, Comper MLC, Moraes SA, Sabbagh C, Pagliato Junior W, Perracini MR

Table4. Correlations between work ability and physical functioning capacities in younger and older workers.

Variables

Hand Grip Strength (kg/f)

Usual Gait Speed (m/s)

Maximum Gait Speed (m/s)

Right Unipedal Stance Time (s)

Left Unipedal Stance Time (s)

Sit-to-Stand Test (s)

Five-Step Test (s)

Group 1

Group 2

Less than 50 years old

50 years old or older

(N=37)

(N=42)

r=.368

r=.116

p=0.027

p=0.463

r=.262

r=.069

p=0.123

p=0.664

r=.251

r=.089

p=0.140

p=0.573

r=.103

r=-.072

p=0.549

p=0.651

r=.186

r=.045

p=0.277

p=0.775

r=.026

r=.101

p=0.882

p=0.526

r=.029

r=.304

p=0.865

p=0.050

Pearsons correlation: one missing value in the group of younger workers.

Figure1. Distribution of the WAI scores for younger (n=37) and

older workers (n=42).

those who are poorer and less educated, regardless

of age. Furthermore, this latter group is more likely
to become physically and psychologically frail with
age6.
Although older workers assessed their ability
to work as moderate or good (similar to younger
workers), importantly, their self-assessment of health
was significantly worse than that of the younger
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Braz J Phys Ther. 2013 July-Aug; 17(4):382-391

workers. Health self-assessments are broader

representations of the health conditions of older
people, and they are more representative of global
health than functional disabilities or physical and
mental symptoms22. In addition, a self-assessment of
poor health is related to a higher mortality rate among
individuals with cardiovascular disease23; in turn,
this disease was related to poor body compositions,
higher BMIs, greater waist circumferences, and
greater WHR among older workers. These indicators
are associated with higher mortality rates among
different populations of middle-aged individuals and
older workers24.
Most workers had fair to good work ability
evaluations, regardless of age. The results revealed
that older workers with better qualifications and
higher monthly incomes tended to maintain their
ability to work, even in the presence of disease.
However, the mediating effect of income and
education on work ability remains inconclusive.
A previous study followed a group of educators
for 2 years and did not find an association between
work ability and sociodemographic variables25. In
that study, other internal (i.e., functional capacity,
knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes) and external

WAI and functional capacity among older workers

factors (i.e., environment, context, and work

demands) influenced work ability20.
In general, physical functioning capacity did
not significantly differ between groups. The older
workers only demonstrated a worse performance on
the right unipedal stance test; however, this result
was not correlated with work ability. Performance
on the unipedal stance test declines with age,
and it is an important early marker of the loss of
balance and muscle strength8. The finding that the
older workers were relatively younger than those
of studies that involved an elderly population (i.e.,
60 years or older) might also explain the lack of
differences between the performance of younger
and older workers. According to the Committee for
Economic Developments New Opportunities for
Older Workers, an older worker is anyone who is at
least 45 years old. This proposition is mostly based
on demographics and socioeconomic factors, but also
reflects the decline in the physiological systems due to
age, which might have influenced the unipedal stance
test that requires a good neuromuscular functional
reserve. In addition, our results support the healthy
worker effect, which states that older workers tend to
maintain acceptablelevels of functionality26.
An association between physical functioning
capacity and WAI was not observed. This result
differs from Nygardetal.27 who found an association
between functional capacity and work ability among
municipal workers and older workers in Finland.
In our study, we observed a moderate correlation
between WAI and sit-to-stand test among older
female workers. This specific test is strongly
correlated with leg functionality, plantar cutaneous
sensation, speed, body stability, and psychological
variables. In addition to muscle strength, several of
these parameters decline with age28; however, no
significant differences have been observed between
males and females with regard to the sit-to-stand
test29.
The strong influence of the type of work activity
with regard to physical functioning capacity and
work ability must also be considered. The physical
and psychological demands of an activity greatly
influence the psychophysiological responses of
workers and the perceptions of their abilities25,30.
The results of our study suggest that although
older workers positively assess their ability to work,
they show health indicators that are worse than

those of the younger group, especially with regard

to body composition and self-health perceptions
both of which are related to higher mortality rates.
In addition, older workers exhibited poorer unipedal
stances, which indicates a deficit in balance and
muscle strength. Thus, an early physical activity
intervention might prevent long-term global health
issues for this group by increasing or maintaining
work ability, thereby providing a more active and
healthy life in old age. Interventions that are aimed
at changing work structure and the organization
can also influence the WAI, given that they reduce
physical and mental workloads and engender greater
satisfaction and a higher quality of life25.
Some methodological limitations exist with
regard to the results of this study. This study was
cross-sectional, which precludes the establishment
of causal relationships between the analyzed factors.
In addition, the influence of the healthy worker
effect must be considered with regard to the results.
This effect arises from the selection and retention of
workers with better health and greater productivity
in the work environment31; as such, this effect is a
caveat of other studies on work ability32.

Conclusions
Older workers had a poorer self-rated health, a
higher BMI, waist circumference and waist-hip ratio,
a lower unipedal stance time, also reported more
diseases and used more medications compared with
younger workers. The poor self-perception of health
did not affect did not affect the assessment of work
ability or most of the physical functioning capacity
tests in older workers. Early preventive interventions
are suggested for workers who are at least 50 years
old to provide them with an active and healthy life
in old age.

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Correspondence
Mnica Rodrigues Perracini
Rua Cesrio Galeno, 448 Tatuap
CEP 03071-000, So Paulo, SP, Brasil
e-mail: monica.perracini@unicid.edu.br

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