CE Article

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CREDITS

Patent Ductus Arteriosus in Dogs

Kristyn D. Broaddus, DVM, MS, DACVS
Veterinary Referral and Critical Care
Manakin-Sabot, Virginia

D. Michael Tillson, DVM, MS, DACVSa

Auburn University

Abstract: Patent ductus arteriosus (PDA) is the most common congenital heart disease in dogs. It is due to the failure of the
ductus arteriosus muscle to constrict, leaving a passageway for blood flow and resulting in eventual left-sided heart disease
and/or generalized heart failure. It is hereditary in several breeds. The typical left-to-right PDA is amenable to minimally invasive procedures or open surgery. The ideal surgical candidate for PDA occlusion is immature and lightweight, with minimal
heart changes. There is a wide variety of surgical techniques involving different methods of dissection and suture passage.
Intraoperative hemorrhage during dissection is the most serious potential complication and can be life-threatening. Minimally
invasive techniques such as thorascopic ligation and intravascular coiling have been claimed to have lower morbidity and
mortality than open techniques. Once the PDA is occluded, most patients have remodeling of the myocardial tissues, resulting
in an excellent long-term prognosis. Late complications such as residual flow and recanalization are rare but may be clinically
significant.

he first surgical correction of a human patent ductus

arteriosus (PDA) was performed in 1938.1 Less than 2
decades later, Dr. Willis Potts was the first to perform
surgical ligation of a PDA in a dog.2 Today, PDA is recognized as one of the most common congenital heart defects in
dogs, with an incidence ranging from 25% to 30% of cases.3,4
Female toy-breed dogs are overrepresented in this condition. A characteristic history and clinical signs, along with
a classic machinery murmur, typically lead to procedures
such as chest radiography and echocardiography for confirmation. Depending on the size and duration of the defect,
diagnostics may reveal left ventricular heart enlargement,
mitral regurgitation, and overcirculation of the pulmonary
vasculature. Most dogs with PDA develop congestive heart
failure (CHF) by 1 year of age if ligation or occlusion is not
performed.35 Immature dogs (younger than 1 year) appear
to be the best candidates for surgery.6,7 Some dogs are born
with or may develop suprasystemic pulmonary hypertension that can result in reversal of flow through the PDA (i.e.,
blood flows from the pulmonary artery into the aorta). This
is referred to as a right-to-left PDA.5,8 Occlusion is contraindicated in patients with right-to-left shunting of blood through
the PDA. Symptomatic medical therapy is the only recommended course of treatment in these cases.
a
Dr. Tillson discloses that he has received financial benefits from
IDEXX Laboratories and Infiniti Medical.

Physiology and Pathophysiology

The ductus arteriosus (DA), also referred to as the arterial
duct, arterial canal, and ductus Botalli, forms the sixth aortic arch.3 The DA extends from the bifurcation of the main
pulmonary artery to the ventral aspect of the descending
aorta between the left subclavian artery and the intercostal
arteries. It normally comprises 98% smooth muscle, with
subadventitial elastic fibers and loose collagen intermingled
within the adventitia.3 In the fetus, the DA shunts blood
away from the nonfunctional lungs back to the systemic
circulation. At this time, the fetal lungs are collapsed and
pulmonary vascular resistance is suprasystemic, allowing
only 5% to 8% of blood flow from the pulmonary artery to
reach the lungs.8 Fetal blood is oxygenated instead by the
placenta. The presence of the DA also allows the right side
of the heart to grow and develop.
At birth, the neonates lungs expand. This allows dilation of the pulmonary arterioles and a profound reduction
in the pulmonary vascular resistance to approximately 20%
of the systemic resistance. Pulmonary vascular resistance is
further diminished by thinning of the smooth muscle within
the pulmonary arterioles.8 During this time, an increase
in systemic oxygen tension stimulates the smooth muscle
within the DA to constrict in a process called apobiosis.3
Diminished circulating prostaglandin also plays a role in DA
closure. In utero, circulating prostaglandin levels are high
due to placental production and minimal pulmonary metab-

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CE Patent Ductus Arteriosus in Dogs

FIGURE 2

Courtesy of Dr. Buchanan

FIGURE 1

Courtesy of James W. Buchanan, DVM

Transverse histologic section of a PDA (D) and adjacent

aorta (A) and pulmonary artery (P) in an 11-day-old dog
with a grade 5 PDA. The ductus muscle (DM) is asymmetrically
constricted. The portion adjacent to the aorta is not constricted and
has a thicker elastic segment.

Transverse histologic section of a normally constricted

ductus (D) in a 3-day-old mixed-breed dog. The ductus muscle is circumferentially uniform. The aorta (A) and pulmonary artery
(P) have thicker elastic fibers.

olism. At birth, the placenta no longer serves as a source of

prostaglandins, and prostaglandin metabolism by the lungs
increases. With the inhibiting influence of prostaglandins
dwindling, the DA is able to close. The closed DA predominantly comprises uniform, circumferential smooth muscle
cells and very little elastic tissue (FIGURE 1).3 Physiologic
closure of the DA occurs immediately after birth; anatomic
closure follows within a 48 hours to 1 month.9 By 1 month
of age, the muscle cells degenerate via cytolysis and the
DA becomes a nonpatent elastic structure referred to as the
ligamentum arteriosum.8
In dogs with PDA, the DA fails to contract due to asymmetric distribution of the muscular component3 (FIGURE 2).
Overall, the proportion of noncontractile elastic tissue to
smooth muscle mass in the DA wall is greater in these dogs,
and this interspersed elastic tissue prevents the smooth
muscle cells from completely closing the vessel.3 The result
is a PDA that is generally funnel-shaped, with the narrowest portion adjacent to the pulmonary artery.3 Typically, a
fibrous ridge of incomplete ductus muscle within the PDA
lumen incompletely narrows the orifice.3 A system has been
developed for the histologic grading of PDA based on the

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amount of abnormal elastic tissue present (FIGURE 3). The

severity of the grade increases with the proportion of defective genome inherited from affected parents.10 In one study,
dogs with large PDAs that had a reversal of flow typically
had the smallest amount of smooth muscle within the PDA
wall (i.e., a grade 6 PDA) and conversely had the greatest
amount of elastic tissue in the wall.3
The PDA courses within the wall of the aorta before
emptying into the aortic lumen, forming an aortoductal
aneurysm.3 Generally, the size of the aortoductal aneurysm
varies inversely with the length of the ductus: the shorter
the surgical segment, the larger the aneurysm and the more
difficult surgical occlusion may be.3 Several authors argue
that the aneurysm is the result of turbulent blood flow created as the blood is impeded by this intraaortic shelf.11 In
contrast, Buchanan3 suggested that the aortic aneurysm of
a PDA develops because the ductal component within the
aorta renders that portion of the aortic wall less rigid.
A PDA allows blood to flow from the systemic circulation (aorta) into the pulmonary circulation (i.e., left-to-right
shunting). The blood flow through the PDA is continuous
throughout the cardiac cycle as long as the blood pressure
of the systemic circulation remains higher than the blood
pressure of the pulmonary circulation. The greatest pressure difference between the two systems exists at the end of
systole, when aortic pressure is 120 mm Hg and pulmonic
artery pressure is 20 mm Hg. The resulting gradient of 100
mm Hg across the PDA is equivalent to a blood flow of 5
m/sec.12 This results in volume overload in the pulmonary
system, as demonstrated by dilation of the pulmonary arteries and veins, left atrium, and left ventricle. Because this
volume overload is chronic, the left side of the heart undergoes eccentric hypertrophy. Eventually, this left-sided over-

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Heritability

FIGURE 3

Courtesy of Dr. Buchanan

load leads to left-sided CHF that can become generalized as

the right side of the heart continues to pump blood through
a fibrotically stenosed pulmonary vasculature to a decompensating left heart.8 In a patient with a PDA, this can occur
as early as 1 week of age or may develop many years later;
however, 70% of dogs with PDA develop clinical signs of
CHF before 12 months of age.5 The timeline for the development of CHF appears to depend on the diameter of the PDA.
A dog with a small PDA may not display clinical signs of CHF
until later in life. There is a report of a 15-year-old cocker
spaniel with a small, incidental PDA identified at necropsy.13
In the worst cases, a large PDA may allow bidirectional or
right-to-left shunting within the first month of life.3

PDA grading system based on the extent of aorta-like

elastic tissue (shaded area) in the normally muscular PDA
wall.

Although several early epidemiologic studies suggested

a genetic component to the occurrence of PDA, in 1971,
Patterson et al10 documented that PDA in toy and miniature Yorkshire terriers; and collies.4,5 When identified at a young
poodles is a specific, localized, developmental anomaly age, dogs may have no clinical signs or may present with
which is genetically determined. This mode of inheritance mild exercise intolerance and stunted growth. Owners may
does not follow a simple Mendelian pattern. When normal mention that they can feel the puppys heart buzzing.
dogs were crossed with dogs that had PDA, some offspring Many dogs with PDA are identified when they present for
had PDA whereas others had an intermediate condition in routine puppy vaccinations at 6 to 12 weeks of age, when a
which the DA closed only at the pulmonary arterial end left-sided, continuous machinery murmur is auscultated. In
to create a ductus diverticulum. This finding suggests that most cases, a palpable thrill is noted.
the trait is quasicontinuous, that is, a threshold trait with
graded phenotypic expression. In other words, the chance Diagnostics
of a dog having PDA and the severity of the abnormality Thoracic auscultation is the primary diagnostic tool for
increase with increasing amounts of defective genome from detecting PDA. It is very important for veterinary clinicians
the parents. The results of these breeding experiments sup- to perform a complete thoracic evaluation when examining
ported a two-threshold model of inheritance. When the first young dogs. Any heart murmur warrants further diagnostic
threshold is reached, a partial closure of the DA results in evaluation.
a ductus diverticulum. If the second threshold is reached, a The PDA murmur is typically so loud it can be auscultated
PDA results. The lowest incidence of defective DA closure all over the thoracic cavity, but the region of maximal intenwas noted in the offspring from normal dogs bred with dogs sity should be around the third intercostal space at the heart
with apparent PDA (20%). An intermediate incidence was base. There are some exceptions to this characteristic murnoted in the offspring when unaffected dogs with affected mur. A very large PDA may be auscultated as only a systolic
first-order relatives were mated with dogs that had ductus murmur if pulmonary and systemic pressures are equalizing.
diverticula. The highest incidence (80%) of PDA was noted Dogs with right-to-left shunts may have a faint diastolic murmur from pulmonic regurgitation, a split second heart sound,
in offspring when both parents had PDA.10
14
Buchanan and Patterson found similar structural abnor- or no murmur at all. Other physical findings may include
malities in sporadic cases of PDA in collies, cocker spaniels, water hammer pulses, which are hyperkinetic, bounding
German shepherds, Pomeranians, Shetland sheepdogs, and pulses resulting from a large pressure gradient between the
shih tzus, suggesting that there may be a similar genetic com- systolic and diastolic pressures.8,15,16 This occurs because of
ponent in these breeds. A genetic basis for the occurrence diastolic run-off through the PDA, causing a lower-thanof PDA has also been documented in Welsh corgis.4 This normal diastolic pressure. A very small PDA may not have a
further supports the conclusion that dogs with a PDA should palpable thrill.
not be bred, even if the breed is atypical for the anomaly.
Thoracic radiography is useful for evaluating the anatomic changes consistently seen in patients with PDA.
Presentation and Clinical Signs
Dorsoventral and lateral views of the thorax should be
PDA is overrepresented in female toy and miniature poo- obtained for proper cardiopulmonary evaluation. The
dles; Maltese; Pomeranians; Shetland sheepdogs; cocker larger the PDA or the older the patient at the time of evaluand English springer spaniels; keeshonden; bichons frises; ation, the more prominent the radiographic changes will
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FIGURE 5

Courtesy of Dr. Arble

FIGURE 4

Courtesy of Jason Arble, DVM

Lateral view of a patient with a PDA. Note the increased

height and width of the cardiac silhouette, increased sternal
contact, and dorsal elevation of the trachea. The pulmonary vasculature is overperfused, and there is evidence of early pulmonary
edema.

Dorsoventral view of the thorax in a patient with PDA. The

cardiac silhouette is elongated due to left-sided heart enlargement.
Note the ductal aneurysm (arrows).

Echocardiography may not always be required as part

of the workup of a suspected PDA, but it may confirm the
diagnosis and help to identify any other cardiac defects. It
can also demonstrate changes in cardiac wall thickness and
chamber size. To visualize the PDA, the right parasternal
short-axis and left cranial window views are most useful.12
Identification of PDA often involves finding a high-velocity,
turbulent flow pattern in the pulmonary artery as the blood
exits the PDA. This is best detected using color-flow Doppler
imaging. The degree of shunted blood flow is reflected in
the magnitude of left atrial and ventricular eccentric hypertrophy.12 The left ventricular outflow ejection velocity is normally increased along with transaortic and transmitral flow
velocities. Increased ejection volumes may result in flattening of the intraventricular septum. Identification of PDA with
echocardiography depends on the skill of the individual
performing the examination. Nuclear scintigraphy can also
be used to quantify left-to-right and right-to-left shunts.17,18

be. Specific changes include progressive enlargement of the

left atrium, left ventricle, aortic arch, and pulmonary arteries. The dorsoventral view is helpful for evaluation of the
heart and great vessels. The cardiac silhouette may appear
elongated due to aortic arch enlargement cranially and left
ventricular enlargement that extends the silhouette caudally.
The right apical lung lobe vessels are considered enlarged
if they are greater in diameter than the smallest diameter
of the fourth rib. Extreme cardiomegaly may shift the heart
into the right hemithorax. The most characteristic sign of
PDA is an aneurysmal bulge in the aorta at the level of the
ductus.3 This ductus bump can be seen radiographically
as a lateral deviation of the left lateral wall of the descending aorta at the level of the main pulmonary artery (FIGURE Right-to-Left Shunts
4); however, this change is not always present. On the lateral A small percentage of patients with PDA present with severe
view, overperfusion of the lungs can be appreciated, as well exercise intolerance and/or pelvic limb collapse during exeras left-sided heart enlargement indicated by dorsal elevation cise. These patients have a reversal of normal flow through
of the trachea and increased sternal contact (FIGURE 5).
the PDA that can be documented with color-flow Doppler
Electrocardiography (ECG) should be conducted to evalu- imaging. This reversal mixes nonoxygenated blood from the
ate heart chamber enlargement. Tall R waves (more than pulmonary artery with oxygenated blood from the aorta.
2.5 mV) or wide P waves are typically noted on a lead II The hallmark of a right-to-left shunt is differential cyanotracing. In patients with advanced heart disease from PDA, sis of the caudal half of the body. This is best visualized
atrial fibrillation or ventricular ectopy may be noted. Atrial on examination of mucous membranes. Cyanosis can occur
fibrillation is a late change and is associated with a grave cranially as well.
prognosis.6 It is the result of an incompetent mitral valve Some dogs are born with a persistent right-to-left shunt,
that allows such significant backflow of blood that the left whereas others may develop right-to-left shunts over several
atrium is severely stretched.
weeks to months. Most dogs with right-to-left shunting have

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such large PDAs (grade 6) that there is no resistance to blood occlusion of PDA is accomplished by using prostaglandin
flow. Normally, pulmonary vascular resistance is 20% of sys- synthase inhibitors (e.g., indomethacin, ibuprofen) to stimtemic vascular resistance after birth, so in dogs with grade ulate natural closure.19 The use of prostaglandin synthase
6 PDAs, the pulmonary circulation should receive five times inhibitors does not appear to be effective when there is
the blood flow that the systemic circulation receives, causing hypoplasia of the smooth muscle of the DA, however, which
left-sided heart volume overload that rapidly leads to left- is the most common scenario in dogs.3 Moreover, dogs are
sided heart failure, pulmonary edema, and death. However, generally diagnosed with PDA several weeks to months after
because not all of these dogs die immediately after birth birth, when the smooth muscle within the DA is no longer
from left heart failure, it is theorized that pulmonary vas- responsive to antiprostaglandin therapy. Due to the inefcular resistance does not decrease to normal at birth, but fectiveness of medical intervention, mechanical occlusion of
rather remains persistently elevated in dogs with a congeni- the PDA remains the mainstay of treatment in dogs.
tal right-to-left shunt.8 This would provide resistance against Since the 1950s, when the first surgical repair of canine
potentially massive shunting and rapid death. However, this PDA was performed, surgical ligation has proved to be an
adaptation eventually results in life-threatening pulmonary effective procedure in the proper candidates. The ideal
hypertension. The pulmonary arteries retain vestigial medial canine patient for surgical closure of a left-to-right shunthypertrophy, which slowly increases local vascular resis- ing PDA is a dog between 8 and 16 weeks of age with no
tance. These arteries become damaged from persistent pres- concurrent cardiac disease and minimal secondary heart
sure, and growth factors become elevated, leading to smooth changes. Contraindications to occlusion of a PDA are rightmuscle cell hypertrophy/hyperplasia and connective tissue to-left shunting, bidirectional shunting, or concurrent cardiac
protein synthesis. The resultant medial hypertrophy and inti- conditions that rely on the PDA for survival (e.g., tetralogy of
mal proliferation lead to progressive narrowing and increas- Fallot). Older dogs with a recent diagnosis of a hemodynaming pulmonary vascular resistance. In dogs with large PDAs, ically significant PDA should undergo surgery as soon as
between 3 months and 3 years of age, pulmonary vascular possible if they are reasonable surgical candidates.16 Severe
resistance exceeds systemic vascular resistance and blood secondary myocardial failure does not preclude surgery. If
flow reverses, creating a right-to-left shunt. The distinctive CHF is present, it should be treated aggressively before surgery. Animals with pulmonary hypertension can undergo
PDA murmur is lost during this transition.8
A right-to-left PDA becomes clinically important when surgical ligation of the PDA as long as systemic pressures
it shunts a large amount of nonoxygenated blood from the remain higher than pulmonary pressures. Older dogs may
pulmonary circulation (pulmonary artery) into the systemic be at greater risk of complications during and after surgical
circulation (aorta). This can reduce circulating arterial oxy- intervention.6,7
gen tension to a level typically between 30 and 45 mm Hg
(normal: ~100 mm Hg). Because the subclavian artery and Preoperative Procedures
brachycephalic trunks branch off of the aorta cranial to the Along with physical examination, a complete blood cell count
PDA, most of the mixing of nonoxygenated and oxygen- and serum chemistry analysis should be part of the database
ated blood occurs in the descending aorta, resulting in inad- for patients with PDA. Dogs with radiographic evidence of
equate oxygen delivery to the caudal portion of the body. pulmonary edema should be treated with furosemide for 24
Exercise exacerbates caudal cyanosis by decreasing systemic to 48 hours before surgery. In patients younger than 1 year
vascular resistance. In the meantime, the body attempts to or patients in very poor physical condition, preoperative fastcompensate for worsening oxygen deprivation and chronic ing should be less than 6 hours in duration. A balanced elecrenal hypoxia by triggering the release of erythropoietin. trolyte solution should be administered intraoperatively at a
The resulting polycythemia is a helpful adaptation when the standard rate (e.g., 11 mL/kg/h) and may be supplemented
hematocrit is 55% to 65% but becomes detrimental at higher with dextrose solution in very young puppies or dogs with
hematocrit levels.8 Eventually, the blood becomes hypervis- documented preoperative hypoglycemia. A jugular catheter
cous, slowing the circulation and further impairing oxygen is useful for blood draws and rapid infusions of fluids or
delivery. The pulmonary vasculature responds through con- blood products and may be appropriate in high-risk surgitinued vasoconstriction, which perpetuates the pulmonary cal patients. Preoxygenation can be used before anesthesia
hypertension.8
induction. Patients should be premedicated with an opioid. I
do not routinely premedicate these patients with anticholinTreatment and Outcome
ergics, giving these drugs only if the heart rate drops below
Interventional Therapy
acceptable levels; however, routine premedication with antiPDA in dogs can be managed with medical therapy or occlu- cholinergics has been advocated.20 Anesthesia is induced by
sion using either open surgical ligation or minimally inva- IV injection of an ultrashort-acting barbiturate (e.g., thiopensive techniques. In human pediatric medicine, nonsurgical tal, propofol) or inhalation of gas via face mask. Etomidate, a
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CE Patent Ductus Arteriosus in Dogs

FIGURE 6

FIGURE 7

Intraoperative view of the heart at the fourth intercostal

space. The vagus and phrenic nerves are visible. Note the vagus
nerve as it courses over the ductus.

Intraoperative anatomy and orientation of the aorta, PDA,

pulmonary artery, and phrenic nerve. The vagus nerve is
retracted with stay sutures.

carboxylated imidazole derivative, may be a more favorable

induction agent for patients with CHF.

recount the intercostal spaces by palpating the first rib and

counting caudally to the proposed incision site. The ventrally
located scalenus muscle serves as a landmark for a fourth
intercostal incision because the muscular portion of the scalenus inserts on the fifth rib, with fibrous bands extending the insertion to the eighth and ninth ribs. The scalenus
muscle is incised over the fourth intercostal space, and the
serratus ventralis muscle fibers are separated and retracted
dorsally or sharply incised. The incision through the external and internal intercostal muscles is centered between the
ribs to avoid the intercostal vessels running in the costal
groove on the caudal aspect of the ribs. Metzenbaum scissors are used to lift the muscles away from the pleura and to
minimize risk of iatrogenic injury to the underlying lungs.
Once the pleura is identified deep in the intercostal muscles, it should be carefully penetrated with scissors during
exhalation. This creates a pneumothorax, allowing the lungs
to fall away from the incision. The patient must be manually ventilated at this time. The pleural incision is carefully
extended dorsally and ventrally. When the incision reaches
the costochondral junction, care must be exercised to
avoid injury to the internal thoracic artery where it courses
subpleurally close to the sternum. Moistened laparotomy
sponges or 4 4 gauze sponges (for smaller patients) are
placed cranially and caudally along the exposed incision,
providing protection from desiccation and cushioning the
soft tissues from the Finochietto retractor. This retractor is
inserted between the ribs and slowly opened until adequate
exposure is achieved without injuring the ribs. After a cursory examination, the cranial lung lobe is carefully packed
off caudally with a moistened 4 4 gauze sponge.

Surgical Ligation
The first surgical ligation of a PDA in a dog was recorded
in 1952. Surgical interventional techniques have not varied
significantly since 1967, when a detailed surgical report of
a successful PDA ligation in a 4-week-old male mongrel
puppy was published.21
The standard approach for PDA ligation in dogs remains a
left fourth intercostal thoracotomy. The patient is positioned
in right lateral recumbency, with a small rolled towel placed
under the cranial thorax to maximize exposure by arching
the chest and spreading the ribs on the left side.22 The forelimbs may be secured in gentle extension. The patients entire
thorax should be clipped and prepared just beyond the dorsal and ventral midlines, extending cranially to the point of
the shoulder and caudally to the last rib. It is helpful to clip
the caudal aspect of the proximal antebrachium, including
the elbow, as it is often in the surgical field. The skin incision is centered by counting the intercostal spaces back from
the palpable 12th space. A generous, curved skin incision is
made from just ventral to the vertebral processes to ventral
to the costochondral junction along the desired intercostal
space. The incision is continued down through the subcutaneous tissue and cutaneous trunci muscle. The latissimus
dorsi muscle is sharply incised along the same line, although
some surgeons prefer to retract the latissimus muscle dorsally,
which may decrease the postoperative discomfort associated
with muscle transection but may also limit visualization.
Once deep to the latissimus dorsi, the surgeon should

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Patent Ductus Arteriosus in Dogs CE

FIGURE 8

FIGURE 9

Intraoperative view of a PDA. The vagus nerve is gently

retracted dorsally with suture. Right-angle forceps are seen
passing caudally to cranially; the tips can be seen exiting cranially.
The phrenic nerve can be seen ventral to the PDA.

Intraoperative photograph of a suture loop (0 silk) passed

around the medial aspect of the ductus. The loop will be
transected to provide two pieces of suture to be tied separately.

At this point, the surgeon should pause and identify the

normal anatomy of the thoracic cavity, appreciating the orientation of the aorta and pulmonary artery. The phrenic
nerve can also be seen where it courses ventral to the vagus
across the width of the heart. The vagus nerve typically
courses over the PDA, providing a good anatomic landmark.
The location of the PDA can be verified by gentle palpation of the associated thrill (FIGURE 6). The vagus nerve is
delicately isolated by sharp dissection of the surrounding
tissues at the level of the ductus and gently retracted with
umbilical tape, red rubber stays, or suture (FIGURE 7). The
ductus is dissected bluntly without entering the pericardium.
Using right-angle forceps or Lahey bile duct forceps, dissection is initiated parallel to the caudal aspect of the ductus.
The tips of the forceps are inserted in a closed position and
slowly opened to gently separate the tissues surrounding
the PDA. The right-angle forceps are withdrawn with the
jaws partially open. Closure of the forceps while in the tissues could result in inadvertently grabbing or tearing the
fragile wall of the ductus. Once a lateral-to-medial dissection plane is opened on the caudal aspect of the ductus, a
cranial dissection plane can be established. This dissection
plane is created by angling the right-angle forceps approximately 45 and using the same technique of gentle dissection and withdrawing the forceps with the jaws open. Due
to the difficult angle of cranial dissection, straight or curved
forceps or hemostats are sometimes used.
After adequate dissection is completed cranial and caudal to the ductus, medial dissection is attempted. The rightangle forceps are carefully passed around the medial aspect
of the ductus from caudal to cranial, and a tunnel for suture
passage is created through gentle and persistent dissection.
The final portion of the medial dissection can be frustrating, as there is frequently a thin curtain of tissue preventing
the emergence of the forceps tips into the cranial dissection
plane. Inexperienced surgeons are cautioned to exercise

patience at this point and to continue the slow, steady dissection on the medial aspect. Some surgeons recommend using
a moistened cotton-tip swab to aid in dissection.23 Utmost
caution is necessary at this point because most episodes of
hemorrhage caused by a ductal tear occur during the medial
dissection of the ductus (FIGURE 8). When the tips of the
right-angle forceps can be safely opened cranially, a strand
of suture is introduced into the jaws for passage around
the ductus. A pliable, heavy, nonabsorbable suture material
(e.g., 1, 0, or 2/0 silk or Dacron) is recommended for ductus
ligation (FIGURE 9). The ductus is closed by double ligation;
the surgeon can either pass two separate strands of suture
material or create and pass a loop of a single strand that is
then cut to yield two pieces (FIGURE 10).
With either technique, the surgeon must be careful not
to cross the suture strands on the medial aspect of the ductus. Also, the surgeon should never force the passage of
the suture material around the ductus. If the suture does
not pass smoothly, the forceps are opened, the suture is
released, and then the forceps are withdrawn and replaced
for another attempt at passage. Patience and adequate dissection around the medial aspect of the ductus will ultimately ease the passage of the suture material.
Once two strands of suture have been passed, they are
checked to ensure that they are not entwined. The suture
material should slide freely around the ductus but should
not be aggressively manipulated, which can cause the suture
to erode through the ductus wall, resulting in catastrophic
hemorrhage. When the surgeon is ready to occlude the ductus, the sutures are tied. The suture closest to the aorta is
ligated first. The ligature is slowly tightened, and the knot
is secured with a minimum of five throws. The patient may
develop a drop in heart rate at this time (i.e., Branham sign),
a reflex bradycardia due to a sudden increase in aortic pressure as the PDA is ligated. Some authors recommend attenuating the ductus over a period of 2 to 3 minutes to minimize

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FIGURE 10

Once the loop of suture is transected, two strands are

separated. One is retracted toward the aorta (upper strand) and
the other is retracted toward the pulmonary artery (lower strand).
The strand closer to the aorta is tied first.

this effect.24,25 In patients that experience significant bradycardia, an anticholinergic drug (e.g., atropine, glycopyrrolate) can be given.5 While the Branham sign is not seen with
every PDA ligation, the correct dosages of anticholinergics
should be readily available. I (K. D. B.) do not routinely use
anticholinergics as part of premedication or during surgery
unless the patients heart rate drops below 50 bpm. In most
cases of postligation bradycardia, the heart rate recovers in
a few minutes.
If the patient remains hemodynamically stable, the suture
strand on the pulmonary artery side is tied. The ductus and
pulmonary artery can be palpated for the absence of a turbulent thrill. The anesthetist should also verify the disappearance of the continuous machinery murmur, but a systolic
murmur may now be auscultated in patients with significant
mitral regurgitation.
At this time, the surgeon returns the left cranial lung lobe
to its normal position and ensures careful reinflation. If the
lung lobe is slow to reinflate, it should be checked for torsion. Sponge counts are reconciled and the thoracic cavity
lavaged with warm saline. Any residual fluid in the thoracic
cavity is evacuated, and the surgical site is reinspected for
hemorrhage. An intercostal block with bupivacaine is placed
at the dorsal aspect of the intercostal space to help with
analgesia in the immediate postoperative period. A chest
tube can be placed at this time. I (K. D. B.) do not routinely
place chest tubes in small-breed puppies after PDA ligation,
although a smaller catheter (e.g., 3.5- to 8-Fr red rubber catheters) may be placed in some cases to allow postoperative
administration of intrapleural bupivacaine.

E8

Chest wall closure is begun using four to eight evenly

spaced circumcostal sutures that are placed by skimming
the cranial aspect of the fourth rib and taking a slightly
larger bite of tissue around the caudal edge of the fifth rib.
The type and size of suture material depend on surgeon
preference. I (K. D. B.) use absorbable sutures (e.g., PDS II,
Ethicon) in sizes ranging from 1 to 3/0, depending on patient
size. Other surgeons may prefer using an appropriately sized
nonabsorbable suture. An assistant (if available) crosses two
adjacent sutures to appose the ribs and allow the surgeon to
tie the initial suture. This process is repeated until the ribs
are securely apposed. Alternatively, a rib approximator can
be used to appose the ribs, taking care to avoid overlapping
them. A technique of placing transcostal sutures (i.e., suture
passed through holes drilled in the body of the rib) has
been described to avoid entrapment of the intercostal nerve
on the caudal surface of the rib in the circumcostal suture,
which can cause postoperative pain.26 This report did not
discuss the biomechanical effects of drilling multiple holes
in the ribs. The serratus ventralis and scalenus muscles are
then sutured back to achieve one layer of soft tissue closure.
The incised edges of the latissimus dorsi muscle are reapposed or released from their retracted position.
Once an airtight seal is achieved, the thoracic cavity is
evacuated via a butterfly catheter, needle, or chest tube with
a three-way stopcock for easier aspiration and disposal of
air and fluid. The panniculus, subcutaneous tissue, and skin
are closed routinely. I (K. D. B.) prefer to place skin sutures
in toy-breed puppies, but an intradermal suture pattern or
skin staples can be used, although these may not engage
well in smaller animals. With the patient still under anesthesia, a light wrap may be placed over the thoracic incision
to avoid trauma to the incision and provide light support to
the thorax. The wrap includes a nonadherent contact layer,
an absorbent layer, and an outer protective layer. Great care
must be taken to ensure the thoracic wrap does not impinge
on the respiratory excursions of the patient and cause dyspnea, hypoxia, and cyanosis. An excessively tight thoracic
bandage could result in the death of a small patient in the
postoperative period. Most patients are discharged approximately 48 hours after PDA ligation surgery with a loose
t-shirt or stockinette covering the thorax.

Variations in Surgical Technique

Several variations on dissection and ligation technique and
suture passage exist. Because the medial aspect of the PDA
is potentially weak and catastrophic hemorrhage is possible,
sterile cotton swabs can be used for dissection of the cranial and caudal aspects of the PDA in lieu of forceps.23 As
for variations on suture passage, one author recommends
using right-angle forceps to pass a knotted double strand
of suture with the loop cut off. This technique is meant to
avoid engaging soft tissue from the blind side of the PDA

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Patent Ductus Arteriosus in Dogs CE

FIGURE 11

Courtesy of Ralph Henderson, DVM

by preventing complete closure of the jaws of the forceps,

which are forced slightly apart by the knot.27 Another technique uses a stainless steel orthopedic wire loop (18- to
20-gauge) passed from caudal to cranial to safely pull suture
around the medial aspect of the ductus.28
Perhaps the second most commonly used suture passage technique is the Jackson-Henderson method. This
technique is designed to avoid tedious PDA dissection by
drawing the ligatures from the dorsal and medial aspects of
the aorta.29 The aorta is dissected free from its mediastinal
pleura between the left subclavian artery and first intercostal artery to create a space for suture passage. Right-angle
forceps are placed cranial to the ductus around the dorsomedial aspect of the aorta. The suture loop is accepted from
this location and pulled through in a ventrolateral direction. Next, the two free suture ends are pulled through from
a right-angle forceps that begins its passage caudal to the
ductus and finishes at the dorsomedial aspect of the aorta
(FIGURE 11). Once drawn ventral to the ductus, these strands
are divided and tied as two individual ligatures. Jackson and
Henderson29 reported no size limitation and no complications using this technique on 11 dogs. Since this description,
there has been much debate as to whether this technique
increases the risk of complications. Stanley et al25 reported
increased short- and long-term complications using the
Jackson-Henderson technique; in this study, 19% of the dogs
that underwent PDA ligation via the Jackson-Henderson
technique had intraoperative complications, including tearing of the thoracic duct, rupture of an aortic aneurysm, and
tearing of the caudal aspect of the ductus. Using color-flow
Doppler imaging, 53% of Jackson-Henderson ligations had
residual flow compared with 21% for the traditional technique. Clinical outcomes of cases with residual flow were
not stated. Stanley et al25 suggested that complete ligation is
not achieved with the Jackson-Henderson technique due to
excessive soft tissue inclusion in the ligatures. Bellenger et
al30 thought that this technique decreased the risk of hemorrhage but increased the risk of residual shunting. Other
studies showed no adverse effects of the Jackson-Henderson
technique on patient outcome.31,32
In 1971, Breznock et al11 reported on the use of tantalum
hemostatic clips for the ligation of PDA to avoid medial dissection and facilitate application. One large (10-mm) tantalum clip was placed over the ductus and compressed in
as little as 5 minutes with no intraoperative hemorrhage
attributable to the ductus.11 These clips close from the tip
toward the body, supposedly avoiding any extrusion of the
PDA vessel. Tantalum clips are rarely used in humans due
to the risk of recanalization.11 More recently, the use of tantalum hemoclips was reexamined in a study of 20 dogs, 19
of which had successful complete occlusion of the PDA.33
Medial dissection was avoided, but hemorrhage comparable
to that associated with routine surgical ligation was noted

Illustration of the Jackson-Henderson technique of suture

passage around the PDA. The suture is passed around the
descending aorta on either side of the ductus. This avoids direct
dissection around the medial aspect of the PDA.

at the cranial dissection site (10%). One dog had incomplete

occlusion with persistent but minimal residual flow at day
560 postoperatively. This study did not report any recanalization and had a mean follow-up of 799 days.33

Surgical Complications
Overall, surgical complications are minimal for routine PDA
ligation performed by an experienced surgeon. Mortality is
reported at 0% to 2% for surgeons who have performed
more than 100 such operations.4 Complications include
hemorrhage, laryngeal dysfunction, air embolization, central
nervous system hypoxia, myocardial hypoxia, hypothermia,
and hypercapnea/hypocapnea with subsequent respiratory
acidosis or alkalosis.34
The most serious complication encountered is traumatic
injury to the PDA. The occurrence of intraoperative hemorrhage was reported at 6.25% in a series of 64 cases.24 If
hemorrhage occurs, mortality increases significantly, ranging from 42% to 100%.24 Ruptures generally occur intraoperatively, although there have been reports of postoperative
deaths from rupture of an aortic aneurysm 5 hours to 16
days after corrective PDA surgery.35,36 Hemorrhage occurs
most often during dissection around the medial aspect of
the PDA near the right pulmonary arterial junction while
the surgeon attempts to visualize the tips of the right-angle
forceps.22 Hemorrhage is seen from the medial aspect as
the forceps are withdrawn. At this point, the surgeon must
decide whether to continue with the planned ligation or
abort the attempt. Small ruptures typically respond to digital
tamponade but may worsen with further dissection. In these
cases, one option is to close and reoperate in the future, but
the potential for adhesions makes a second attempt more

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Key Points
Patent ductus arteriosus is the result of asymmetrical
distribution of ductus smooth muscle, preventing
complete closure of the ductus arteriosus.
The aortic aneurysmal dilation may not resolve after
successful ligation or occlusion of a patent ductus
arteriosus.
Patent ductus arteriosus is a heritable condition, and
affected patients should not be bred.
In the hands of an experienced surgeon, surgical
complications should be minimal.
Depending on the amount of defective genome that is
inherited, manifestations range from an asymptomatic
ductus diverticulum to a clinically significant patent
ductus arteriosus.

challenging. In some cases, adhesions have necessitated the

removal of the left cranial lung lobe.37 A technique for repairing small ruptures that are not responsive to digital pressure
has been reported, using an incision into the pericardium
to give access to the base of the main pulmonary artery and
ascending aorta.24 Eyster20 opens the pericardium routinely
for better access to the PDA, pulmonary artery, and aorta
for emergency cross-clamping. A tangential vascular clamp
is placed across the pulmonary artery and aorta, cranial to
the aorta and caudal in the pericardial sinus between the
left atrium and pulmonary artery. The resulting ventricular outflow occlusion induces circulatory arrest. This can
be maintained under normothermic conditions for up to 8
minutes.24 The descending aorta can be digitally occluded
to prevent further blood loss. The ductus is then dissected
from the caudal aspect, exiting more cranially than the initial dissection. Ligation is completed quickly, and the vascular clamp is removed. Once the heart has adequately filled,
digital pressure is discontinued on the descending aorta and
a transfusion is rapidly initiated. The three dogs in which
this technique was used survived without defibrillation or
inotropic support, but these options should be available.
This technique would not be effective on large tears.24
If the tear in the ductus is large and does not respond
to tamponade, large vascular clamps can be placed and
large, deep, biting mattress sutures placed in an attempt to
occlude the ductus and control the hemorrhage. Another
technique involves division of the PDA with oversewing of
the ends. To do this, a large tangential vascular clamp (e.g.,
Satinsky clamp) is placed on the aortic side of the ductus
and an angled 45 or 90 vascular clamp is placed on the
pulmonary artery side. The ductus is transected, and each
end is secured with a buttressed continuous mattress suture

E10

oversewn with a simple continuous pattern.4 This technique

is also recommended by some authors for PDAs that are
greater than 1 cm in diameter and/or for aorticopulmonary
windows.22
Several authors have described techniques to induce
hypotension for the management of intraoperative hemorrhage. Nitroprusside has been used to lower blood pressure
to 45 to 60 mm Hg to slow or stop ductal hemorrhage.23 Its
effects can be seen within 10 minutes of initiating the IV
infusion. Nitroprusside and phentolamine have also been
used before PDA dissection to lower pressures and decrease
the severity of hemorrhage in the event of ductus trauma.23

Risk Factors for Surgical Complications

Over the past 4 decades, several large studies have reported
risk factors associated with short- and long-term complications resulting from surgical PDA ligation. In 1976, Eyster et
al6 reviewed 100 cases of PDA and found a mortality of 8%
for dogs that were surgically managed. The best survival
rate was seen in dogs that (1) did not have ECG evidence of
atrial fibrillation, (2) had no clinical signs of CHF, (3) were
younger than 2 years, and (4) weighed less than 23 kg. Dogs
presenting with ECG documentation of atrial fibrillation and
mitral regurgitation had a mortality of 50% within 1 month
of surgery, whereas dogs with mitral regurgitation alone
had a 5% mortality.6 Only 34% of dogs that were treated
medically survived beyond 1 year. Another large review of
201 dogs that underwent surgical ligation of a PDA found
no correlation between long-term patient survival and age,
body weight, level of surgical training, or surgical technique.32 This review reported that 7% of patients died intraoperatively, and an additional 4% died within 1 month of
surgery. Intraoperative complications such as hemorrhage
from the PDA negatively affected long-term survival.31 In
2005, another study reported that age, weight, lethargy, preoperative treatment with angiotensin-converting enzyme
inhibitors, and right atrial dilation on radiography were all
negatively associated with survival.6 In this study, 92% of
dogs survived to 1 year and 87% survived to 2 years. No
dogs died of heart-related disease beyond the second year
after surgery. Forty-two percent of dogs in this study had
mitral regurgitation, but this finding was not related to survival.6 Recently, Eyster20 reported that age and size are not
factors in successful surgical treatment of PDA.

Minimally Invasive Techniques

Minimally invasive techniques for PDA occlusion have
migrated into veterinary medicine as the fields of interventional radiology and cardiology and minimally invasive
surgery have grown. Currently, minimally invasive procedures for PDA occlusion can be divided into intravascular
techniques and thoracoscopic surgery. Intravascular procedures are described briefly here, but veterinarians interested

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Patent Ductus Arteriosus in Dogs CE

in these techniques should undergo
table 1 Comparison of Surgical Ligation and Thrombogenic
training with an experienced surgeon.
Coil Placement for PDA Occlusion
Intravascular techniques for PDA
occlusion involve the use of either thromCoil Placement
Surgical Ligation
Advantage
bogenic coils or intravascular occludEquipment costs
$500,000
$1000
Surgery
ing devices (duct occluders or vascular
Supply inventory
$5000
$1000
Surgery
plugs). Thrombogenic or embolization
coils (Cook Medical; Bloomington,
Single-use supplies
$500
$100
Surgery
IN) are composed of surgical-grade
Client charge (academic costs) $2500$3500
$2000$2500
Neither
stainless steel wire with incorporated
prothrombic synthetic threads. The
Procedure time
13 hr
1 hr
Surgery
vascular occluders (Amplatzer Vascular
3
2
Surgery
Plug, AGA Medical, North Plymouth, Procedure personnel
MN; Canine Duct Occluder, Infiniti
Animal size
Limited
Any
Surgery
Medical, Haverford, PA) use nitinol
PDA shape
Limited
Any
Surgery
mesh to create a plug or disk shape
that expands within the ductus lumen
Success rate
90%
98%
Surgery
to close the PDA. The duct occluders
Days in hospital
12
23 (depending on clinic) Coils
may incorporate a polyester fabric to
help close the defect and promote tis- Postoperative monitoring
Minimal
Moderate
Coils
sue growth. Vascular plugs are placed
Animal discomfort
Minimal
Significant
Coils
in the lumen of the PDA, where the
multiple layers of nitinol mesh result in
Mortality
<1%
<2% (experienced
Coils
progressive thrombosis of the vessel.38
surgeon)8%
For these devices, intravascular access Modified with permission from Buchanan JW. Patent ductus arteriosus. In: Ct E, ed. Veterinary Clinical Advisor: Dogs and Cats. Philadelphia:
is normally established through a surgi- Elsevier; 2007:820-822.
cal cut-down or with the Seldinger technique. The femoral artery is usually used for arterial access, tive techniques using another type of occluder or surgical
although percutaneous catheterization of the brachial artery ligation are recommended to achieve PDA occlusion.
After an adequate number of coils have been deployed,
has been reported.39
the catheter and sheaths are withdrawn and the artery is
Use of Thrombogenic Coils
sutured or tied off or digital pressure is applied to the site
When a PDA is to be occluded using thrombogenic coils, for 5 to 10 minutes. Moderate to severe hematoma formation
angiography is performed before coil deployment to evalu- is one of the most commonly reported complications after
ate the shape of the ductus. Ideally, the ductus should have interventional cardiology procedures.
a distinct funnel shape (taper) to allow the coil to be lodged A published comparison of coiling versus surgery listed
at the narrow end immediately before it empties into the the primary advantages of coiling as its minimally invasive
main pulmonary artery. Thrombogenic coils should not be nature and the potential for decreased patient discomfort
used in dogs with a nontapering (type III) ductus due to (TABLE 1). However, the advantages and disadvantages of
the risk of the coil being swept into the pulmonary vas- each technique can be debated, and expectations should be
culature.40,41 After angiography, a guide wire is advanced modified based on the experience of the operator.
through the catheter into the PDA and then the pulmonary Complications reported with thrombogenic coils include
artery. Next, another catheter housing a thrombogenic coil coil dislodgment, inaccurate coil deployment, lameness
is advanced over the guide wire until it is in place. The after arterial cut-down and occlusion, significant residual
thrombogenic coil is deployed under fluoroscopic observa- flow, severe hemorrhage at the site of the arterial cut-down,
tion. The coil position is evaluated, and the thorax is auscul- pulmonary artery embolization, partial aortic deployment,
tated for changes in the nature of the heart murmur. If the hemolysis, and implant infection.40,42 The combined rate
cardiac murmur is still present, a second coil is deployed. of morbidity and mortality with coiling is less than that
This process is repeated until the characteristic murmur reported with surgical ligation (approximately 1% compared
is no longer present on auscultation. The average patient with 2% to 8%),40 which is directly related to the surgeons
requires two to three coils for occlusion of the PDA, but as experience with PDA ligation.4 The importance of experimany as 10 coils have been used.40 For patients in which the ence should also be stressed in successful thrombogenic
PDA is too short (<5 mm) or fails to taper (type III), alterna- coil placement.
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Courtesy of Infiniti Medical

FIGURE 12

The Amplatz canine PDA device. It is made of nitinol wire

mesh designed to expand distally into the pulmonary artery and
proximally into the ductal ampulla.

is in contact with the artery wall. Further deployment of

the device fills the ostium of the PDA with the waist of the
occluder. At this point, the occluder is checked for correct
and secure positioning. If the operator is satisfied with the
placement, the restraining cable is released and the deployment is complete. If the positioning needs to be improved,
the device is reconstrained and repositioned. Correct measurement of the PDA ostium and accurate device sizing are
essential for successful deployment of a duct occluding
device. One review46 reported that interventional occlusion
may be best accomplished when a variety of devices are
available. This report recommended the use of detachable
coils for small PDAs (<4 mm in diameter) and the use of the
duct occluder for larger PDAs (>5 mm in diameter).

Complete PDA occlusion may be obtained in only 60% of

dogs at the time of coil placement, with complete occlusion Thorascopic PDA Occlusion
occurring in about 85% of dogs in the 90 days after place- Thorascopic PDA occlusion has also been reported in dogs.47
ment. In most dogs with reported residual shunting, the In five dogs, titanium vascular clips were placed to occlude
shunting was considered clinically insignificant.40 However, the PDA. Fascia was cleared from the cranial and caudal
roughly 5% of dogs receiving thrombogenic coils for PDA aspects of the PDA, but dissection around the medial aspect
occlusion may require subsequent placement of additional of the PDA was not attempted. Minimal complications were
coils to achieve complete cessation of flow.40 Thrombogenic encountered, and the dogs had rapid postsurgical recovery.
coils have also been used to achieve complete occlusion The authors reported that the procedure was technically
when there is residual blood flow after surgical ligation.43
demanding but safe and effective. Accurate determination of
A recent review of surgical ligation versus coil placement the PDA diameter and vascular clip size was vital to ensure
for PDA occlusion found no significant differences in proce- adequate occlusion. The report concluded that thorascopic
dure length or patient mortality. Surgical ligation did have a PDA ligation was a viable alternative to surgical ligation in
significantly higher number of major complications com- dogs weighing more than 7 kg with PDA diameters of less
pared with thrombogenic coil placement, but the unusual than 12 mm.47 Other important considerations for thorasnature of the complications described casts doubt on the copic procedures include equipment investment and level
relevance of this conclusion.44 It appears that both throm- of expertise with minimally invasive surgery. Thorascopic
bogenic coil placement and surgical ligation are acceptable procedures in veterinary medicine have included persisoptions for PDA occlusion; many continue to assert that tent right aortic arch resection, lung biopsy, pericardectomy,
when morbidity, mortality, cost, necessary equipment, avail- and thoracic duct ligation. These procedures are generability, and limitations dictated by patient size are compared, ally reported to have decreased postoperative pain, more
surgery is still preferable.45
rapid return to function, and fewer operative site complications.4851 Experience with these procedures should enhance
Use of a Duct Occluding Device
the potential for successful thorascopic PDA occlusion.
The Amplatz canine duct occluder (Infiniti Medical; Malibu,
CA) is a self-expanding plug used to obstruct blood flow Long-Term Results
through a PDA. The Amplatz occluder has a flat disk that The recommendation for performing surgery as soon as
secures it in place and an expanding waist to occlude possible has held through the years. Generally, ligation is
the PDA (FIGURE 12). The dense wire mesh of the occluder considered curative if performed by 6 months of age.4 Early
stops blood flow through the PDA.
results suggest that this principle also applies to interven Placement of an occluder begins with angiography to tional catheterization and thorascopic techniques. There is
determine the size of the ductus and the pulmonary ostium. a better chance that secondary mitral insufficiency and volAn appropriate occluder is chosen based on these measure- ume overloadinduced myocardial failure will be reduced in
ments. A guide wire is passed through the angiography cath- younger patients.4 These changes may not be entirely reverseter and directed across the PDA into the pulmonary artery. ible in older or larger dogs, but surgery is still indicated for
The angiography catheter is removed, and the deployment left-to-right shunts in these patients. Follow-up radiography,
catheter is advanced over the guide wire and across the duc- auscultation, and echocardiography should be used to montus. The occluder is deployed with the distal disk opening itor patients postoperatively to document resolution of disin the pulmonary artery, and then retracted until the disk ease. The pulmonary vessels should be reduced to normal

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Patent Ductus Arteriosus in Dogs CE

size within 1 week, and the heart should return to normal by
3 months postoperatively.3 The aortic aneurysm will remain
unchanged. This aneurysm is likely due to separation of
the intraaortic segment of the ductus from the lumen of the
aorta by a thin flap.3 Once the PDA is ligated, this region
can still fill with blood and be visualized on radiography. If
mitral regurgitation has resolved and the heart has returned
to normal size, auscultation should also be normal.

Residual Flow
Failure to achieve complete occlusion and postoperative
return of blood flow through a PDA are concerns in both
human and veterinary medicine. In human medicine, residual flow in a PDA has potential long-term complications,
including bacterial endarteritis and endocarditis of the main
pulmonary artery and recanalization.52 In humans, recanalization can occur in less than 4 months in 6% to 23% of cases
involving large PDAs, the use of clips, or single or double
ligation.52,53 Secondary bacterial endocarditis has been rarely
reported in dogs, but perhaps of greater concern in veterinary medicine is the potential incidence of recanalization
and the return of clinical signs of PDA.41 Recanalization has
historically been cited in 2% to 3% of cases.37 Based on
return of a machinery murmur and verification at surgery,
Eyster et al37 documented the occurrence of recanalization
to be 2%, with recanalization occurring twice in one dog.
Lack of a murmur on auscultation does not rule out the
presence of flow through a ductus vessel. One theory for
recanalization is that ligation distorts the ductus, allowing
the pulmonary artery and aorta to come into contact with
each other. Friction from this contact could result in a new
connection or fistula in an occluded ductus.37 Recanalization
most frequently occurs cranial to the ligatures, further supporting this theory.37 Proponents of the hemoclip suggest
that it does not cause distortion of the pulmonary artery
ductusaorta orientation and thus minimizes risk of recanalization in dogs.33 Recanalization in humans after use of a
hemoclip has been documented.33
Another theory is that recanalization results from incomplete occlusion of the PDA.33,53 With the increased use of
color-flow Doppler imaging, residual flow may be detected
in approximately 18% to 53% of cases.17,25,31 In a human study
that used an Rashkind occluder device, the largest drop in
residual shunting was noted from 1 day to 6 months postocclusion due to ongoing fibrosis. This study found surgical
ligation to have significantly less association with residual
flow than the use of an occlusive device.52 One author suggested that a small amount of residual flow will usually
resolve by 3 months postoperatively due to the formation of
scar tissue.3 Corti et al33 suspected spontaneous duct closure
at day 560 in a case that had inadequate postoperative closure of the PDA using a hemoclip. Others disagree, stating
that if residual flow is present at 1 month postligation, it is

unlikely to resolve spontaneously.41 Most agree that division

and oversewing minimizes the risk of recanalization, but
this technique is time-consuming and potentially increases
mortality.37 The long-term consequences of residual shunting are suspected by some to be minimal, but this topic has
not been well studied in dogs to date.

Conclusion
PDA is a common condition with a variety of treatment
options for occlusion. When the most appropriate option
is selected and treatment is instituted early and skillfully,
patients can have an excellent long-term prognosis.
References

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3 CE

CREDITS

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1. Dogs that are not treated surgically for

a large PDA typically experience heart
failure by what age?
a. 3 months
b. 6 months
c. 9 months
d. 1 year
2. Dogs of which breed should not be bred
if a PDA is documented?
a. toy poodle
b. golden retriever
c. keeshond
d. all of the above
3. Color-flow Doppler imaging has shown
a residual flow rate of ________ after
occlusion.
a. less than 5%
b. 5% to 12%
c. 18% to 53%
d. 25% to 28%
4. What is the incidence of PDA in dogs
with congenital heart defects?
a. less than 5%
b. 10% to 15%
c. 25% to 30%
d. 35% to 45%

E14

5. A normal DA is primarily composed of

________ tissue.
a. elastic
b. smooth muscle
c. skeletal muscle
d. collagen
6. What is the ideal conformation of a PDA
for coiling procedures?
a. wide, nontapering
b. funnel-shaped, tapering
c. window
d. all of the above are amenable to coiling
7. Which finding is not consistent with a
right-to-left shunt in a dog with a PDA?
a. polycythemia
b. caudal body cyanosis
c. grade 5 to 6 left-sided murmur
d. exercise intolerance
8. Which approach is used for ligation of a
PDA?
a. left-sided fourth intercostal
thoracotomy

b. median sternotomy
c. right-sided fourth intercostal
thoracotomy
d. left-sided seventh intercostal
thoracotomy

9. When performing surgery to correct a

PDA, life-threatening hemorrhage is
most likely during
a. the initial approach to the intercostal
artery.
b. penetration into the pericardium.
c. dissection of the medial aspect of the
PDA.
d. penetration of a major vessel (e.g., pulmonary artery, aorta).
10. Which situation/complication during
or after a coiling procedure does not
require placement of an additional coil?
a. coil dislodgment
b. delayed occlusion
c. pulmonary artery embolization
d. residual flow

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