Evaluation and Selection of Heat Exchangers

By Richard E. Leopold
Vulcanium Corporation
Northbrook, Illinois
Control of process-solution temperature is essential in metal products finishing. Therefore, the heat
exchanger that adds or removes heat from the finishing tank is critical equipment.
Solution temperature affects many finishing factors, including rates of deposition, activation and
decomposition of delicate chemistries, the corrosion resistance of equipment and the ability of deposits to
adhere to surfaces.
So even when other finish variables are under controlincluding solution-chemical content and
concentration, basis-metal preparation, electrical current and voltage, and rack designconsistent solution
temperature is still required for best results.
Choosing the Right Exchanger
Exchanger size and choice of material of construction are critical details in heat-exchanger selection. Correct
decisions will assure low-cost, effective plating-process operation.
Immersion heaters used in the finishing industry today include immersion
Table IMaterial Options for
heaters in the form of serpentine coils, "U" coils, pipe coils, grid of plateHeat Exchangers
style coils and electric heaters. External exchangers come as shell-and
(In order of increasing cost)
tube as well as plate-and frame designs.
Steel
Stainless
Steel
Immersion exchangers offer the simplest answer to heat-exchange
Titanium
requirements. Such units are economical, easily installed and maintained,
Zicronium
and are popular in both large and small systems. Immersion exchangers
Nickel
Alloys
are readily available in a wide variety of sizes and shapes. The chief
TFE and PVDF Plastics
drawback of these units is that they occupy space in the process tank.
Graphite
Thus this type of exchanger can occasionally interfere with tank processes.
Columbium
Tantalum
Good process and tank design can help you avoid these problems and
prevent the exchanger from being snagged or bumped while in use. Immersion exchangers can be mounted
anywhere in the tankon sides, front or bottomto reduce interference with work flow.
External exchangers typically are chosen only by finishers with large systems, where in-tank space is a
vital concern. External units require a pump to circulate often-corrosive liquids from the process tank
through the exchanger and back to the tank.
External exchangers may be of either the shell-and-tube style, which can be mounted as a space-saving
vertical unit, or the newer plate-and-frame type. This type also minimizes the exterior mounting space
required.
Selecting Materials of Construction

With exchanger type determined, the construction material should be chosen. Today's options include a wide
variety of products, some of which are listed in Table I.
Material selection hinges on finding the best mix of economy and performance. Original equipment cost
must be balanced against the equipment's expected life and its maintenance costs. Because corrosion is an
everyday fact in the finishing industry, mild steel heat exchangers should be avoided, except for short-run
processes. Instead, in most systems where corrosiveness of the atmosphere and solutions are low, the
modest cost of the additional protection provided by 316 stainless steel is worthwhile. A 316 stainless steel
exchanger will more than pay for itself in extended life and reduced maintenance.
In more corrosive applications, material selection becomes even more important. Some selections are easy:

Stainless steel for caustics.

Titanium for nickel plating.
Columbium for fluoride-bearing chromium plating solutions.

Other choices are less clear and often represent preference based on experience. Corrosion charts (Table II)
can provide the starting point for material selection, but actual conditions often vary, and in-tank testing
sometimes is the only way to guarantee corrosion resistance for equipment exposed to a new chemical
formulation. Often chemical suppliers provide guidelines for heat exchanger material selection. These
guidelines should be followed carefully.
Plastics. Although plastic heat exchangers are very corrosion resistant, they are among the most
expensive, due to their relative inefficiency when compared with metal exchangers. Plastic exchangers may
have to be two to four times as large as metal exchangers to provide sufficient heat-transfer area. Thus
additional mounting space will be required, either inside or outside the process tank.
Exchanger Rating and Design
Once construction material and equipment style have been chosen, final equipment rating (in Btu/hour) and
design can be determined. Equipment engineers usually find that three factors control the amount of heat
required to maintain a hot tank at its desired temperatureoriginal tank heat up, losses due to evaporation
and losses due to the work as it passes through the process.
TABLE IIISpecific Heat (Cp)
of Some Commonly Used
Heat-up. The heat required to bring a tank up to its original operating
Materials
temperature is related to the size of the tank, what is in the tank, and the
final temperature required. This relationship is described in Equation 1.
Material
Cp
Water (by
definition).........................1.00
Equation 1
15 pct sulfuric
acid..............0.88
Q1 = MCpDT, where
Oil....................................0.42
Q1 is the total heat input required to heat up the tank.
Steel.................................0.11
Aluminum..........................0.23
M is the weight of the solution to be heated.
Zinc..................................0.09
Cp is the "specific heat" or a factor that describes the relative amount of heat required by
different materials to be heated the same amount (Table III lists "specific heat" of several
common materials).
T is the difference in solution temperatures before and after heating.

In order to see how Q1 is determined, consider the following situation:

A finishing tank measures three by 10 ft and the water inside is four feet deep. Temperature,
70F. We want to elevate the water temperature to 140F. The tank will be agitated.
We know we have 120 cubic ft (3 x 10 x 4) of water in the tank. Water weighs 62.4 lb/cu ft, and
therefore we see that in Equation 1, Q1 = MCp T, M = 120 cu ft x 62.4 lb/cu ft, or 7,488 lbs.
Referring to Table III, we see that Cp = 1.00 (the specified heat of water). Through simple
subtraction we see that:
T1 = 140 - 70 = 70F.
Completing the calculation:
Q1 = MCp

T, or Q1 = 7,488 x 1.00 x 70 = 524,160 Btu.

This heat requirement measurement gives no indication of how quickly the tank will be heated.
In theory, if the tank were perfectly insulated and we put in one Btu/hour, it would take 60 years
to heat the tankbut it would reach 140F.
In a finishing shop, a more usual heat-up time is two to four hours. Using the example above, a
four-hour heat-up requires 131,040 Btu/hr (524,160 divided by 4).
Maintenance of Temperature
The initial heat-up calculation, described above, is
usually the determining factor in sizing heat
exchangers.
In very hot tanks or in lines where a high volume of
work is processed, we must examine the heat input
required for temperature maintenance. Equation 2
describes the heat input required by evaporation.

TABLE IVEvaporative Heat Loss

Solution
Temperature
(F)
100
110
120
130
140
150
160
170
180
190
200
210

Equation 2
Q2 = L x A
where Q2 is the heat input required to make up for
evaporation.
L is loss per sq ft (from (Table IV).
A is surface area of liquid in the tank.

Q3 = M Cp T where
Q3 = heat input required to make up for losses to work.

0
205
290
400
550
710
950
1,230
1,600
2,050
2,600
3,300
4,300

1.0
320
420
570
750
970
1,260
1,600
2,100
2,900
4,000
5,700
8,100

2.0
350
480
660
890
1,150
1,510
2,000
2,600
3,550
4,950
7,000
10,000

5.0
480
670
930
1,240
1,600
2,100
2,700
3,700
5,000
6,900
9,760
14,000

Heat losses expressed as BTU's per hour

square foot of surface

Top losses can be reduced by careful choice of

ventilation systems and by covering tanks when possible.
Losses to Work

Air Velocity
(Feet/Second)

M = #'s of work processed per hour

Cp = specific heat of work (steel = .11)
T = difference between temperature of work and tank temperature.
We can again use Equation 1 to calculate heat required to make up for losses to the work. For
most metal-products-finishing systems, this factor is usually ignored. In some continuous
systems, where output is measured not in pieces but in tons, this factor can account for up to
one third of the required heat input to the tank.
From these three factors, the heat exchanger rating is determined. Usually, the larger of Q 1 or
the sum of Q2 and Q3 (the losses to the work) is chosen as the heat exchanger rating. With the
heat exchanger rating now known, the unit size is finally determined.
Sizing the Exchanger
For electric exchangers, the rating in Btu/hour is divided by 3.412 Btu/hr/Kw to convert it into
an electric-heater rating.
For immersion and external exchangers, Equation 3 is used to relate the rating, Q Total, to the size
of the heat exchanger, measured in square feet:
Equation 3
A = QTotal/UDT2, where
A is the size of the exchanger in sq ft.
QTotal is the rating of the exchanger in Btu/hr.
U is the heat transfer coefficient in Btu/hr/sq ft.*
T2 is the difference between the tank temperature and heating media.
Table V lists some common "U" values for "watery" solutions used in many types of metalproducts-finishing applications.
With the size of the exchanger determined, the manufacturer can provide dimensions and costs.
Cooling Applications
The most usual cooling applications in metal-products-finishing occur when electrical energy is
supplied by the process and needs to be removed (as heat)
TABLE V
to maintain tank temperature. In these applications, Q is
"U" Values for "Watery" Solutions
calculated in Equation 4.
Type of Exchanger Media
"U"
Equation 4
Q = Volts Amps 3.412 Btu/Kw.

Immersion Exchanger Steam

Water
External Exchanger
Plate and Frame
Exchanger

Steam
Water

150
125
250
220
Up to
400

In fact, some of the electrical energy is converted into metal deposition, but in practice this is
ignored. More important is the "duty cycle" that takes into consideration the portion of an hour,
day or shift that the rectifier supplies power to the tank. With Q from the above equation, area
can be calculated just as in heating, using the appropriate "U" value from Table V.
Summary
The heat exchanger that adds or re-moves heat from the finishing-process tank to maintain
consistent solution temperature is an essential piece of equipment. Therefore, sizing of heat
exchangers is important.
Exchangers are available in immersion and external styles. Each offers advantages and
drawbacks that must be evaluated. Another decision is material of construction, of which
numerous choices are also available.
By following the above guidelines, you can better understand how to choose the right exchanger
for each metal-products-finishing application. PFD
*"U" factors are based on actual operation and vary depending on the type of equipment
specified.

TABLE IICorrosion ChartLeast Expensive Fully-Corrosion Resistant Material

Mild
316
Titanium Zirconium Columbium Tantalum
Steel Stainless
1. Acetic Acid
2. Alkaline Cleaning
(low conc.)

X
X*

3. Alkaline Cleaning
(high conc.)

4. Aluminum Anodizing
Hot Seal Tank

5. Aluminum Bright
Dip

6. Antimony Plating

7. Brass Plating

X*

8. Bronze Plating

X*

9. Cadmium
Plating/Cyanide Type

X*

10. Cadmium
Plating/Fluoborate
Type

11. Caustic Lime of

Soda

12. Chlorine Gas Moist

13. Chromic Acid 10%

14. Chromic Acid 50%

15. Chromium
Plating/Fluoride Type

16. Chromium
Plating/Sulfate Type

17. Citric Acid 15%

18. Copper
Plating/Sulfate Type
19. Copper
Plating/Cyanide Type

X
X*

20. Copper
Plating/Pyrophosphate
Type
21. Dichromate Seal

X*

22. Dye for Coloring

Anodized Aluminum

23. Dye Seal

24. Hydrochloric Acid

(No Iron)

25. Hydrochloric Acid

Pickling

26. Nickel Plating/NonFluoride Type

27. Nitric Acid (to

65%)

28. Phosphatizing

29. Phosphoric Acid

10%

30. Salt Brine or

Brackish Water

31. Sulfuric Acid

Anodizing

32. Sulfuric Acid

Pickling

33. Tin Plating

34. Zinc Plating/Acid

Non-fluoride
35. Zinc
Plating/Cyanide Type

X
X*

*In many applications where mild steel coils give adequate service a 316 stainless steel
coil will give better service at a modest increase in cost.

These guidelines are not guarantees. Your chemical manufacturer should be contacted for
his recommendation. For the highest confidence in material selection, corrosion coupons
(material samples) should be tested to verify corrosion resistance in your solution.

Heat Exchanger Size Selection Procedure

Heat exchangers and their associated fans must be carefully selected and matched to meet the needs of
the cooling system. It is critical, then, to know what the heat transfer requirements are and what
equipment will transfer the heat load effectively. Heat exchanger performance is a strong function of
surface area (size and design of heat exchanger) and the initial temperature difference, or "ITD"
between liquid and air entering the heat exchanger. Thus, larger heat exchangers operating at high
ITD's dissipate the most heat. Raising coolant flow rates to approximately 2.0 GPM also helps to boost
heat exchanger efficiency.
To select an appropriate heat exchanger:
1.) Calculate the heat transfer performance requirement ()

Q
= ----- =

Q
-------------

IDT

Twin - TA in

where:
Q = required heat dissipation rate (watts)
Twin = inlet water tamp (C). Note, when cooling the water,
this is the maximum water temperature desired in the
system.
TAin = inlet air temp (C). Note, when cooling the air, this is
the maximum air temperature desired in the system.
2.)Using the performance curves for either 720 Series or 730 Series heat exchangers, draw a horizontal
line at the Q/ITD value included in 1.). Choose any model heat exchanger whose performance lies
above this line.
720 SERIES
APPROXIMATE PERFORMANCE
ON AIR AND WATER

730 SERIES
APPROXIMATE PERFORMANCE
ON AIR AND WATER

Figure 1

Figure 2
(click on image for enlarged view)

3.) Using water pressure drop curves for either 720 or 730 Series heat exchangers, find the P of the
associated water flow rate of the heat exchanger model selected in 2.).
If this pressure drop is within the system's pumping capability, the selection process is completed.
If the pressure drop is greater, then three options are possible:
a. Select a larger heat exchanger; its higher thermal performance will allow operation at a lower
water flow rate which results in a lower pressure drop.
b. If space is not available to use a larger heat exchanger, then use a different fan with higher
CFM to increase the heat exchanger's thermal performance beyond that shown with a standard
fan. Heat exchanger thermal perfor mance is approximately linear with air CFM. This, in turn,
allows operation at a lower water flow rate, thus lowering the pressure drop. Please consult the
factory for alternate fan products, voltages, bearing systems, etc.
c. Finally, if use of a high CFM air mover is not feasible, it is possible in some cases to design a
special water flow circuit and manifolding to reduce the system pressure drop. Please contact
the factory for engineering assistance
4.) If desired, exit water and exit air temperatures can be approximated by energy balance =

TWout

TWin

TAout

TAin

Q
------------264(GPM)
Q
-------------

(C)

(C)

0.62(CFM)

Size Selection Example

Example: Assume the following heat transfer parameters:
(assume copper circuit acceptable)
Required heat (power) dissipation = 2.8 kilowatts = 2800 watts
Incoming water temperature = 84C
Incoming air temperature = 21C
1.)

2800 watts
--------------

w
= 44.4 ---

84C - 21C

2.) Referring to the Thermal Performance curves for the 720 Series (Figure 1), it is evident that the
following models are acceptable:
Model 721 at 2.0 GPM or higher water flow rate
Model 722,723,724,725 at any water flow rate above 1.0 GPM.
3.) Now referring to the Pressure Drop curves for the 720 Series (Figure 1) . Model 721 requires a 7
PSI pressure drop at 2.0 GPM. If the pumping system can accept this pressure drop, Model 721 is
adequate for the task. If the pressure drop is too high, select Model 722 at 1.0 GPM, pressure drop 4
PSI. Similarly, Model 724 at 1.0 GPM offers still less pressure drop, 1.0 PSI. Both Models 722 and
724 offer additional thermal capacity over Model 721 which will lower system temperatures.
Note: These application notes make the assumption that the water temperature is higher than that of
the air. Since the thermal process is usually reversible, these heat exchangers can be used to cool air if
the inlet water temperature is below that of the air. The same equation above can be used by
subtracting the cooler temperature from the hotter one and determining the thermal performance in the
same manner described above. The information presented refers to systems transferring heat between
water and air. Information relating heat exchanger performance to other fluids can be obtained from
the factory.