Lecture-1

Fundamentals of Vibrations.

Importance of vibrations.

Basic concepts of vibration & Definitions with examples.

Vibration
In simplest form, vibration can be considered to be the oscillation or repetitive motion of
an object around an equilibrium position. The equilibrium position is the position the
object will attain when the force acting on it is zero. This type of vibration is called "whole
body motion", meaning that all parts of the body are moving together in the same
direction at any point in time.
If you could watch a vibrating object in slow motion, you can see movements in different
directions. How far, and how fast the object moves helps determine its vibrational
characteristics. The terms used to describe this movement are frequency, amplitude and
acceleration.
Frequency
A vibrating object moves back and forth from its normal stationary position. A complete
cycle of vibration occurs when the object moves from one extreme position to the other
extreme, and back again. The number of cycles that a vibrating object completes in one
second is called frequency. The unit of frequency is hertz (Hz). One hertz equals one
cycle per second.
Amplitude
A vibrating object moves to a certain maximum distance on either side of its stationary
position. Amplitude is the distance from the stationary position to the extreme position on
either side and is measured in metres (m). The intensity of vibration depends on
amplitude.
Acceleration
The speed of a vibrating object varies from zero to a maximum during each cycle of
vibration. It moves fastest as it passes through its stationary position to an extreme
position. The vibrating object slows down as it approaches the extreme, where it stops
and then moves in the opposite direction through the stationary position toward the other
extreme. Speed is expressed in units of metres per second (m/s).
Acceleration is a measure of how quickly speed changes with time and therefore,
acceleration is expressed in units of (metres per second) per second or metres per
second squared (m/s2). The magnitude of acceleration changes from zero to a maximum
during each cycle of vibration. It increases as vibrating object moves further from its
normal stationary position.
Resonance

Every object tends to vibrate at one particular frequency that depends on the composition
of the object, its size, structure, weight and shape. This frequency of natural vibration is
called the resonant frequency. A vibrating machine transfers the maximum amount of
energy to an object when the machine vibrates at the object's resonant frequency.
Natural Frequencies
Any physical structure can be modeled as a number of springs, masses, and dampers.
Dampers absorb energy, but springs and masses do not. As we saw in the previous
section, a spring and a mass interact with one another to form a system that resonates at
their characteristic natural frequency. If energy is applied to a spring-mass system, it will
vibrate at its natural frequency, and the level of the vibration depends on the strength of
the energy source as well as the absorption or damping inherent in the system. The
natural frequency of an undamped spring-mass system is given by the following equation:
where Fn = The natural frequency
k = the spring constant, or stiffness
m = the mass
From this, it is seen that if the stiffness increases, the natural frequency also increases,
and if the mass increases, the natural frequency decreases. If the system has damping,
which all physical systems do, its natural frequency is a little lower, and depends on the
amount of damping.
The multitude of spring-mass-damper systems that make up a mechanical system are
called "degrees of freedom", and the vibration energy put into a machine will distribute
itself among the degrees of freedom in amounts depending on their natural frequencies
and damping, and on the frequency of the energy source. For this reason, the vibration
will not be uniformly distributed in the machine. For instance, in a machine driven by an
electric motor, a major source of vibration energy is residual imbalance in the motor rotor.
This will result in a measurable vibration at the motor bearings. But if the machine has a
degree of freedom with a natural frequency close to the RPM of the rotor, its vibration
level can be very high, even though it may be a long distance from the motor. It is
important to be aware of this fact when evaluating the vibration of a machine -- the
location of the maximum vibration level may not be close to the source of the vibration
energy. Vibration energy frequently travels great distances along pipes, and can wreak
havoc when it encounters a remote structure with a natural frequency near that of its
source.
Lecture- 2

Classification of Vibrations:

Free vibration
Forced vibration
Undamped & Damped Vibration
Linear & Non-Linear
Deterministic and Random vibrations

Simple Harmonic Motion

The simplest possible vibratory motion that can exist is the movement in one direction of
a mass controlled by a single spring. Such a mechanical system is called a single degree
of freedom spring-mass system. If the mass is displaced a certain distance from the

equilibrium point and then released, the spring will return it to equilibrium, but by then the
mass will have some kinetic energy and will overshoot the rest position and deflect the
spring in the opposite direction. It will then decelerate to a stop at the other extreme of its
displacement where the spring will again begin to return it toward equilibrium. The same
process repeats over and over with the energy sloshing back and forth between the
spring and the mass -- from kinetic energy in the mass to potential energy in the spring
and back.
The following illustration shows a graph of the displacement of the mass plotted versus
time.
If there were no friction in the system, the oscillation would continue at the same rate and
same amplitude forever. This idealized simple harmonic motion is almost never found in
real mechanical systems. Any real system does have friction, and this causes the
amplitude of vibration to gradually decrease as the energy is converted to heat. The
following definitions apply to simple harmonic motion:
T = The period of the wave.
The period is the time required for one cycle, or one "round trip" from one zero crossing to
the next zero crossing in the same direction. The period is measured in seconds, or
milliseconds, depending on how fast the wave is changing.

Figure 1 - Representation of Vibration

Lecture -3

Free Vibration

Derivation of Differential Equation

Types:

1. Damped
2. Undamped

Damped free Vibrations of Single Degree of Freedom Syatems.

Different types of Damping.

1. Viscous Damping
2. Columb or Dry friction Damping
3. Solid or Structural Damping

Critical damping Constants & damping Ratio

Over Damped System,Under damped system and Critically damped system.

Lecture -4
Viscously Damped Free Vibration
Viscous damping force is expressed by the equation

where c is a constant of proportionality.

Symbolically. it is designated by a dashpot, as shown in Fig. 3. From the free body
diagram, the equation of motion is .seen to be

The solution of this equation has two parts. If F(t) = 0, we have the homogeneous
differential equation whose solution corresponds physically to that of free-damped
vibration. With F(t) 0, we obtain the particular solution that is due to the excitation
irrespective of the homogeneous solution. We will first examine the homogeneous
equation that will give us some understanding of the role of damping.

Figure 3 Viscously Damped Free Vibration

With the homogeneous equation :

the traditional approach is to assume a solution of the form :

where s is a constant. Upon substitution into the differential equation, we obtain :

Lecture -5-9
Examples based on above theory
Lecture -10
which is satisfied for all values of t when

Equation , which is known as the characteristic equation, has two roots :

Hence, the general solution is given by the equation:

where A and B are constants to be evaluated from the initial conditions

and

Equation substituted into gives :

The first term,

, is simply an exponentially decaying function of time. The
behavior of the terms in the parentheses, however, depends on whether the numerical
value within the radical is positive, zero, or negative.
When the damping term (c/2m)2 is larger than k/m, the exponents in the previous
equation are real numbers and no oscillations are possible. We refer to this case as
overdamped.
When the damping term (c/2m)2 is less than k/m, the exponent becomes an imaginary
number,

. Because

the terms of Eq. within the parentheses are oscillatory. We refer to this case as
underdamped.In the limiting case between the oscillatory and non oscillatory motion

, and the radical is zero. The damping corresponding to this case is called
critical damping, cc.

any damping can then be expressed in terms of the critical damping by a non dimensional
number z , called the damping ratio:

and

Lecture -11-14
Examples based on above theory
Lecture 15

Derivation of Differential Equation:

Methods:
1. Equilibrium method,
2. energy method
3. Rayleighs method.

Examples & derivations of Differential Equations.

(i) Oscillatory Motion (z < 1.0) Underdamped Case :

The frequency of damped oscillation is equal to :

Figure 4 shows the general nature of the oscillatory motion.

Figure 4 Damped Oscillation z < 1

(ii) Non oscillatory Motion (z > 1.0) Overdamped Case :

The motion is an exponentially decreasing function of time as shown in Fig. 5.

Figure 5 Aperiodic Motion z > 1

(iii) Critically Damped Motion (z = 1.0) :

Figure 6 shows three types of response with initial displacement x(0).

Figure 6 Critically Damped Motion z = 1

Lecture -16
Examples based on above theory
Lecture -17

Logerithemic Decrement

Rate of Decay of Oscillations.

Active damping and passive damping:

Active damping:
Active damping refers to energy dissipation from the system by external means,
such as controlled actuator, etc.
Passive damping:
Passive damping refers to energy dissipation within the structure by add-on
damping devices such as isolator, by structural joints and supports, or by structural
member's internal damping.
Damping Measurement:
There are many methods for measuring the damping of a vibtation system. Logarithmic
decrement method and bandwidth meathod are introduced here.
Logarithmic decrement method is used to measure damping in time domain. In this
method, the free vibration displacement amplitude history of a system to an impulse is
measured and recorded. A typical free decay curve is shown as below.Logarithmic
decrement is the natural logarithmic value of the ratio of two adjacent peak values of
displacement in free decay vibration.

To estimate damping ratio from frequency domain, we may use half-power bandwidth
method. In this method, FRF amplitude of the system is obtained first.Corresponding to
each natural frequency, there is a peak in FRF amplitude. 3 dB down from the peak there
are two point corresponding to half power point, as shown in the figure below. The more
the damping, the more the frequency range between this two point. Half-power bandwidth
BD is defined as the ratio of the frequency range between the two half power points to the
natural frequency at this mode.

Damping in Machine Tools:

Damping in machine tools basically is derived from two sources--material damping and
interfacial slip damping. Material damping is the damping inherent in the materials of
which the machine is constructed. The magnitude of material damping is small comparing
to the total damping in machine tools. A typical damping ratio value for material damping
in machine tools is 0.003. It accounts for approximately 10% of the total damping.

The interfacial damping results from the contacting surfaces at bolted joints and sliding
joints. This type of damping accounts for approximately 90% of the total damping. Among
the two types of joints, sliding joints contribute most of the damping. Welded joints usually
provide very small damping which may be negleted when considering damping in joints.

Lecture -18-19
Examples based on above theory