SME1306 - THEORY OF VIBRATIONS - 2015 Batch: Unit 1 Fundamentals of Vibration
SME1306 - THEORY OF VIBRATIONS - 2015 Batch: Unit 1 Fundamentals of Vibration
SME1306 - THEORY OF VIBRATIONS - 2015 Batch: Unit 1 Fundamentals of Vibration
REFERENCE BOOKS
1. William T Thomson, “Theory of Vibration With Applications, Taylor & Francis, 1993
2. Singiresu Rao S, Mechanical Vibrations, 5th edition, Pearson Education, Canada, 2010
3. Ramamurti, V., Mechanical Vibration Practice with Basic Theory, 1st edition, Narosa Publishing House,
Chennai, 2000
4. Theory and Practice of mechanical vibrations : J S Rao & K Gupta, New age International (Pvt) Ltd., N.
Delhi, 2006, Ed.1 .
5. Mechanical Vibrations ,Singh V P, Dhanpat Rai & Sons, Delhi, 3rd edition, 2006.
6. Francis Sing Tse, Ivan .E. Morse and Rolland Theodore Hinkle, “Mechanical Vibrations”, Prentice Hall of
India, 1984.
7. Fung, Y.C., “An Introduction to the Theory of Aeroelasticity”, John Wiley & Sons Inc., New York, 1985.
8. Timoshenko,S., “Vibration Problems in Engineering”, John Wiley & Sons Inc., 1987
9. Graham Kelly S, Mechanical Vibrations, Schuam’s Outlines, Tata Mc GRaw Hill, 2007
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 1
UNIT I
FUNDAMENTALS OF VIBRATION
Concept of Vibration
All bodies having mass and elasticity are capable to vibrate. The mass is inherent in the
body and elasticity cause relative motion among its parts. When body particles are displaced
application of external force, the internal forces in the form of elastic energy present in
the body, try to bring it to its original position. At equilibrium position, the whole of the elastic
energy is converted into kinetic energy and the body continuous to move in the opposite
direction because of it. The whole of the kinetic energy is again converted into elastic due to
which the body returns to the equilibrium position.
Types of Structural Vibration
The following are the different types of vibrations in a structural dynamic problem. a.
a. Free and Forced Vibration
Free vibration is a vibration in which energy is neither added to nor removed from the
vibrating system. It will just keep vibrating forever at the same amplitude. Except from some
superconducting electronic oscillators, or possibly the motion of an electron in its orbit about
an atomic nucleus, there are no free vibrations in nature. They are all damped to some extent.
Forced vibration is one in which energy is added to the vibrating system, as for
example in a clockwork mechanism where the energy stored in a spring is transferred a bit at a
time to the vibrating element. The amplitude of a forced, undamped vibration would increase
over time until the mechanism was destroyed. The amplitude of a forced, damped vibration
will settle to some value where the energy loss per cycle is exactly balanced by the energy
gained.
b. Damped and Undamped Vibration
Damped vibration is one in which there is an energy loss from the vibrating system.
This loss may be in the form of mechanical friction, as at the pivot of a pendulum for example,
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 2
or in the form of turbulence as the vibrating system disturbs its surroundings. The amplitude of
a damped vibration will eventually decay to zero.
Undamped vibration suffers no energy loss. Lightly damped vibrations have slight
energy loss which may or may not be negligible, depending on the nature of the observation of
the vibrator. The inertial forces in these systems are large compared to the drag or friction
forces. Heavily damped vibrations suffer high energy losses. They are characterized by drag or
friction forces large compared to the inertial forces of the system. A critically damped system
is one which moves from an initial displacement to the equilibrium state without overshoot, in
minimum time. For example a simple pendulum suspended in a container of light oil might just
drop from an elevated starting point to hang straight down without ever swinging up on the
opposite side. An over damped system behaves like a critically damped system except that it
takes longer to reach equilibrium. For example a simple pendulum suspended in a container of
honey would probably be over damped.
TECHNICAL TERMS
Damping: Damping is the resistance to the motion of a vibrating body. The vibrations
associated with this resistance are known as damped vibration.
Resonance: When the frequency of external force is equal to or matches with one of the
natural frequencies of the vibrating system, the amplitude of vibration becomes
excessively large. This phenomenon is called resonance.
Free vibration: The vibration which persists in a structure after the force causing the motion
has been removed is known as free vibration.
Forced vibration: The vibration which is maintained in a structure by steady periodic force
acting on the structure is known as forced vibration.
Damped vibration: When a damper or damping element is attached to the vibratory system,
the motion of the system will be opposed by it and the energy of the system will be
dissipated in friction is known as damped vibration.
Un-damped vibration: The vibration generated by the system having no damping element is
known as un damped vibration.
Free response: The motion due to initial condition is generally known as free response.
Forced response: When the motion is due to applied forces is known as forced response.
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 3
SINGLE DEGREE OF FREEDOM
The simplest vibratory system can be described by a single mass connected to a spring (and
possibly a dashpot). The mass is allowed to travel only along the spring elongation direction.
Such systems are called Single Degree-of-Freedom (SDOF) systems and are shown in the
following figure,
EQUATION OF MOTION
SDOF vibration can be analyzed by Newton's second law of motion, F = m*a. The analysis
can be easily visualized with the aid of a free body diagram,
The solution to the general SDOF equation of motion is shown in the damped SDOF discussion.
Free vibration (no external force) of a single degree-of-freedom system with viscous
damping can be illustrated as,
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 4
Fig 2.3 Free Vibration
Damping that produces a damping force proportional to the mass's velocity is commonly
referred to as "viscous damping", and is denoted graphically by a dashpot.
For an unforced damped SDOF system, the general equation of motion becomes,
This equation of motion is a second order, homogeneous, ordinary differential equation (ODE).
If all parameters (mass, spring stiffness and viscous damping) are constants, the ODE becomes
a linear ODE with constant coefficients and can be solved by the Characteristic Equation
method.
The characteristic equation for this problem is,
which determines the 2 independent roots for the damped vibration problem. The roots to the
characteristic equation fall into one of the following 3 cases:
1.
If < 0, the system is termed under damped. The roots of the characteristic
equation are complex conjugates, corresponding to oscillatory motion with an
exponential decay in amplitude.
2.
If = 0, the system is termed critically-damped. The roots of the characteristic
equation are repeated, corresponding to simple decaying motion with at most
one overshoot of the system's resting position.
3.
If > 0, the system is termed over damped. The roots of the characteristic
equation are purely real and distinct, corresponding to simple exponentially decaying
motion.
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 5
To simplify the solutions coming up, we define the critical damping Cc, the damping ratio ζ,
and the damped vibration frequency ωd as,
Note that ωd will equal ωn when the damping of the system is zero (i.e. undamped). The
time solutions for the free SDOF system are presented below for each of the three case
scenarios.
Under damped Systems
When < 0 (equivalent to < 1 or < ), the characteristic equation has a pair
of complex conjugate roots. The displacement solution for this kind of system is,
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 6
Fig 2.4 Time Period Acceleration
Note that the displacement amplitude decays exponentially (i.e. the natural logarithm of
the amplitude ratio for any two displacements separated in time by a constant ratio is a
constant; long-winded!),
Critically-Damped Systems
The critical damping factor cc can be interpreted as the minimum damping those results in
non- periodic motion (i.e. simple decay).
The displacement plot of a critically-damped system with positive initial displacement
and velocity would appear as,
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 7
Fig 2.5 Time Period acceleration of critically damped system
The displacement decays to a negligible level after one natural period, Tn. Note that if the
initial velocity v0 is negative while the initial displacement x0 is positive, there will exist one
overshoot of the resting position in the displacement plot.
Overdamped Systems
When > 0 (equivalent to > 1 or > ), the characteristic equation has two
distinct real roots. The displacement solution for this kind of system is,
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 8
Fig 2.6 Displacement plot for Over damped system
The motion of an over damped system is non-periodic, regardless of the initial conditions.
The larger the damping, the longer the time to decay from an initial disturbance.
If the system is heavily damped, , the displacement solution takes the approximate form,
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 9
Elementary Parts of Vibrating system
o A means of storing potential energy (spring or elasticity)
o A means of storing kinetic energy (Mass or inertia)
o A means by which energy is gradually lost (damper)
The forces acting on the systems are
Disturbing forces
Restoring force
Inertia force
Damping force
where F is the restoring elastic force exerted by the spring (in SI units: N), k is the spring
constant (N· m−1), and x is the displacement from the equilibrium position (in m).
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 10
where m is the inertial mass of the oscillating body, x is its displacement from the equilibrium (or
mean) position, and k is the spring constant.
Therefore,
Solving the differential equation above, a solution which is a sinusoidal function is obtained.
Where
In the solution, c1 and c2 are two constants determined by the initial conditions, and the origin is
set to be the equilibrium position.
[A] Each of these constants carries a physical meaning of the motion:
A is the amplitude (maximum displacement from the equilibrium position), ω = 2πf is the
angular frequency, and φ is the phase.
[B]Using the techniques of differential calculus, the velocity and acceleration as a function
of time can be found:
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 11
These equations demonstrate that the simple harmonic motion is isochronous (the period and
frequency are independent of the amplitude and the initial phase of the motion).
The total mechanical energy of the system therefore has the constant value
Derivation of Time Period through Energy Method Total Energy of SHM = constant
NATURAL FREQUENCY
The natural frequency of vibration is ω =√ (k/m) in radians per second
The time period is the time taken for one cycle is T = 2Π/ω
The frequency of vibration f = 1/ T = ω/2Π
VISCOUS DAMPING
When the system is made to vibrate in a surrounding viscous medium that is under the control of
highly viscous fluid, the damping is called viscous damping. This type of damping is achieved
by means of hydraulic dashpot
If such force is also proportional to the velocity, as for a simple mechanical viscous damper
(dashpot), the force may be related to the velocity by
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 12
Equation of motion for Viscous Damping
The values can be in any consistent system of units; for example, in SI units, m in kilograms, k in
Newton’s per meter, and c in Newton-seconds per meter or kilograms per second.
Treating the mass as a free body and applying Newton's second law, the total force Ftot on the
body is
Where a is the acceleration of the mass and x is the displacement of the mass relative to a fixed
point of reference.
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 13
The first parameter, ω0, is called the (undamped) natural frequency of the system. The second
parameter, ζ, is called the damping ratio. The natural frequency represents an angular frequency,
expressed in radians per second. The damping ratio is a dimensionless quantity.
The differential equation now becomes
Where the parameter γ (gamma) is, in general, a complex number. Substituting this assumed
solution back into the differential equation gives
Solving the characteristic equation will give two roots, γ+ and γ−. The solution to the differential
equation is thus [1]
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 14
RESPONSE TO UNDAMPED AND DAMPED FREE AND FORCED VIBRATION
We will examine the case when there is no damping on the SDOF system
Respectively, where i = -1. Using these roots and by using Euler’s equation we get the general
solution:
Where A and B are constants to be obtained from the initial conditions of the system and so:
Where U0 and U0 are the initial displacement and velocity of the system respectively.
Figure shows a single degree-of-freedom system with a viscous damper. The differential
equation of motion of mass m, corresponding to Equation for the undamped system, is
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 15
Fig 2.9 Free Vibration with Dampers
mx¨ + cx˙ + kx = 0
The form of the solution of this equation depends upon whether the damping coefficient is equal
to, greater than, or less than the critical damping coefficient Cc:
Cc = 2√km = 2mωn
If the damping of the system is less than critical, ζ < 1; then the solution
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 16
(because direction of weight changes), coordinate acceleration (so long as it produces g-force or a
change in g-force), vibration, shock, and falling in a resistive medium (a case where the proper
acceleration changes, since it starts at zero, then increases). Micro machined accelerometers are
increasingly present in portable electronic devices and video game controllers, to detect the
position of the device or provide for game input.
Pairs of accelerometers extended over a region of space can be used to detect differences
(gradients) in the proper accelerations of frames of references associated with those points. These
devices are called gravity gradiometers, as they measure gradients in the gravitational field. Such
pairs of accelerometers in theory may also be able to detect gravitational waves.
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 17
However this does not include a (non-free) fall in which air resistance produces drag forces that
reduce the acceleration, until constant terminal velocity is reached. At terminal velocity the
accelerometer will indicate 1 g acceleration upwards. For the same reason a skydiver, upon
reaching terminal velocity, does not feel as though he or she were in "free-fall", but rather
experiences a feeling similar to being supported (at 1 g) on a "bed" of up rushing air.
Acceleration is quantified in the SI unit metres per second per second (m/s2), in the kgs unit gal
(Gal), or popularly in terms of g-force (g).
For the practical purpose of finding the acceleration of objects with respect to the Earth, such as
for use in an inertial navigation system, knowledge of local gravity is required. This can be
obtained either by calibrating the device at rest, [3] or from a known model of gravity at the
approximate current position.
MODAL ANALYSIS
Modal analysis is the study of the dynamic properties of structures under vibrational excitation.
Modal analysis is the field of measuring and analysing the dynamic response of structures and or
fluids when excited by an input. Examples would include measuring the vibration of a car's body
when it is attached to an electromagnetic shaker, or the noise pattern in a room when excited by a
loudspeaker.
Modern day modal testing systems are composed of transducers (typically accelerometers and
load cells), or non-contact via a Laser vibrometer, an analog-to-digital converter frontend (to
digitize analog instrumentation signals) and a host PC (personal computer) to view the data and
analyze it.
Classically this was done with a SIMO (single-input, multiple-output) approach, that is, one
excitation point, and then the response is measured at many other points. In the past a hammer
survey, using a fixed accelerometer and a roving hammer as excitation, gave a MISO (multiple-
input, single-output) analysis, which is mathematically identical to SIMO, due to the principle of
reciprocity. In recent years MIMO (multi-input, multiple-output) has become more practical,
where partial coherence analysis identifies which part of the response comes from which
excitation source.
Typical excitation signals can be classed as impulse, broadband, swept sine, chirp, and possibly
others. Each has its own advantages and disadvantages.
The analysis of the signals typically relies on Fourier analysis. The resulting transfer function
will show one or more resonances, whose characteristic mass, frequency and damping can be
estimated from the measurements.
The animated display of the mode shape is very useful to NVH (noise, vibration, and harshness)
engineers.
The results can also be used to correlate with finite element analysis normal mode solutions. The
free vibration response of an MDOF system consists of coupled differential equations with
respect to mass, stiffness and damping. Solution of the coupled equations is a complicated
problem because it has dependent variables. To simply the response of system
The coupled differential equations must be transformed to independent or uncoupled equations
which contain only one dependent variable. This process of uncoupling the coupled differential
equations is called decoupling of equation. Thus the modal superposition is used to uncouple the
coupled differential equations by means of transformation of coordinates which incorporates the
orthogonally principles of mode shapes.
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 18
Deflected shape Mode 1 Mode 2 Mode 3
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--End of Unit I-
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 19
UNIT II
The vibrating systems, which require two coordinates to describe its motion, are called two-
degrees-of –freedom systems.
These coordinates are called generalized coordinates when they are independent of each other
and equal in number to the degrees of freedom of the system.
Unlike single degree of freedom system, where only one co-ordinate and hence one equation of
motion is required to express the vibration of the system, in two-dof systems minimum two co-
ordinates and hence two equations of motion are required to represent the motion of the
system. For a conservative natural system, these equations can be written by using mass and
stiffness matrices.
One may find a number of generalized co-ordinate systems to represent the motion of the same
system. While using these co-ordinates the mass and stiffness matrices may be coupled or
uncoupled. When the mass matrix is coupled, the system is said to be dynamically coupled and
when the stiffness matrix is coupled, the system is known to be statically coupled.
The set of co-ordinates for which both the mass and stiffness matrix are uncoupled, are known
as principal co-ordinates. In this case both the system equations are independent and
individually they can be solved as that of a single-dof system.
A two-dof system differs from the single dof system in that it has two natural frequencies, and
for each of the natural frequencies there corresponds a natural state of vibration with a
displacement configuration known as the normal mode. Mathematical terms associated with
these quantities are eigenvalues and eigenvectors.
Normal mode vibrations are free vibrations that depend only on the mass and stiffness of the
system and how they are distributed. A normal mode oscillation is defined as one in which
each mass of the system undergoes harmonic motion of same frequency and passes the
equilibrium position simultaneously.
The study of two-dof- systems is important because one may extend the same concepts used in
these cases to more than 2-dof- systems. Also in these cases one can easily obtain analytical or
closed-form solutions. But for more degrees of freedom systems numerical analysis using
computer is required to find natural frequencies (eigenvalues) and mode shapes (eigenvectors).
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 20
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 21
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 22
Example 2
Consider a lathe machine, which can be modeled as a rigid bar with its center of mass not
coinciding with its geometric center and supported by two springs k1, k2.
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 23
Now depending on the position of point C, few cases can are studied below.
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 24
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 25
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 26
Damped-free vibration of two-dof systems
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 27
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 28
SEMI-DEFINITE SYSTEMS
The systems with have one of their natural frequencies equal to zero are known as semi-definite or
degenerate systems. One can show that the following two systems are degenerate systems.
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 29
So for non-zero values of A1, A2
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 30
Tuned Vibration Absorber
Consider a vibrating system of mass m1, stiffness k1, subjected to a force F sinωt. As studied in
case of forced vibration of single-degree of freedom system, the system will
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 31
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 32
METHODS TO DETERMINE EQUATION OF MOTION
To determine the equation of motion basically one may use either the vector approach with the
Newtonian approach or d’Alembert principle based on free body diagram or one may go for scalar
approach using the energy concept. In scalar approach one may use Lagrange method, which is a
differential procedure or extended Hamilton’s principle based on integral procedure. Different
methods/laws/principle used to determine the equations of motion of the vibrating systems are
summarized below.
d’Alembert Principle
The vectorial sum of the external forces and the inertia forces acting on a moving system is zero
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 33
Extended Hamilton’s Principle
SME 1306 -THEORY OF VIBRATIONS, by Elphej Churchil S J, Aero Dept - Sathyabama University Page 34
Lagrange Principle
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