CHAPTER-1: INTRODUCTION TO VIBRATIONS

1.1 Why we study Vibrations??

 Basic Concepts of Vibrations

 Why we are studying Vibrations in Engineering?
 Important Definitions.
 Types of Vibrations.
 Parts of a Vibrating System.
 Methods of Vibration analysis.
1.2 Kinematics of Vibrations.
1. Periodic & Harmonic Motion.
2. Solving Different Harmonic functions (Addition of Harmonic Motions)

 Trigonometric Method (Analytical Method).

 Graphical Method (Vector Method).
 Complex Number Method.
3. Orthogonal Functions.
1. Basic Concepts of Vibrations:
Generally all bodies having Mass and Elasticity are capable of vibration. The mass is inherent
of the body and elasticity causes relative motion among its parts. When body particles are
displaced by the application of external force, the internal forces in the form of elastic energy
are present in the body. These forces tries to bring the body to its original position. At
equilibrium position, the whole of the elastic energy is converted into KE and the body
continues to move in the opposite direction because of it. The whole of the KE is again
converted into elastic or strain energy due to which the body again returns to the equilibrium
position. In this way, Vibratory motion is repeated indefinitely and exchange of energy takes
place. It means "Any motion that repeats itself after an interval of time is called
vibration or oscillation".
The swinging of a pendulum and the motion of a plucked string are typical examples of
vibration.

Fig 1.1: Simple Pendulum

What are the main reasons for vibrations of a system??

1. Unbalanced centrifugal force in the system. This is caused because of Non-uniform

material distribution in a rotating machine element.

2. Elastic Nature of the system.

3. External Excitation applied on the system.

4. Winds may cause vibrations of certain systems such as electric lines, telephone lines etc...

2. Why we are studying Vibrations in Engineering?

The structures designed to support the high speed engines & turbines are subjected to
vibration. Due to faulty design and poor manufacture there is unbalance in the engines which
cause excessive and unpleasant stresses in the rotating system because of vibration. The
vibration causes rapid wear of machine parts such as bearings and gears. Unwanted vibrations
may cause loosening of parts from the machine. Because of improper design or material
distributions, the wheels of locomotive can leave the truck due to excessive vibration which
results in accident or heavy loss. Even many buildings, structures & bridges falls because of
vibration. If resonance occurs very dangerous oscillations will occur which may result in
mechanical failure of the system.
Some times because of heavy vibrations proper readings of instruments cannot be taken.
Excessive vibration is very dangerous to human beings. Thus keeping in view all these
devastating effects, the study of vibration is essential in engineering to minimize the
vibrational effects over mechanical components by designing them suitably.

Vibrations can be used for useful purposes such as vibration testing equipments, Vibratory
conveyors, Hoppers, sieves and compactors. Vibrations are also useful in improving the
efficiency of machining, casting and forging etc. Vibrations are useful in propagation of
sound.

Thus undesirable vibrations should be eliminated or reduced up to certain extent by the

following methods.

 Removing external excitation if possible

 Using shock absorbers; Dynamic absorbers
 Resting the system on proper vibration isolators.

3. Important Definitions:

 Periodic Motion: A motion which repeats itself after equal interval of time.
 Time Period (τ): Time taken to complete one cycle. Where τ = 2π/ω
 Frequency (f): Number of cycles per unit time. f= 1/τ = ω/2π Hz
 Amplitude (A): The maximum displacement of a vibrating body from its equilibrium
position.
 Natural Frequency: When no external excitation acts on the system after giving it
an initial displacement, the body vibrates. These vibrations are called free vibrations
and their frequency as natural frequency. Units are Rad/sec or Hertz.
 Fundamental Mode of Vibration: The Fundamental Mode of Vibration of a system
is the mode having lowest natural frequency.
 Degree of Freedom: The Minimum no of independent coordinates required to
specify the motion of a system at any instant.

Fig1.2 : a. 1 DOF b. 2 DOF c. 3 DOF

Fig 1.3: Single Degree of freedom systems

Fig 1.4: Two Degree of freedom systems

Fig 1.5: Three Degree of freedom systems

Fig 1.6: Infinite Degree of freedom systems

In general, it is equal to the number of independent displacements that are possible. This
number varies from 0 to Infinity. From the above figures we can observe 1 DOF, 2 DOF, 3
DOF and Infinite DOF systems.

In single DOF system there is only one independent coordinate (x1) to specify the
configuration as shown in Fig 2.0 (a).

Similarly there are two (x1, x2), and 3 coordinates (x1, x2 and x3) for 2 and 3 DOF systems
shown in Fig 2.0 (b) & (c).

A Cantilever Beam as shown in fig 2.4 has infinity DOF.

 Simple Harmonic Motion: The motion of a body to and fro about a fixed point is called
SHM. The motion is periodic and its acceleration is always directed towards the mean
position and is proportional to its distance from mean position. The FIG 1 is a simple
example for SHM.

Let a body having SHM is represented by the equation

X= A Sin ωt ---------------- (1)

𝑋̇ = Aω cos ωt ---------------- (2)
𝑋̈ = -Aω2sin ωt i.e., 𝑋̈ = -ω2X -------------- (3)

Where X, 𝑋̇, 𝑋̈ represents the displacement, velocity and acceleration of the body
respectively.

 DAMPING: It is the resistance to the motion of a Vibrating Body. The Vibrations

associated with this resistance are called damped vibrations.

 Phase Difference: Suppose there are 2 Vectors X1 & X2 having frequencies ω rad/sec
each. The vibrating motions can be expressed as:

X1= A1 Sin ωt ---------------- (1)

X2= A2 Sin (ωt + φ) --------------- (2)

In the above equation the term φ is known as Phase difference.

 Resonance: When the frequency of external excitation is equal to the natural frequency
of the vibrating body, the amplitude of vibration becomes excessively large. This concept
is called Resonance.
 Mechanical Systems: The system consisting of Stiffness, mass and a damper are known
as mechanical system.
 Continuous and Discrete Systems: Most of the mechanical systems including elastic
members which have infinite number of DOF. Such systems are called Continuous
systems or distributed systems.
Examples: Cantilever Beam (FIG 2.4), Simply supported Beams etc.....
Systems having finite number of DOF are called Discrete or Lumped systems.
Example: Fig 2.0 to Fig 2.3
4. Types of Vibrations:

 Free & Forced Vibrations:

If a system, after an initial disturbance, is left to vibrate on its own, the ensuing vibration is
known as free vibration. No external force acts on the system.

The oscillation of a simple pendulum is an example of free vibration.

If a system is subjected to an external force (often, a repeating type of force), the resulting
vibration is known as forced vibration. The oscillation that arises in machines such as diesel
engines is an example of forced vibration.

If the frequency of the external force coincides with one of the natural frequencies of the
system, a condition known as resonance occurs, and the system undergoes dangerously large
oscillations. Failures of such structures as buildings, bridges, turbines, and airplane wings
have been associated with the occurrence of resonance.

 Damped & Undamped Vibrations:

If the Vibratory system has a damper, the motion of the system will be opposed by it and the
energy of the system will be dissipated in friction. These type of Vibrations are called
Damped Vibrations.

On the Contrary, The system having No damper is called Un-damped vibration.

 Linear & Non linear Vibrations:

If in a Vibratory system mass, spring and damper behave in a linear manner, the vibrations
caused are known as linear vibrations. These Vibrations are governed by linear differential
equations. They follow the law of super position.

If any one of the Basic component of a vibrating system behaves non-linearly, the vibration is
called Non linear vibration.

Linear Vibration becomes non-linear for very large amplitude of vibrations and they do not
follow law of super position.

 Deterministic and Random Vibrations:

If in the vibratory system the amount of external excitation is known in magnitude, It causes
deterministic Vibrations.

Contrary to it the non-deterministic vibrations are called Random Vibrations.

 Fig 2.5: Deterministic and random excitations.

 Longitudinal, Transverse and Torsional Vibrations:

Fig 1.7: Vibrations in Spindle

Fig 2.6 represents a body of mass m carried on one end of a weightless spindle, the other end
being fixed.

If the mass m moves up and down parallel to the spindle axis, it is said to execute
Longitudinal Vibrations as shown in 1st Figure.

When the particles of the body or shaft moves approximately Perpendicular to the axis of the
shaft, the vibrations caused are called Transverse as shown in 2nd Figure.

If the spindle gets alternately twisted and untwisted on account of vibratory motion of the
suspended disc, it is called undergoing Torsional vibrations as shown in 3rd figure.

 Transient Vibrations:

In Ideal systems the free vibrations continue indefinitely as there is no damping. The
amplitude of vibration decays continuously because of damping (in a real system) and
vanishes ultimately. Such vibrations in real system are called Transient Vibrations.
5. Parts of a Vibrating System:

Fig 1.8: Vibrating System

A vibratory system basically consists of 3 elements, namely the mass, the spring and a
damper. In a vibrating body there is exchange of energy from one form to another form.
1
Energy is stored by the mass in the form of K.E. ( 2 m𝑥̇ 2), in the spring in the form of
1
potential energy ( 2 kx2) and dissipated in the damper in the form of heat energy which
oppose the motion of the system.

Energy enters the system with the application of external force called excitation. The
excitation disturbs the mass from its mean position and the mass goes up and down from the
mean position. The KE is converted into PE and the PE into KE. This sequence goes on
repeating and the system continues to vibrate. At the same time damping force C 𝑥̇ acts on
the mass and opposes its motion. Thus some energy is dissipated in each cycle of vibration
due to damping. The free vibrations die out and the system remains at its static equilibrium.

The equation of motion of such a vibratory system can be written as:

m 𝑥̈ + C 𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0

Where C 𝑥̇ is damping force 𝑘𝑥 is spring force m 𝑥̈ is inertia force.

6. Methods of Vibration Analysis:

Generally we are using 3 Methods for vibration analysis.
1. Energy Method 2. Rayleigh Method 3. Equilibrium Method

1. Energy Method:
According to this method the sum of the energies associated with the system is constant.
Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy = Constant
K.E. + P.E. = Constant
𝑑 1 1
𝑑𝑡
(2 𝑚𝑥̇ 2 + 2 𝑘𝑥 2 ) = 0 ⇒ 𝑚𝑥̇ 𝑥̈ + 𝑘𝑥𝑥̇ = 0 ⇒ 𝑚 𝑥̈ + 𝑘𝑥 = 0

This is the equation of motion.

If the motion is Simple Harmonic given as

𝑥 = 𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡) ⇒ 𝑥̈ = −𝐴𝜔2 sin(𝜔𝑡)

Then – 𝑚𝐴𝜔2 sin(𝜔𝑡) + 𝑘𝐴 sin(𝜔𝑡) = 0
𝑘 1 𝑘
Thus 𝜔 = √𝑚 𝑟𝑎𝑑⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 ⇒ 𝑓 = √ 𝐻𝑧
2𝜋 𝑚

2. Rayleigh Method:

This method is extension of energy method. The method is based on the principle that the
total energy of a vibrating system is equal to the maximum potential energy.

At any moment total energy is either the KE or PE or the sum of the both. Let us say the KE
can be expressed as

1 1
(𝐾. 𝐸. )𝑀𝑎𝑥 = ( 𝑚𝑥̇ 2 ) = 𝑚 (𝜔𝐴)2
2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 2

1 1
(𝑃. 𝐸. )𝑀𝑎𝑥 = ( 𝑘𝑥 2 ) = 𝑘𝐴2
2 𝑚𝑎𝑥 2

𝑘 1 𝑘
⇒ 𝑚 (𝜔𝐴)2 = 𝑘𝐴2 ⇒ 𝑚𝜔2 = 𝑘 ⇒ 𝜔 = √ 𝑟𝑎𝑑⁄𝑠𝑒𝑐 ⇒ 𝑓 = √ 𝐻𝑧
𝑚 2𝜋 𝑚

3. Equilibrium Method:

According to this method the sum of the forces and moments acting on the system must be
ZERO.

If the external force acting on the system is F, spring force 𝑘𝑥, Damping force C 𝑥̇ and inertia
force m 𝑥̈ , then the equation of motion can be written as

m 𝑥̈ + C 𝑥̇ + 𝑘𝑥 = F

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KINEMATICS OF VIBRATIONS

1. Periodic & Harmonic Motion:

The motion which repeats itself after an equal interval of time is called periodic motion. The
equal interval time is called time period. If we consider a motion of the type X1= A1 Sin ωt,
here ω is natural frequency and the motion will be repeated after 2π/ω time.

The Harmonic motion is one of the form of periodic motion. The Harmonic motion is
represented in terms of circular sine & cosine functions. All harmonic motions are periodic in
nature but vice-versa is not always true.
 Fig 1.9: Scotch yoke mechanism.

The motion imparted to the mass m due to the Scotch yoke mechanism shown in Fig. 2.8 is
an example of simple harmonic motion. In this system, a crank of radius A rotates about the
point O. The other end of the crank, P, slides in a slotted rod, which reciprocates in the
vertical guide R. When the crank rotates at an angular velocity the end point ω, the end point
S of the slotted link and hence the mass m of the spring-mass system are displaced from their
middle positions by an amount x (in time t) given by
X= A sin 𝜃= A Sin ωt Where X is displacement and A is
amplitude.

The velocity is given as

It can be seen that the acceleration is directly proportional to the displacement. Such a
vibration, with the acceleration proportional to the displacement and directed toward the
mean position, is known as simple harmonic motion.

2. Solving Different Harmonic functions (Addition of Harmonic Motions)

1. By Using Trigonometric Relations:

When we add two harmonic motions of the same frequency, we get the resultant motion as
harmonic. Let us have two harmonic motions of amplitudes A1 & A2, the same frequency ω
and phase difference φ as

X1= A1 Sin ωt -------------------- (1)

X2= A2 Sin (ωt + φ) -------------------- (2)

The resultant motion is given by adding the above equations

X= X1 + X2 = A1 Sin ωt + A2 Sin (ωt + φ )

= A1 Sin ωt + A2 (Sin ωt cos φ + cos ωt Sin φ)

= A1 Sin ωt + A2 Sin ωt cos φ + A2 cos ωt Sin φ

= Sin ωt (A1 + A2 cos φ) + A2 cos ωt Sin φ -------------------- (3)

Let A1 + A2 cos φ = A Cos 𝜃 & A2 Sin φ = A sin 𝜃 ----------------------- (4)

Now the equation (3) can be written as

X= A Sin ωt cos 𝜃 + A Sin 𝜃 cos ωt = A Sin (ωt + 𝜃 ) -------------------------- (5)

The above equation shows that the resultant displacement is also SHM of amplitude A and
phase Θ. To find out the value of A, squaring and adding eq (5), we will get

The resultant phase difference can be determined from the equation (5) as

𝐴2 sin 𝜙 𝐴2 sin 𝜙
tan 𝜃 = ⇒ 𝜃 = tan−1 ( )
𝐴1 + 𝐴2 cos 𝜙 𝐴1 + 𝐴2 cos 𝜙

2. Graphical Method (Vector Method):

When we add two harmonic motions of the same frequency, we get the resultant motion as
harmonic. Let us have two harmonic motions of
amplitudes A1 & A2, the same frequency ω and phase
difference φ as

X1= A1 Sin ωt -------------------- (1)

X2= A2 Sin (ωt + φ) ------------- (2)

1. With O as centre Draw Longitudinal axis (OX) and

Lateral Axis (OY).

2. With OX as Base with A1 as amplitude, with ωt as inclination draw a line O A1.

3. With OX as Base with A2 as amplitude, with φ as inclination draw a line O A2.

4. From A1 Draw a Line Parallel to OA2 & Similarly from A2 draw a Line parallel to O A1.

5. Both are intersecting at C.

6. Join OC which will give resultant motion amplitude A which makes an angle Θ with OX
axis.

3. Complex Number Method:

Suppose a vector X be represented as a complex number

X = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 ---------- (1)

Where 𝑖 = √−1 and 𝑥 and 𝑦 denote the real and

imaginary components of X respectively.

From the above figure, 𝑥 and 𝑦 are known as the real and imaginary parts of Vector X. If the
vector X makes an angle θ with the x-axis, it can be written as

X = A Cos θ + i Sin θ = A eiθ ----------- (1)

Where A is the modulus or the absolute value of the vector X.
The relation shown in eq (1) is called Euler's formula.
𝑦
Now θ = tan−1 (𝑥 ) ------- (2)

Velocity can be determined by differentiating eq (1) with respect to time as

𝑑𝑥
𝑥̇ = 𝑑𝑡 = i A ω eiωt (since θ = ωt)

= i ω A eiωt =iωX This is known as Velocity vector

Again differentiating we get,
𝑥̈ = i2 ω2 A eiωt => - ω2 A eiωt => - ω2 X This is known as Acceleration vector and its
amplitude is ω2 X.

From the above figure it is shown that the velocity vector leads the displacement by 90 0 & the
acceleration vector leads the displacement by 180 0. All the vectors with constant angular
velocity rotate in the same direction (anti clock wise).

3. Orthogonal functions:
Consider the set of functions f1(x), f2(x), f3(x), …………., fn(x), …………., fm(x) defined
such that
𝑏 𝑏
∫𝑎 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥 ) 𝑓𝑚 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 0 𝑖𝑓(𝑚 ≠ 𝑛) ∫𝑎 𝑓𝑛 (𝑥 ) 𝑓𝑚 (𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = 𝜆 𝑖𝑓 (𝑚 = 𝑛)

Where 𝜆 is non-zero quantity and

𝑚 = 1,2,3 … … … ..
𝑛 = 1,2,3 … … … ..

The above functions are termed as orthogonal functions.

Certain relations of Fourier series are orthogonal in nature such as
𝜋
0 𝑛≠𝑚
∫ sin 𝑛𝜃 sin 𝑚𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ( )
𝜋 𝑛=𝑚
−𝜋

𝜋
0 𝑛≠𝑚
∫ cos 𝑛𝜃 cos 𝑚𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ( )
𝜋 𝑛=𝑚
−𝜋

𝜋
0 𝑛≠𝑚
∫ sin 𝑛𝜃 cos 𝑚𝜃 𝑑𝜃 = ( )
𝜋 𝑛=𝑚
−𝜋