7.1 Salinization 7.2 Salinity 7.3 Crops and Saline Soils 7.4 Sodicity 7.5 Improvement of Saline and Sodic Soils 7.6 Prevention of Salinization

CHAPTER 7 - SALTY SOILS
7.1 Salinization
7.2 Salinity
7.3 Crops and saline soils
7.4 Sodicity
7.5 Improvement of saline and sodic soils
7.6 Prevention of salinization
7.1 Salinization
A soil may be rich in salts because the parent rock from which it
was formed contains salts. Sea water is another source of salts in
low-lying areas along the coast. A very common source of salts in
irrigated soils is the irrigation water itself. Most irrigation waters
contain some salts.
After irrigation, the water added to the soil is used by the crop or
evaporates directly from the moist soil. The salt, however, is left
behind in the soil. If not removed, it accumulates in the soil; this
process is called salinization (see Fig. 102). Very salty soils are
sometimes recognizable by a white layer of dry salt on the soil
surface.
Fig. 102. Salinization, caused by salty irrigation water
Salty groundwater may also contribute to salinization. When the

water table rises (e.g. following irrigation in the absence of proper
drainage), the salty groundwater may reach the upper soil layers
and, thus, supply salts to the rootzone (see Fig. 103).
Fig. 103. Salinization, caused by a high
Soils that contain a harmful amount of salt are often referred to as

salty or saline soils. Soil, or water, that has a high content of salt
is said to have a high salinity.
7.2 Salinity
7.2.1 Water salinity

7.2.2 Soil salinity
7.2.1 Water salinity
Water salinity is the amount of salt contained in the water. It is

also called the "salt concentration" and may be expressed in
grams of salt per litre of water (grams/litre or g/l) (see Fig. 104), or
in milligrams per litre (which is the same as parts per million,
p.p.m). However, the salinity of both water and soil is easily
measured by means of an electrical device. It is then expressed in
terms of electrical conductivity: millimhos/cm or micromhos/cm. A
salt concentration of 1 gram per litre is about 1.5 millimhos/cm.
Thus a concentration of 3 grams per litre will be about the same
as 4.5 millimhos/cm.
Fig. 104. A salt concentration of 10 g/l
7.2.2 Soil salinity
The salt concentration in the water extracted from a saturated soil

(called saturation extract) defines the salinity of this soil. If this
water contains less than 3 grams of salt per litre, the soil is said to
be non saline (see Table below). If the salt concentration of the
saturation extract contains more than 12 g/l, the soil is said to be
highly saline.
Salt concentration of the soil water (saturation extract)
Salinity
in g/l
in millimhos/cm
0-3
0 - 4.5
non saline
3-6
4.5 - 9
slightly saline
6 - 12
9 - 18
medium saline
more than 12
more than 18
highly saline
7.3 Crops and saline soils
Most crops do not grow well on soils that contain salts.

One reason is that salt causes a reduction in the rate and amount
of water that the plant roots can take up from the soil (see Fig.
105). Also, some salts are toxic to plants when present in high
concentration.
Fig. 105. A high salt concentration in the soil is harmful for
the plants as the water uptake is reduced
Some plants are more tolerant to a high salt concentration than

others. Some examples are given in the following table:
Highly tolerant
Moderately tolerant
Sensitive
Date palm
Wheat
Red clover
Barley
Tomato
Peas
Sugarbeet
Oats
Beans
Cotton
Alfalfa
Sugarcane
Asparagus
Rice
Pear
Spinach
Maize
Apple
Flax
Orange
Potatoes
Prune
Carrot
Plum
Onion
Almond
Cucumber
Apricot
Pomegranate
Peach
Fig
Olive
Grape
The highly tolerant crops can withstand a salt concentration of the

saturation extract up to 10 g/l. The moderately tolerant crops can
withstand salt concentration up to 5 g/l. The limit of the sensitive
group is about 2.5 g/l.
7.4 Sodicity
Salty soils usually contain several types of salt. One of these is

sodium salt. Where the concentration of sodium salts is high
relative to other types of salt, a sodic soil may develop. Sodic
soils are characterized by a poor soil structure: they have a low
infiltration rate, they are poorly aerated and difficult to cultivate.
Thus, sodic soils adversely affect the plants' growth.
7.5 Improvement of saline and sodic soils
7.5.1 Improvement of saline soils

7.5.2 Improvement of sodic soils
Numerous areas in the world are naturally saline or sodic or have

become saline due to improper irrigation practices. Crop growth
on many of these is poor. However, their productivity can be
improved by a number of measures.
7.5.1 Improvement of saline soils
Improvement of a saline soil implies the reduction of the salt

concentration of the soil to a level that is not harmful to the crops.
To that end, more water is applied to the field than is required for
crop growth. This additional water infiltrates into the soil and
percolates through the rootzone. During percolation, it takes up

part of the salts in the soil and takes these along to deeper soil
layers. In fact, the water washes the salts out of the rootzone.
This washing process is called leaching (see Fig. 106).
Fig. 106. Leaching of salts
The additional water required for leaching must be removed from

the rootzone by means of a subsurface drainage system (Chapter
6). If not removed, it could cause a rise of the groundwater table
which would bring the salts back into the rootzone. Thus,
improvement of saline soils includes, essentially, leaching and
sub-surface drainage.
7.5.2 Improvement of sodic soils
Improvement of sodic soils implies the reduction of the amount of

sodium present in the soil. This is done in two stages. Firstly,
chemicals (such as gypsum), which are rich in calcium, are mixed
with the soil; the calcium replaces the sodium. Then, the replaced
sodium is leached from the rootzone by irrigation water.
7.6 Prevention of salinization
7.6.1 Irrigation water quality

7.6.2 Irrigation management and drainage
Soils will become salty if salts are allowed to accumulate. Proper

irrigation management and adequate drainage are not only
important measures for the improvement of salty soils, they are
also essential for the prevention of salinization.
7.6.1 Irrigation water quality
The suitability of water for irrigation depends on the amount and

the type of salt the irrigation water contains. The higher the salt
concentration of the irrigation water, the greater the risk of
salinization. The following Table gives an idea of the risk of
salinization:
Salt concentration of the irrigation
water in g/l
Soil salinization
risk
Restriction on use
less than 0.5 g/l
no risk
no restriction on its use
0.5 - 2 g/l
slight to moderate should be used with appropriate water

risk
management practices
more than 2 g/l
high risk
not generally advised for use unless consulted

with specialists
The type of salt in the irrigation water will influence the risk of
developing sodicity: the higher the concentration of sodium
present in the irrigation water (particularly compared to other
soils), the higher the risk.
7.6.2 Irrigation management and drainage
Irrigation systems are never fully efficient. Some water is always

lost in canals and on the farmers' fields. Part of this seeps into the
soil. While this will help leach salt out of the rootzone, it will also
contribute to a rise of the water table; a high water table is risky
because it may cause the salts to return to the rootzone.
Therefore, both the water losses and the water table must be
strictly controlled. This requires careful management of the
irrigation system and a good subsurface drainage system.

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CHAPTER 7 - SALTY SOILS

Salty groundwater may also contribute to salinization. When the

Soils that contain a harmful amount of salt are often referred to as

7.2.1 Water salinity

7.2.1 Water salinity

Water salinity is the amount of salt contained in the water. It is

7.2.2 Soil salinity

The salt concentration in the water extracted from a saturated soil

7.3 Crops and saline soils

Most crops do not grow well on soils that contain salts.

Some plants are more tolerant to a high salt concentration than

The highly tolerant crops can withstand a salt concentration of the

Salty soils usually contain several types of salt. One of these is

7.5.1 Improvement of saline soils

Numerous areas in the world are naturally saline or sodic or have

Improvement of a saline soil implies the reduction of the salt

percolates through the rootzone. During percolation, it takes up

The additional water required for leaching must be removed from

Improvement of sodic soils implies the reduction of the amount of

7.6.1 Irrigation water quality

Soils will become salty if salts are allowed to accumulate. Proper

The suitability of water for irrigation depends on the amount and

less than 0.5 g/l

no restriction on its use

slight to moderate should be used with appropriate water

more than 2 g/l

not generally advised for use unless consulted

Irrigation systems are never fully efficient. Some water is always

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