Seminario 11 Inmuno

REVIEW ARTICLE
published: 19 April 2012

doi: 10.3389/mmu.2012.00073
Innate immunity and resistance to tolerogenesis in

allotransplantation
Gilles Benichou 1,2 , Makoto Tonsho 1,2 , Georges Tocco 1,2 , Ognjenka Nadazdin 1,2 and Joren C. Madsen 1,2 *
1
2
Transplant Research Center, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Department of Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
Edited by:
Xian Chang Li, Brigham and Womens
Hospital, USA
Reviewed by:
Joan Stein-Streilein, Schepens Eye
Research Institute, USA
Zhibin Chen, University of Miami
Miller School of Medicine, USA
*Correspondence:
Joren C. Madsen, Massachusetts
General Hospital, Cox 654, 55 Fruit
Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
e-mail: jcmadsen@partners.org
The development of immunosuppressive drugs to control adaptive immune responses has

led to the success of transplantation as a therapy for end-stage organ failure. However,
these agents are largely ineffective in suppressing components of the innate immune system. This distinction has gained in clinical signicance as mounting evidence now indicates
that innate immune responses play important roles in the acute and chronic rejection of
whole organ allografts. For instance, whereas clinical interest in natural killer (NK) cells was
once largely conned to the eld of bone marrow transplantation, recent ndings suggest
that these cells can also participate in the acute rejection of cardiac allografts and prevent
tolerance induction. Stimulation of Toll-like receptors (TLRs), another important component
of innate immunity, by endogenous ligands released in response to ischemia/reperfusion
is now known to cause an inammatory milieu favorable to graft rejection and abrogation
of tolerance. Emerging data suggest that activation of complement is linked to acute rejection and interferes with tolerance. In summary, the conventional wisdom that the innate
immune system is of little importance in whole organ transplantation is no longer tenable.
The addition of strategies that target TLRs, NK cells, complement, and other components
of the innate immune system will be necessary to eventually achieve long-term tolerance
to human allograft recipients.
Keywords: innate immunity, tolerance, transplantation, allografts, rejection
INTRODUCTION
Colossal advances over the past decades with the use of immunosuppressive drugs have signicantly enhanced the early survival of
allogeneic organs and tissues in clinical transplantation (Cecka,
1998; Opelz et al., 1999; Opelz and Dohler, 2008a,b). Nevertheless, longer term success rates remain disappointing due to
treatment-related complications and chronic allograft rejection, a
process characterized by perivascular inammation, tissue brosis, and luminal occlusion of graft blood vessels (Hayry et al.,
1993; Hosenpud et al., 1997; Russell et al., 1997; Kean et al., 2006).
This stresses the need for the development of selective immunetherapies designed to achieve transplantation tolerance dened
as indenite graft survival in the absence of immunosuppression and graft vasculopathy (Billingham et al., 1953; Owen et al.,
1954). While tolerance to some solid organ allografts has been
accomplished in several experimental rodent models, consistent
establishment of tolerance in patients still remains an elusive goal.
It is rmly established that the potent adaptive immune responses
initiated by pro-inammatory T cells activated via direct and indirect pathways in the hosts secondary lymphoid organs are both
necessary and sufcient to ensure acute rejection of most allografts (Benichou et al., 1992, 1999; Fangmann et al., 1993; Sayegh
et al., 1994; Auchincloss and Sultan, 1996; Lee et al., 1997; Waaga
et al., 1997). At the same time, it is now rmly established that
the presence of alloreactive memory T cells or donor-specic antibodies in so-called sensitized recipients represents a formidable
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barrier to transplant tolerance induction (Adams et al., 2003a; Taylor et al., 2004; Valujskikh, 2006; Koyama et al., 2007; Weaver et al.,
2009; Nadazdin et al., 2010, 2011; Yamada et al., 2011). Indeed,
much effort is currently devoted to the elimination or inhibition
of donor-specic memory T cells (TMEM) in primates, which,
unlike laboratory mice, display high frequencies of alloreactive
TMEM prior to transplantation (Nadazdin et al., 2010, 2011).
Altogether, the majority of transplant immunologists have focused
their efforts on the deletion and/or inactivation of alloreactive T
and B cells, pre-transplantation. On the other hand, recent studies
have proven beyond doubt that innate immunity is also an essential
element of both acute and chronic rejection of allo- and xenografts
(LaRosa et al., 2007; Alegre et al., 2008a,b; Alegre and Chong, 2009;
Li, 2010; Goldstein, 2011; Murphy et al., 2011). Innate immune
responses are initiated as a consequence of reperfusion injury,
inammation, tissue damage, and presumably microbial infections occurring at the time of transplantation (Figure 1). Different
cells of the innate immune system can contribute to the rejection
process both directly via secretion of soluble factors and destruction of donor grafted cells as well as indirectly by initiating or
enhancing adaptive immune alloresponses while impairing the
activation/expansion of protective regulatory T cells (Figure 1). At
the same time, there is increasing evidence suggesting that different
cells and molecules associated with innate immunity can hinder
tolerance induction to allografts and xenografts (LaRosa et al.,
2007; Alegre et al., 2008b; Wang et al., 2008; Murphy et al., 2011).
April 2012 | Volume 3 | Article 73 | 1
Benichou et al.
FIGURE 1 | Leukocytes and major cytokines involved in the innate

immune response after allotransplantation.
At rst glance, it can be speculated that all cells and molecules

mediating graft rejection can potentially prevent tolerogenesis.
However, immune rejection and tolerance resistance do not necessarily involve the same mechanisms and these two processes are
likely to differ in nature and magnitude. This article reviews some
of the mechanisms by which innate immunity can interfere with
establishment or maintenance of tolerance to allogeneic transplants, an issue that is essential to the design of novel tolerance
strategies in transplantation.
RECEPTORS AND SOLUBLE MEDIATORS OF THE INNATE

IMMUNE SYSTEM
TOLL-LIKE RECEPTORS
Lymphocytes recognize exquisitely a vast array of molecular motifs

via their antigen receptors generated through somatic recombination of gene segments during development. In contrast, cells of
the innate immune system interact with a few conserved molecules expressed by microorganisms referred to as pathogenassociated molecular patterns (PAMPs; Medzhitov, 2001;
Frontiers in Immunology | Immunological Tolerance
Innate immunity and tolerance resistance
Medzhitov and Janeway, 2002). Among these pattern-recognition

receptors (PRRs; Medzhitov, 2001; Elmaagacli et al., 2006;
Uematsu and Akira, 2007), the Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have
been extensively characterized and studied for their role in the initiation and amplication of innate immune responses (Iwasaki
and Medzhitov, 2004; Pasare and Medzhitov, 2005). In addition, there is increasing evidence that tissue injury is associated
with the delivery of signal delivered through TLRs by so-called
damage-associated molecular patterns or DAMPs (Alegre et al.,
2008a,b).
Until now, 10 different TLRs have been identied in humans
(13 in mice), including TLRs 1, 2, 4, 5, and 6 expressed on the cell
surface and TLRs 3, 7, 8, and 9 found in endosomal compartments
(Rehli, 2002; Akira and Takeda, 2004; Akira et al., 2006). TLR1
is ubiquitously expressed while the other TLRs exhibit different
expression patterns depending upon the type of leukocyte (Muzio
et al., 2000; McCurdy et al., 2001; Hornung et al., 2002; Zarember
and Godowski, 2002; Bourke et al., 2003; Caramalho et al., 2003;
Hayashi et al., 2003; Nagase et al., 2003; Hart et al., 2005; Liu et al.,
2006). On the other hand, all TLRs are expressed by epithelial cells
while TLRs 510 are found in endothelial cells (Frantz et al., 1999)
and other graft parenchymal cells depending upon the nature of
the organ. All TLRs transduce their signal though the adapterprotein MyD88 (Barton and Medzhitov, 2003; Akira and Takeda,
2004) with the exception of TLR3 which uses the Toll-IL-1R (TIR)
inducing IFN protein, TRIF (Frantz et al., 1999, 2001; Faure et al.,
2000; Tsuboi et al., 2002; Harada et al., 2003; Mempel et al., 2003;
Sukkar et al., 2006). TLR4 uses both MyD88 and TRIF during cell
activation (Sakaguchi et al., 2003; Goriely et al., 2006; Molle et al.,
2007). While the primary functions of TLRs is to ensure early
detection of microbes and their products, these receptors have
been shown to recognize autologous molecules expressed during
the course of inammatory processes such as nucleic acids released
by necrotic cells, products of degraded extracellular matrices, heat
shock proteins (HSP60 and HSP70 via TLR2 and TLR4; Asea,
2008), high mobility group box chromosomal protein 1 (TLRs 2,
4, and 9), and hyaluronan (TLR signaling via TIRAP; Mollen et al.,
2006; Tesar et al., 2006; Ivanov et al., 2007; Kanzler et al., 2007; Tian
et al., 2007). Transplant surgical procedures, which are associated
with tissue damage and reperfusion injury trigger inammatory
reactions engaging the delivery of signals through TLRs and subsequent initiation of potent innate immune responses at the graft
site. In addition, maturation and activation of donor and recipient
dendritic cells (DCs) and other cells of the innate immune system
via TLR ligation is essential to their ability to initiate and amplify
adaptive immunity. This process involves the secretion of proinammatory cytokines and chemokines (Shimamoto et al., 2006;
Wu et al., 2007a) and subsequent activation of antigen processing
pathways and the expression of costimulation and MHC molecules
by APCs involved in antigen presentation to T and B lymphocytes (Bluestone, 1996). Therefore, TLRs are considered to be an
essential link between innate and adaptive immunity. These observations suggest that TLRs play a key role in the initiation of innate
immune responses and the recruitment and activation of alloreactive lymphocytes associated with allograft rejection. In support of
this view, absence of MyD88 adaptor-protein in both donor and
recipient mice has led to acceptance of minor antigen-mismatched
Benichou et al.
skin allografts and prolonged survival of fully allogeneic heart and

skin transplants (Goldstein et al., 2003; Tesar et al., 2004). Furthermore, combined deciencies of MyD88 and TRIF and expressions
in donors have been shown to signicantly extend the survival of
MHC-mismatched allografts. At the same time, there is accumulating evidence showing that TLR-mediated responses can hinder
tolerance induction to allotransplants. First, it has been reported
that long-term survival of skin allografts can be achieved in mice
through costimulation blockade but only upon inhibition of TLR
signaling in both donors and recipient mice (Chen et al., 2006;
Walker et al., 2006). In another study, tolerance to cardiac allografts
induced via donor-specic transfusion (DST) combined with antiCD40L mAb-mediated costimulation blockade was prevented by
injection of the TLR9 agonist, CpG as well as the TLR2 ligand,
Pam3CysK. In this study, tolerance resistance was attributed to
increased IFN production and inhibition of graft inltration by
regulatory T cells (Chen et al., 2006). Similarly, administration
of CpG, LPS, or poly I:C which activate TLR 9, 4, and 3, respectively, prevented tolerance induction to skin allografts induced via
DST + anti-CD40L mAbs. In this model, it was observed that TLR
engagement prevented the deletion of some effector donor-specic
CD8+ T cells (Thornley et al., 2006), a process relying on type
I interferon production (Thornley et al., 2007). Finally, Turkas
group recently reported that spontaneous tolerance to MHC class
II-mismatched skin heart allografts as well as long-term acceptance
of skin allografts mediated via anti-CD40L mAb and rapamycin
cotreatment in the B6-bm12 mouse combination were both prevented by CpG administration (Porrett et al., 2008). In this study,
prevention of tolerance was dependent on IL-12 production by
APCs, which is critical to the differentiation of pro-inammatory
type 1 (Th1/CT1) immunity. Therefore, engagement of certain
TLRs at the time of transplantation can hinder tolerance induction
to allografts via concomitant enhancement of pro-inammatory
T cell responses and impairment of regulatory T cell functions.
INFLAMMATORY CYTOKINES
Certain pro-inammatory cytokines produced by cells of the

innate immune system can prevent tolerance induction to alloantigens or abrogate established tolerance of an allograft. For instance,
IL-6 and TNF deciency has been shown to render mice susceptible to transplant tolerance induction via costimulation blockade
(Walker et al., 2006; Shen and Goldstein, 2009). Apparently, IL6 and TNF contributed to prevent tolerogenesis by enhancing
pro-inammatory immunity while rendering T cells resistant to
suppression by Tregs (Walker et al., 2006; Shen and Goldstein,
2009). Likewise, type 1 interferons have been shown to confer tolerance resistance of skin allografts mediated via anti-CD154 mAb
treatment in mouse models (Thornley et al., 2007). Tolerance resistance to vascularized allografts induced via costimulation blockade
following Listeria monocytogenes infection has been shown to rely
on IFN and productions. In another study, evidence was
provided that IL-6 could prevent transplant tolerance to cardiac
allografts induced through the disruption of CD40/CD40L interactions, by promoting the differentiation and activation of CD8+
TH17 cells (Burrell et al., 2008).
IL-1 is produced constitutively and at low levels by many
epithelial cells but it is found in substantial amounts in the
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epidermis where its secretion by keratinocytes is thought to play a

key role in the immune defense against microorganisms (Palmer
et al., 2007; Arend et al., 2008; Dinarello, 2009; Gabay et al.,
2010). In addition, during inammation and sepsis, activated
macrophages, and polymorphonuclear neutrophils (PMNs) produce large amounts of IL-1 which is known to cause smooth muscle cell proliferation, secretion of TNF by endothelial cells, the
synthesis of acute phase proteins, and amplify antigen-specic and
alloreactive T and B cell responses (Rao et al., 2007, 2008; Rao and
Pober, 2008; Dinarello, 2011a). IL-1, also called lymphocyte activating factor (LAF), is primarily released by activated macrophages
during inammation (Rao et al., 2007; Netea et al., 2010; Dinarello,
2011b,c). It is involved in a variety of cellular activities, including
cell proliferation, differentiation, and apoptosis. The induction
of cyclooxygenase 2 (PTGS2/COX2) by this cytokine in various
tissues including the central nervous system (CNS) is found to
contribute to hypersensitivity reactions and pain. IL-1 and
play a role in mediating acute inammation during ischemia
reperfusion (I/R) injury after transplantation (Suzuki et al., 2001).
Ischemia and hyperoxia/anoxia both contributes to the release
of IL-1 by macrophages (from the NALP-3 inammasome), a
process leading to both necrosis and apoptosis of transplanted
cells, neutrophilic inammation and initiation, and amplication of adaptive immune responses (Wanderer, 2010). Indeed,
it has been shown that overexpression of IL-1R antagonist (IL1Ra) can confer cardioprotection against I/R injury associated
with reduction in cardiomyocyte apoptosis and decrease of neutrophil inltration and myocardial myeloperoxidase activity in
heart-transplanted rats (Suzuki et al., 2001).
There are a few reports showing that IL-1 can prevent tolerance induction to allografts. IL-1 is known to contribute to the
breakdown of self-tolerance to pancreatic autoantigens resulting
in type 1 diabetes in NOD mice (Bertin-Maghit et al., 2011). This
effect is mediated via both induction of TH17 autoimmunity and
concomitant impairment of Treg differentiation and functions.
Likewise, it has been shown that IL-1 can prevent the induction
of tolerance to islet allografts (Sandberg et al., 1993). This is supported by studies showing that continuous infusion of diabetic
mice with an IL-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1Ra) can restore normoglycemia and facilitate tolerance to islet allografts (Sandberg
et al., 1993). Similarly, alpha-1 anti-trypsin therapy (AAT) has been
shown to promote donor-specic tolerance to islet allografts in
mice via a process relying on the presence of immature DCs (iDCs)
and Tregs in the graft associated with the presence of IL-1Ra (Lewis
et al., 2008; Shahaf et al., 2011). In another set of studies by Holan
(1988), it was observed that transplantation tolerance induced via
inoculation of newborn mice with semi-allogeneic hematopoietic
cells was abolished via administration of IL-1 given at the time
of placement of skin allografts (Holan, 1988). Finally, a series of
studies from Dana and Streileins groups have shown that IL-1Rabased therapy can restore anterior chamber-associated immune
deviation (ACAID) type tolerance associated with immune privilege in the eye and acceptance of allogeneic corneal transplants
(Dana et al., 1997, 1998; Yamada et al., 1998, 2000; Dekaris et al.,
1999). Interestingly, IL-1Ra treatment in this model was shown
to abolish donor-specic DTH, reduce corneal graft inltration
by recipient Langerhans cells and abrogate second set rejection of
Benichou et al.
skin allografts suggesting an impaired antigen presentation and a

lack of systemic priming of alloreactive T cells through the indirect allorecognition pathway in draining lymph nodes (Dana et al.,
1997, 1998; Yamada et al., 1998, 2000; Dekaris et al., 1999).
CHEMOKINES
Chemokines represent an extensive family of proteins whose

function was initially associated with leukocyte chemotaxis. It
is now clear that these molecules are also involved in a variety
of biological processes including angiogenesis and hematopoiesis
(Sallusto et al., 2000). There is ample evidence showing that
chemokines play a key role in the initiation of alloantigendependent and alloantigen-independent reactions associated with
transplant injury as well as acute and chronic rejection of allografts (DeVries et al., 2003). Likewise, many studies have shown
that absence (KO mouse models) or in vivo neutralization of various chemokines or chemokine receptors, usually combined with
short-term or suboptimal calcineurin inhibitory treatment, results
in prolonged and sometimes indenite survival of allografts in
animal models (Gao et al., 2000, 2001; Hancock et al., 2000a,b; Fischereder et al., 2001; Abdi et al., 2002). These observations suggest
that chemokine release as well as leukocyte activation and migration following chemokine receptor signaling should represent a
barrier to transplant tolerance induction and/or maintenance. On
the other hand, a number of chemokines have been associated with
Treg activation and graft inltration and are clearly necessary for
tolerance induction in transplantation (DeVries et al., 2003).
the inammatory process as well as the immune response associated with the rejection of allogeneic transplants (Zhou et al., 2007;
Raedler et al., 2009; Raedler and Heeger, 2010; Vieyra and Heeger,
2010). First, many studies have demonstrated the contribution of
the complement to I/R injury following transplantation of a variety of organs including liver, kidney, and lungs (Weisman et al.,
1990; Ikai et al., 1996; Eppinger et al., 1997; Huang et al., 1999;
Zhou et al., 2000; Chan et al., 2006; Farrar et al., 2006; Patel et al.,
2006). Remarkably, mice lacking complement have been shown to
be unable to make high afnity anti-MHC antibodies after skin
transplantation. This was due to the lack of CR2 expression, a
coreceptor that is required for antigen retention by follicular DCs
(Fearon and Carroll, 2000; Marsh et al., 2001; Pratt et al., 2002).
On the other hand, the complement plays an important role in the
antigen processing presentation by DCs and controls their ability
to activate T cells in antigen-specic fashion. Finally, elegant studies from the Heegers group and others have demonstrated the role
of C3 in the activation and expansion of both CD4+ and CD8+
T cells presumably by limiting antigen-induced apoptosis (Fearon
and Carroll, 2000; Marsh et al., 2001; Pratt et al., 2002; Peng et al.,
2006, 2008; Zhou et al., 2006; Lalli et al., 2008; Strainic et al., 2008).
Altogether, these studies suggest that activation of the complement
cascade following transplantation should render tolerance difcult
to induce. In support of this view, it has been shown that blockade
of complement activation on DCs results in an increase of Treg
expansion and favors tolerance induction (Sacks et al., 2009).
CELLS OF THE INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM

THE COMPLEMENT SYSTEM
NK CELLS
The complement system is comprised of a variety of small proteins

including serum proteins, serosal proteins, and cell surface receptors (over 25 proteins and protein fragments, 5% of serum globulin
fraction) present in the blood, generally synthesized by the liver,
and normally circulating as inactive precursors (pro-proteins;
Carroll, 1998; Kang et al., 2009).
When stimulated, the proteases in the system cleave specic
proteins and subsequent cytokine release thus initiating an amplifying cascade of further cleavages. The end-result of this activation
cascade is a massive amplication of the response and activation
of the cell-killing membrane attack complex or MAC (Peitsch and
Tschopp, 1991). Three distinct pathways are involved in complement activation: the classical pathway, the alternative pathway, and
the mannose-binding lectin pathway (Sacks et al., 2009). All of
these pathways converge on C3 whose cleavage leads to the release
of soluble C3a and C5a. It is noteworthy that while 80% of C3 is
synthesized in the liver, 20% of C3 is of extra hepatic origin and
produced by resident parenchymal cells and inltrating leukocytes (Naughton et al., 1996; Tang et al., 1999; Li et al., 2007).
C3a and C5a have anaphylatoxin properties and trigger directly
mast cell degranulation and increase vascular permeability and
smooth muscle contraction. Most importantly, the complement
has opsonizing and chemotactic functions in that it enhances antigen phagocytosis and attracts macrophages and PMNs at the site
of inammation. The complement system represents an essential
component of the inammatory cascade and a major link between
innate and adaptive immunity. Likewise, there is now a body of
evidence showing that the complement is an essential element of
Natural killer (NK) cells contribute to the innate immune response

through their ability to recognize and destroy foreign cells in the
absence of antigen-specic recognition (Hamerman et al., 2005).
However, although NK cells lack expression of germline-encoded
antigen receptors, they can discriminate between self- and foreign cells via clonotypic receptors recognizing self-MHC class I
molecules. NK cell interacting with self-MHC class I expressed
on autologous cells become inactivated while lack or suboptimal
recognition of self-MHC class I molecules (missing self phenomenon) on allogeneic cells results in NK cell stimulation associated with release of pro-inammatory cytokines and cytotoxicity
(Karre et al., 1986; Ljunggren and Karre, 1990; Ljunggren et al.,
1990). This type of allorecognition has been shown to ensure
the destruction of skin grafts from donors lacking self-MHC
class I expression (b2m KO) as well as bone marrow transplants
from semi-allogeneic donors and parental donors to F1 recipients (hybrid resistance; Karlhofer et al., 1992, 2006). In addition,
recent evidence has been provided showing that NK cells also contribute to the rejection of solid organs transplants (Oertel et al.,
2000, 2001; Kitchens et al., 2006; McNerney et al., 2006; van der
Touw and Bromberg, 2010). NK cells participate in acute allograft
rejection either directly by killing donor cells through perforin,
granzymes, FasL, and TRAIL pathways (Biron et al., 1999; Smyth
et al., 2001; Takeda et al., 2001; Trapani and Smyth, 2002) or indirectly by promoting alloantigen processing and presentation by
DCs and B cells (Boehm et al., 1997) and by enhancing Type
1 T cell adaptive alloimmunity primarily though their secretion
of IFN and TNF (Martin-Fontecha et al., 2004; Yoshida et al.,
Benichou et al.
2008). Furthermore, NK cells have been shown to contribute to

the rejection process by killing regulatory T cells (Roy et al., 2008).
Finally, some recent studies have demonstrated the pivotal role
of NK cells in chronic rejection of cardiac allografts through a
process involving CD4+ T cell activation (Uehara et al., 2005a,b).
Altogether, these studies support the view that NK cells represent
an essential link between innate and adaptive immune responses
leading to acute and chronic rejection of allogeneic transplants. On
the other hand, a study from Szot et al. (2001) has demonstrated
that NK cells can also impair tolerance induction to a solid organ
transplant. In this model, injection of recipient CD28-decient
mice with anti-CD154 antibodies failed to accomplish indenite
survival of cardiac allografts. However, tolerance to heart allografts was restored upon in vivo depletion of NK cells or inhibition
of the NK activating receptor, NKGD. Apparently, NK cells activated consequently to the absence of self-MHC class I molecules
on transplanted cells could provide help (otherwise missing in
CD28KO mice) to CD8+ T cells and thereby prevented tolerance
induction (Maier et al., 2001; Kim et al., 2007).
DENDRITIC CELLS
Dendritic cells are considered as the primary link between innate

and adaptive immunity based on their ability to prime nave T
cells owing to: (1) efcient processing and presentation of antigen peptides in association with self-MHC molecules and, (2) the
delivery of key costimulation signals (Steinman and Cohn, 1973;
Austyn et al., 1983, 1988; Banchereau and Steinman, 1998; Lanzavecchia and Sallusto, 2000, 2001; Steinman et al., 2000). Actually,
the T cell alloresponse is primarily initiated through the recognition of intact donor-MHC molecules on donor DCs inltrating
the recipients secondary lymphoid organs (direct allorecognition;
Steinman and Witmer, 1978; Lechler and Batchelor, 1982; Larsen
et al., 1990a,b,c,d; Lechler et al., 1990; Larsen and Austyn, 1991).
The direct alloresponse is believed to represent the driving force
behind acute allograft rejection. Alternatively, some alloreactive T
cells become activated after recognition of donor peptides (MHC
and minor antigens) presented by self-MHC molecules on recipient DCs (indirect allorecognition; Benichou et al., 1992, 1999;
Dalchau et al., 1992; Fangmann et al., 1992; Liu et al., 1996; Sayegh
and Carpenter, 1996). The mechanisms by which recipient DCs
acquire donor alloantigens are still unknown. The direct alloresponse is believed to be short-lived due to the rapid elimination
of donor DCs, while the indirect alloresponse may be perpetuated
by continuous presentation of donor peptides by recipient APCs.
While it is clear that indirect alloreactivity is sufcient to trigger
vigorous rejection of skin allografts, whether this response plays a
signicant role in acute rejection of vascularized solid organ transplants is still open to question (Auchincloss et al., 1993; Lee et al.,
1994, 1997; Illigens et al., 2002). On the other hand, maintenance
of indirect alloresponses via continuous presentation of allopeptides by recipient DCs and endothelial cells is clearly associated
with alloantibody production, chronic inammation, and allograft vasculopathy (Suciu-Foca et al., 1996, 1998; Shirwan, 1999;
Baker et al., 2001; Lee et al., 2001; Najaan et al., 2002; Shirwan
et al., 2003; Yamada et al., 2003; Illigens et al., 2009). Finally, some
recent studies show that recipient DCs can capture donor-MHC
molecules and presumably other donor proteins from donor DCs
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and endothelial through a process called trogocytosis (Joly and

Hudrisier, 2003; Aucher et al., 2008). Theoretically, presentation
of intact allo-MHC molecules by host professional APCs could
activate some alloreactive T cells, a mechanism referred to as semidirect allorecognition. While, it has been shown that DCs having
acquired donor-MHC molecules can activate T cells in vitro and
in vivo, the actual contribution of semi-direct alloreactivity to the
alloresponse and allograft rejection is still unknown (Herrera et al.,
2004; Smyth et al., 2006, 2007).
Dendritic cells consist of a diverse population of cells characterized by a few common surface markers and some functional
characteristics (Banchereau and Steinman, 1998; Liu et al., 2009).
In addition, DC functions can differ dramatically depending upon
their degree of maturation (Steinman et al., 2003; Wilson and Villadangos, 2004). Myeloid iDCs, which have not yet encountered
antigens or become activated via PAMPs or cytokine exposure,
express low levels of MHC class II and costimulatory receptors
and are poor APCs. Presentation of alloantigens by these iDCs
has been associated with peripheral tolerance induction (Fu et al.,
1996; Dhodapkar et al., 2001; Roncarolo et al., 2001) and immune
privilege (Stein-Streilein and Streilein, 2002; Streilein et al., 2002;
Masli et al., 2006) presumably via T cell anergy (Fu et al., 1996;
Dhodapkar et al., 2001; Roncarolo et al., 2001). In contrast, DCs
(mDCS) which underwent maturation following antigen uptake
and processing in an inammatory cytokine environment or exposure to PAMPs and presumably DAMPs express high levels of
MHC class II and costimulation receptors are potent inducers of
type 1 alloimmunity after transplantation (Rogers and Lechler,
2001). Alternatively, plasmocytoid DCs (pDCs), which represent
a small population of DCs mostly located in the peripheral blood,
are thought to contribute to tolerance induction via IL-10 secretion following ICOS costimulation and presumably induction of
regulatory T cell responses (Abe et al., 2005; Liu, 2005; Ochando
et al., 2006; Ito et al., 2007; Tokita et al., 2008; Matta et al., 2010).
Finally, seminal studies by Thomson and others have shown that
physical or chemical modications of DCs can render them tolerogenic (Bacci et al., 1996; Kurimoto et al., 2000; Lu and Thomson,
2002; Thomson, 2002; Morelli and Thomson, 2003; Turnquist
et al., 2007) and ensure long-term survival to allografts upon their
in vivo transfer to recipients (Lu and Thomson, 2002; Thomson,
2002; Morelli and Thomson, 2003; Turnquist et al., 2007).
Altogether, these studies emphasize that DCs represent an
essential link between innate and adaptive alloimmunity by serving as APCs for alloantigen presentation to T cells, by providing
critical costimulation signals, and by secreting cytokines both at
the site of grafting and in the hosts lymphoid tissues and organs.
At the same time, it has become evident that the role of DCs in
the alloimmune response and rejection process is extremely complex and depends on many factors including the origin (recipient
or donor) of the DCs, the nature of the DCs, their level of maturation, and the environment in which they become activated.
It was initially assumed that donor or recipient DCs might hinder tolerance induction to allografts owing to their contribution
to the priming of alloreactive T cells and the secretion of proinammatory cytokines. Based upon this principle, many attempts
have been made to deplete DCs from transplanted tissues or from
the host prior to tolerance induction. Actually, DC depletion has
Benichou et al.
led to various and sometimes opposite outcomes depending upon

the nature of the tissue transplanted, the site of graft placement,
the method utilized to induce tolerance. For instance, depletion
of different DCs from skin transplants such as Langerhans cells
or dermal DCs can lead to opposite effects on allograft rejection
(Bobr et al., 2010; Igyarto and Kaplan, 2010; Igyarto et al., 2011).
On the overall, most studies showed that absence of DCs, either
from recipients or donors in studies using CD11C KO mice, graft
parking protocols, or antibody-mediated cell depletion, not only
regularly failed to signicantly prolong graft survival but it often
prevented tolerance induction. This further supports the view that
DCs are necessary for antigen presentation during tolerogenesis
via their ability to trigger some regulatory mechanisms resulting
in graft protection. Further studies will be needed to discriminate
between the DCs, which promote or hinder tolerance to allografts
and the mechanisms by which they determine the fate of regulatory T cell responses. Gaining insights into these questions will
be necessary to delete or inactivate selectively the DCs associated
with tolerance resistance in transplantation.
GRANULOCYTES, MASTOCYTES, AND MONOCYTES/MACROPHAGES
Granulocytes, mastocytes, and monocytes/macrophages are traditionally considered as key players in both early innate alloimmune
response and in the actual destruction of donor cells after transplantation. However, the mechanisms by which they contribute to
alloimmunity and the actual nature of their contribution to allograft rejection have not been thoroughly investigated. Likewise,
little is known regarding the impact of these cells in transplantation tolerance. This section reviews some of the few studies that
have tackled these questions.
Granulocytes are the most abundant leukocytes in the blood
of mammals and an essential part of the innate immune system. Among them, PMNs migrate within hours to the site of
acute inammation after transplantation following chemical signals such as IL-8, C5a, and Leukotriene B4 in a process called
chemotaxis. However, they survive only 13 days at the graft site
where they undergo degranulation and release reactive oxygen
species (ROS), a process involving the activation of NADPH oxidase and the production of superoxide anions and other highly
reactive oxygen metabolites which cause tissue damage (Jaeschke
et al., 1990). There is ample evidence showing that PMNs contribute to donor tissue destruction and graft rejection in skin
transplantation, solid organ transplantation, and bone marrow
transplantation (Buonocore et al., 2004; Surquin et al., 2005).
Studies from the Fairchilds group have demonstrated that Abs
directed to KC/CXCL1 can prolong cardiac allograft survival by
preventing PMNs from graft inltrating the graft (Morita et al.,
2001; LaRosa et al., 2007). Additionally, the potential role of PMNs
in the prevention of tolerance induction has been examined in two
recent studies, only. First, it has been reported that peritransplant
elimination of PMNs facilitated tolerance to fully mismatched cardiac allografts induced via costimulation blockade (El-Sawy et al.,
2005; Mollen et al., 2006; LaRosa et al., 2007). Most interestingly,
another study from Woods group shows that prevention of accelerated rejection of skin allografts by CD8+ effector memory T cells
could be achieved by Tregs but only following depletion of PMNs
(Jones et al., 2010). It is likely that elimination of PMNs created a
window of opportunity that permitted Treg-mediated suppression

of graft rejection. Indeed, it well established that early activation
of pre-existing alloreactive memory T cells represents a formidable barrier to tolerance induction in transplantation (Valujskikh
et al., 2002; Adams et al., 2003b; Valujskikh and Heeger, 2003;
Weaver et al., 2009; Nadazdin et al., 2011). In the model described
above, PMNs did not prevent tolerance induction directly but
indirectly by hindering the suppression of memory T cells by
Tregs. It is possible that this phenomenon represents a general
mechanism by which innate immunity prevent transplant tolerance induction through the potentiation of alloreactive memory
T cells. This implies that blocking innate immune responses at the
time of graft placement may impair the development of anamnestic alloresponses by T cells and render allograft susceptible to
tolerogenesis by regulatory responses induced after costimulation blockade or mixed hematopoietic chimerism induction, a
hypothesis that requires further investigation.
Eosinophils play a key role in the pathogenesis associated
with allergic reactions through their production of inammatory
cytokines and cationic proteins (Capron and Goldman, 2001).
These cells can drive the differentiation of T cells to TH2 immunity essentially via IL-4 and IL-5 cytokine release (Sanderson,
1992; Kay et al., 1997). TH2 cells that exert antagonist properties
toward their pro-inammatory TH1 counterparts were initially
thought to be potential contributors to tolerogenesis in autoimmune diseases and transplantation (Charlton and Lafferty, 1995;
Goldman et al., 2001). Indeed, TH2 polarization has been demonstrated to be essential in neonatal tolerance induction and in some
allotransplant models (Hancock et al., 1993; Forsthuber et al.,
1996; Onodera et al., 1997; Yamada et al., 1999; Kishimoto et al.,
2000; Waaga et al., 2001; Fedoseyeva et al., 2002). However, it
became rapidly evident that this concept is over simplistic and
that eosinophils either directly or via the activation of TH2 cells
can trigger the rejection of allografts in various models (Illigens
et al., 2009). First, there is ample evidence showing that adoptively transferred allospecic TH2 cells can ensure on their own
the rejection of skin and cardiac allogeneic transplants (Piccotti
et al., 1996, 1997; VanBuskirk et al., 1996; Shirwan, 1999). Second,
IL-4 and IL-5 neutralization has been shown to delay the rejection
of allografts in several models (Chan et al., 1995; Simeonovic et al.,
1997; Matesic et al., 1998; Le Moine et al., 1999; Braun et al., 2000;
Honjo et al., 2000; Goldman et al., 2001; Surquin et al., 2005).
In the B6-bm12 MHC class II classical skin graft model, rejection has been associated with a massive inltration by eosinophils
(Le Moine et al., 1999; Goldman et al., 2001). IL-5 blockade
delayed the rejection process by preventing eosinophilic inltration, but these allografts were ultimately rejected via a mechanism
involving PMNs (Le Moine et al., 1999; Goldman et al., 2001).
In another study from the Martinezs group, the existence of a
non-classical pathway of liver allograft rejection was shown to
involve IL-5 and graft inltrating eosinophils secreting a series of
cytotoxic mediators including eosinophil peroxidase, eosinophilderived neurotoxin, eosinophil cationic protein, and major basic
protein (MB; Martinez et al., 1993). In addition, a number of
studies from us and others have provided direct evidence demonstrating that alloreactive TH2 cells activated through the indirect
allorecognition pathway can trigger chronic allograft vasculopathy
Benichou et al.
and tissue brosis in MHC class I-mismatched transplanted hearts

(Shirwan, 1999; Mhoyan et al., 2003; Koksoy et al., 2004; Illigens
et al., 2009). At the same time, it has been reported that, in models
in which acute rejection had been suppressed, eosinophilic graft
inltration could induce brosis through their production of TGF, a key mediator of extracellular matrix remodeling (Goldman
et al., 2001). It is noteworthy that eosinophils are likely to play a
prominent role in heart and lung transplantation through their
cooperation with activated mast cells associated with IL-9 release
(Dong et al., 1999; Marone et al., 2000; Suzuki et al., 2000; Cohn
et al., 2002; Poulin et al., 2003; Steenwinckel et al., 2007). Interestingly, it has been observed that depletion of CD8+ CT1 cells
and subsequent deprivation of IFN production or IL-12 antagonism can result in a polarization of the T cell response toward TH2
alloimmunity and cause eosinophilic rejection of cardiac allografts
primarily driven by IL-4 and IL-5 cytokines (Noble et al., 1998;
Foucras et al., 2000; Goldman et al., 2001). This further illustrates
the complexity of the alloimmune response and the multiplicity
of the mechanisms potentially involved in the rejection process.
Indeed, as often observed in autoimmune disease models, blocking a known deleterious type of alloimmunity can often uncover
a different type of response also leading to allograft rejection.
Mastocytes were originally described by Paul Ehrlich in his
1878 doctoral thesis on the basis of their unique staining characteristics and large granules (Alvarez-Errico et al., 2009; Barnes,
2011). These cells typically found in mucosal and connective tissues (skin, lungs, and intestines) are characterized by their high
expression of IgE high afnity Fc receptor (FcR) and IgG1 (in
mice) FcR. Mast cells are known for their pivotal role in immunity
against parasitic worms and their contribution to allergic reactions (asthma, eczema, allergic rhinitis, and conjunctivitis). This
phenomenon is mediated mainly through degranulation of serine proteases, histamine, and serotonin and through recruitment
of eosinophils at the site of inammation via the secretion of
eosinophil chemotactic factors (Alvarez-Errico et al., 2009; Barnes,
2011). Mast cells are also essential to the recruitment of T cells to
the skin and joints in autoimmune disorders including rheumatoid arthritis, bullous pemphigoid, and multiple sclerosis (Sayed
and Brown, 2007; Sayed et al., 2008; Schneider et al., 2010). The
role of mastocytes in allotransplantation was actually described in
seminal studies for the Voisins laboratory more than 40 years ago.
It was observed that non-complement xing anaphylactic IgG1
and IgE antibodies directed to donor-MHC molecules can cause
rejection of skin allografts through a process called alloantibodyinduced anaphylactic degranulation (DAAD; Daeron et al., 1972,
1975, 1980; Le Bouteiller et al., 1976; Daeron and Voisin, 1978,
1979; Benichou and Voisin, 1987). Hyperacute rejection of skin
allografts was induced through bipolar bridging of mastocytes
(through their FcR) and donor-MHC molecules on grafted cells,
a process leading to a massive anaphylactic reaction leading to
allograft rejection (Daeron et al., 1972, 1975, 1980; Le Bouteiller
et al., 1976; Daeron and Voisin, 1978, 1979). This type of allergic
transplant rejection discovered during the 1960s has been largely
forgotten through the years and would deserve to be revisited
using newly developed immunological models. More recently, it
has been shown that degranulating mastocytes can contribute to
allograft rejection by causing the loss of Tregs and thereby prevent
www.frontiersin.org
tolerance induction in a skin allograft model (de Vries et al., 2009a;

Murphy et al., 2011). While Tregs can induce the maturation and
growth of mastocytes through IL-9 production, this process seems
rather to contribute to tolerance induction (Lu et al., 2006; Murphy
et al., 2011). In addition, sequestration of pro-inammatory IL-6
cytokines by mastocytes through MCP6 receptors has also been
shown to promote establishment of tolerance to lung and cardiac allografts via costimulation blockade (de Vries et al., 2009a,b,
2010; de Vries and Noelle, 2010; Murphy et al., 2011). Therefore,
the role of mastocytes in alloimmunity is more complex than initially anticipated and further studies will be required to determine
how these cells can prevent or promote tolerance induction in skin
and presumably lung transplantation.
Different macrophages derived from monocyte differentiation
are present in various tissues and organs including Kupffer cells
in the liver, microglial cells in the CNS, alveolar macrophages in
the lungs, and intraglomerular mesangial cells in the kidney (Lu
and Unanue, 1982; Unanue, 1984; Yan and Hansson, 2007; Varol
et al., 2009; Geissmann et al., 2010; Yona and Jung, 2010). These
cells are characterized by the surface expression of CD14, CD11b,
F4/80 (mice)/EMR1 (humans) as well as MAC1/3 and CD68.
Macrophages and monocytes rapidly inltrate inammation sites
and are typically found in large numbers within allografts (Geissmann et al., 2010). Upon activation, they release large amounts
of pro-inammatory cytokines such as TNF, IL-12 IL-1, and IL6, which promote both innate and adaptive immune responses
(Geissmann et al., 2010). Macrophages play a key role in the induction of antibody dependent cellular cytotoxic (ADCC) reactions
leading to the phagocytosis of opsonized allogeneic target cells
(Unanue and Allen, 1986; Rocha et al., 2003; Li, 2010). During
acute inammation, while PMNs are typically the rst phagocytes
inltrating allografts, macrophages are usually involved in secondary stages of inammation during which they remove aged
PMNs via a mechanism involving PECAM-1 (CD31) as well as
necrotic cells and cellular debris (Davies et al., 1993; Wu et al.,
2007b; Roh et al., 2010; Wu and Madri, 2010). Macrophages have
also been shown to be essential to the maintenance of chronic
inammatory processes (Yan and Hansson, 2007; Geissmann et al.,
2010). Likewise, some evidence has been provided suggesting that
macrophages contribute to transplant vasculopathy and brosis
(Davies et al., 1993; Kitchens et al., 2007; Yan and Hansson, 2007;
Bani-Hani et al., 2009; Dinarello, 2011b; Kamari et al., 2011). In
addition to their role in innate immunity, macrophages process,
and present alloantigens to CD4+ T cells in a MHC class II context
thus initiating T cell-mediated responses and rejection (Beller and
Unanue, 1980; Lu et al., 1981; Unanue and Allen, 1986; Unanue,
2002; Calderon et al., 2006). Some observations indicate that, in
stable transplants, macrophages can convert otherwise harmless
lymphocytes into aggressive ones and cause rejection, thereby
controlling the cytopathic features of cellular inltrates in solid
organ transplants (Li, 2010). Likewise, some studies have shown
the benecial effects of blockage of the macrophage-migration
inhibitory factor (MIF) on the pathogenesis of allografts including
the reduction of obstructive bronchiolitis after lung transplantation (Fukuyama et al., 2005; Javeed and Zhao, 2008). A study from
Heegers group has shown that in vivo blockade of MIF could
prevent the rejection of MHC class II KO skin allografts in mice
Benichou et al.
mediated through the indirect allorecognition pathway (Hou et al.,

2001; Demir et al., 2003). In this model, neutralization of MIF
resulted in reduced DTH response while it did not affect IFN production by activated T cells (Hou et al., 2001; Demir et al., 2003). It
is, however, noteworthy that different types of macrophages can be
found in kidney allografts, some of which being involved in attenuation of inammation, activation of Tregs, and tolerance induction
(Lu et al., 2006; Brem-Exner et al., 2008; Hutchinson et al., 2011).
Recently, macrophages have been shown to be involved in self-nonself discrimination, i.e., self-awareness via interaction between the
innate inhibitory receptor SIRP expressed on their surface and
CD47. This type of recognition, which is reminiscent of the missing self-model described with NK cells, has been shown to play a
role in xenograft rejection by macrophages (Ide et al., 2007; Wang
et al., 2007; van den Berg and van der Schoot, 2008). However,
it is still unclear whether some degree of CD47 polymorphism
within a given species exists and whether it could be involved in
allorecognition.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
It is now rmly established that innate immune responses triggered after transplantation as a consequence of tissue damage,
infections, and reperfusion injury are an essential element of the
inammatory process leading to early rejection of allografts. In
addition, there is accumulating evidence showing the contribution
of innate immunity to chronic rejection of allogeneic transplants.
On the other hand, this review supports the view that activation of
virtually any of the cells of the innate immune system can prevent
transplant tolerance induction. This process is essentially mediated via signaling of various receptors including TLRs (via DAMPS
and PAMPS) and the secretion of several key pro-inammatory
cytokines (primarily IL-1, IL-6, TNF, and type I interferons)
and chemokines. Activated cells of the innate immune system can
prevent tolerogenesis directly via cytokine secretion, activation of
the complement cascade, and killing of donor cells or indirectly
by promoting and amplifying deleterious inammatory adaptive
immune responses while preventing the activation of protective
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Conict of Interest Statement: The
authors declare that the research was
conducted in the absence of any

commercial or nancial relationships
that could be construed as a potential
conict of interest.
Received: 29 December 2011; paper
pending published: 09 February 2012;
accepted: 22 March 2012; published
online: 19 April 2012.
Citation: Benichou G, Tonsho M,

Tocco G, Nadazdin O and Madsen JC (2012) Innate immunity and
resistance to tolerogenesis in allotransplantation. Front. Immun. 3:73. doi:
10.3389/mmu.2012.00073
This article was submitted to Frontiers in
Immunological Tolerance, a specialty of
Frontiers in Immunology.
Copyright 2012 Benichou, Tonsho,

Tocco, Nadazdin and Madsen. This is an
open-access article distributed under the
terms of the Creative Commons Attribution Non Commercial License, which permits non-commercial use, distribution,
and reproduction in other forums, provided the original authors and source are
credited.

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REVIEW ARTICLE

published: 19 April 2012

Innate immunity and resistance to tolerogenesis in

The development of immunosuppressive drugs to control adaptive immune responses has

April 2012 | Volume 3 | Article 73 | 1

FIGURE 1 | Leukocytes and major cytokines involved in the innate

At rst glance, it can be speculated that all cells and molecules

RECEPTORS AND SOLUBLE MEDIATORS OF THE INNATE

Lymphocytes recognize exquisitely a vast array of molecular motifs

Frontiers in Immunology | Immunological Tolerance

Innate immunity and tolerance resistance

Medzhitov and Janeway, 2002). Among these pattern-recognition

April 2012 | Volume 3 | Article 73 | 2

skin allografts and prolonged survival of fully allogeneic heart and

Certain pro-inammatory cytokines produced by cells of the

Innate immunity and tolerance resistance

epidermis where its secretion by keratinocytes is thought to play a

April 2012 | Volume 3 | Article 73 | 3

skin allografts suggesting an impaired antigen presentation and a

Chemokines represent an extensive family of proteins whose

Innate immunity and tolerance resistance

CELLS OF THE INNATE IMMUNE SYSTEM

The complement system is comprised of a variety of small proteins

Natural killer (NK) cells contribute to the innate immune response

Frontiers in Immunology | Immunological Tolerance

April 2012 | Volume 3 | Article 73 | 4

2008). Furthermore, NK cells have been shown to contribute to

Dendritic cells are considered as the primary link between innate

Innate immunity and tolerance resistance

and endothelial through a process called trogocytosis (Joly and

April 2012 | Volume 3 | Article 73 | 5

led to various and sometimes opposite outcomes depending upon

Frontiers in Immunology | Immunological Tolerance

Innate immunity and tolerance resistance

window of opportunity that permitted Treg-mediated suppression

April 2012 | Volume 3 | Article 73 | 6

and tissue brosis in MHC class I-mismatched transplanted hearts

Innate immunity and tolerance resistance

tolerance induction in a skin allograft model (de Vries et al., 2009a;

April 2012 | Volume 3 | Article 73 | 7

Innate immunity and tolerance resistance

mediated through the indirect allorecognition pathway (Hou et al.,

Frontiers in Immunology | Immunological Tolerance

regulatory mechanisms. In addition, innate immune responses

Arend, W. P., Palmer, G., and Gabay, C.

April 2012 | Volume 3 | Article 73 | 8

Auchincloss, H. Jr., and Sultan, H.

Innate immunity and tolerance resistance

pig alveolar macrophages by antiMHC alloantibodies. Cell. Immunol.

relevance to allograft immunity.

model of allergic asthma. Novartis

April 2012 | Volume 3 | Article 73 | 9

de Vries, V. C., and Noelle, R. J. (2010).

Innate immunity and tolerance resistance

Elmaagacli, A. H., Koldehoff, M., Hindahl, H., Steckel, N. K., Trenschel,

Frontiers in Immunology | Immunological Tolerance

Fischereder, M., Luckow, B., Hocher, B.,

Geissmann, F., Manz, M. G., Jung, S.,

April 2012 | Volume 3 | Article 73 | 10