From Zero to the National Greek Exam:

An Introduction for Everyone

a workshop at the
American Classical League
64th Annual Institute, Minneapolis, MN
Saturday June 25, 2011 2:00-3:30
Wilfred E. Major
Louisiana State University
Chair of the Committee for the Promotion of Greek (www.promotelatin.org)
wmajor@lsu.edu
&
Deb Davies
Brooks School (North Andover, Mass)
Chair of the National Greek Exam (nge.aclclassics.org/)
ddavies@brooksschool.org

This workshop provides materials and instruction for teachers who wish to begin introducing
ancient Greek to their students. The presentation neither requires nor expects any prior
knowledge of Greek. The "Introduction to Greek" level of the National Greek Exam has a
syllabus designed to be accessible for study only a day or two a week or outside regular class
time. The workshop provides the information necessary for participants to prepare their students
to compete on this exam.
The presentation has three components:
1. a survey of, and frequently-asked-questions about, the Greek language
2. a survey of the cultural information on the Introduction to Greek syllabus
3. practice with the grammar and syntax on the Introduction to Greek syllabus.

All the information in this packet and other materials are available for free
download at www.dramata.com (you will be redirected to the sites current
location).

Fear not!
Luke 2.10

This Packet Contains

National Greek Exam: information and Syllabus: Introduction to Greek Exam (pp. 3-5)
Frequently Asked Questions about Ancient Greek (pp. 6-11)
o Historical Overview of Greece
o Types of Greek from Linear B to Modern Greek
o Typing and Printing Greek
o Textbooks and Resources for Beginning Greek
A survey of the cultural information on the syllabus for the "Introduction to Greek" level
of the National Greek Exam (sections II and III) (p. 12)
o Greek Geography
o Historical Events and People
A survey of the language information on the syllabus for the "Introduction to Greek"
level of the National Greek Exam (sections I and V) (pp. 13-36)
o The Alphabet
o Overview of Greek Grammar
o Understanding Greek text

Verbs

Nouns

Prepositions
o Derivatives for the "Introduction to Greek" level of the National Greek Exam
(section IV) (p. 37)
Vocabulary lists (pp. 38-45)

National Greek Exam: Syllabus: Introduction to Greek Exam

I. Alphabet
Know Attic Greek alphabet, in correct order, upper and lower case; rough breathing
Know names of all letters
Be able to transliterate Greek letters into English equivalents, and vice versa
Be able to transform lower case to upper case, and vice versa
Be able to give preceding and following letters of the alphabet
II. Geography
Know location of:
Athens, Sparta, Thebes, Troy, Delphi, Olympia, Corinth, Mycenae, Alexandria, Crete,
Sicily, Rhodes, Euboea, Aegean Sea, Ionian Sea, Black Sea, Adriatic Sea, Nile,
Hellespont.
III. Historical Events and People
Know relative dates and historical importance of:
Pericles; Darius; Xerxes; Philip of Macedon, Alexander the Great
Socrates, Plato; Aeschylus, Sophocles, Euripides; Herodotus, Thucydides
Thermopylae, Marathon, Artemisium
Persian Wars; Athenian Empire; Peloponnesian War
Know three Architectural Orders Ionic, Doric, Corinthian
IV. Derivatives
Know derivatives of the following prepositions and prefixes: , , , , -, ,
, , -, , - , , , , , ,
V. Understanding Greek text
Know noun/adjective endings
1st and 2nd declension

all cases

singular and plural

Know verb endings

Indicative

1st, 2nd, 3rd person

singular and plural

present
active

Should be able to understand easy sentences, including prepositional phrases and adjectives

ACL/NJCL National Greek Exam

RESULTS OF THE 2011 ACL/NJCL NATIONAL GREEK EXAMINATION
The National Greek Examination in 2011 enrolled 1769 students from 154 schools.
Typically over 50% earn purple, blue, red, or green ribbons. The battery of six
examinations consisted of five Attic Greek exams (Introduction 412, Beginning 741,
Intermediate 360, Prose 88, Tragedy 28) and a Homeric Greek exam (Odyssey 140).
THE 2012 ACL/NJCL NATIONAL GREEK EXAMINATION
The next National Greek Examination will be administered Monday-Saturday, 5-10 March
2012. Entrants will pay $4.00 for each examination (Foreign - $5.00 per exam) chosen
from the battery. An entrant may not cross levels in Attic Greek (take both Beginning and
Intermediate Attic) but s/he may take an Attic and a non-Attic examination (Intermediate
Attic and Odyssey), so long as s/he pays $4.00 for each examination taken. In addition,
only the Attic Prose exam may be taken for two years in a row.
Applications will be accepted only from teachers; others should call Dr. Deb Davies before
ordering and explain any special circumstances. Applications must be postmarked no
later than Tuesday, 17 January 2012. The entry application from the teacher should
include total payment. If there is no alternative and the NGE office must bill a school
system, a handling fee of $10.00 will be added to the bill.
Copies of the 2012 National Greek Examination will be mailed by the beginning of March
to the designated examiner, but NOT to the teacher who mailed the application. If the
examinations are not received by the 1st of March 2012, please contact The American
Classical League (see below).
Schools which, for reasons of vacation or other schedule conflicts, wish to administer the
examinations during the week of 20 February 2012, should so note on the application so
that the NGE office will know when to expect the answer sheets back. All answer sheets
must be postmarked no later than Monday, 12 March 2012.
OPPORTUNITY FOR SCHOLARSHIP
In 2012, high-school seniors who earn purple or blue ribbons in upper level exams will be
eligible to apply for one scholarship in the amount of $1,000. The scholarship will be paid
to the winners college or university on condition that s/he earn six credits of Greek during
the school year. The winner will be selected by the NLE/NGE Scholarship Committee,
chaired by Ephy Howard, Troy, AL. Teachers of eligible students will receive application
forms in the mail by early May, 2012. Winners will be announced at the ACL Institute in
June 2012, and notified directly thereafter by mail.
Dates and amounts preliminary and subject to change.

5-10 MARCH 2012

High-school and college/university students enrolled in 1st year (elementary), 2nd year
(intermediate), or 3rd year (advanced) Attic or Homeric Greek are invited to enter the 28th
ACL/NJCL National Greek Examination.
The usual sequence of exams is Introduction to Greek (intended for high school students
learning in a non-traditional environment), Beginning Attic (for high schools only), Intermediate
Attic, Attic Prose (which may be repeated for 2 years) and Attic Tragedy. Homeric Greek can be
taken in any year. Students should take the exam that most closely matches their experience. All
difficult vocabulary or syntax will be given as applicable to each level. Summaries of each
passage will be provided. It is suggested that you review the syllabi before ordering any exam.
Each examination will last 50 minutes. Each examination will contain 40 questions, with
multiple-choice answers. For each of the forty questions on an examination, there will be as
many as four answers, one of them correct, the others distracters.
All passages printed in the above examinations should be treated as sight passages. Accordingly,
students entering the NGE would best prepare themselves by reading sight passages from the
authors mentioned in the syllabi, and reading them for both comprehension and grammatical
analysis.

Syllabi Available
You may request syllabi from The American Classical League (address below). If, after review,
you have any questions regarding the syllabi contents, please contact Deb Davies (see below).

Previous Examinations Available

A packet of the entire set of the 2011 examinations, with the answers, costs $10.00 (postage
included) and will be sent after 14 March 2011 (see application blank). Any of the individual
examinations for the five years before 2011 are also available at $2.00 each. You must specify
the exam(s) and level(s) you want. Make check payable to the "The American Classical League".
(See below)

For information regarding examination and syllabi contents, contact: Dr. Deb Davies,
Chair, 123 Argilla Rd., Andover, MA 01810-4622; 978-749-9446; ddavies@brooksschool.org

To request previous examinations, syllabi or an application, contact: ACL/NJCL

National Greek Examination, The American Classical League, Miami University, 422 Wells Mill
Dr., Oxford, OH 45056, 513-529-7741 Fax 513-529-7742

http://nge.aclclassics.org/

Historical Overview of Greece

Reference works frequently refer to various historical periods without mentioning the rough
dates or order of these periods, so here is a very brief overview of the principal historical stages
of Greek history.
The Bronze Age (3000-1200 BC)
o This is, broadly speaking, the period and world behind the myths of the Trojan
War. Other than such myths told in later times, we know of this period only
through archaeological remains.
o During this time lived a people now called the Minoans (although no one knows
what they were called at the time). They left behind many spectacular buildings
and beautiful art, especially on the island of Crete. They spoke a non-Greek
language which has not been identified.
o Greeks of this period are usually referred to as Mycenaeans, referring to the city
of Mycenae, home of Agamemnon and one of the most powerful Greek cities of
the time.
o No literature survives from this time period. Documents are the only writing to
survive (see Linear B in "Types of Greek" p.8).
Dark Age (1200-700 BC)
o For unknown reasons, crises afflict people all around the Mediterranean area.
Archaeology indicates much depopulation, movement, and poverty.
o No Greek writing of any sort survives from this period. Stories about the Bronze
Age are told orally.
Archaic Period (700-500 BC)
o Greece recovers from the Dark Age. Cities like Athens, Sparta, Corinth and
Thebes become powerful and prosperous. These cities are often best known for
the powerful "tyrants" which ruled during this time.
o The Greek alphabet appears for the first time. The Iliad, Odyssey, Hesiod, and
other poems, which had been recited orally over the years, are now written down.
Fragments remain of "lyric poets" such as Sappho and Archilochus. Aesop
supposedly lived during this time.
Classical Period (500-323 BC)
o Athens establishes the first democracy. The Greeks repel the Persian attacks of
Darius and Xerxes (490-480 BC). Pericles guides the Athenian empire and has the
Parthenon built. Athens and Sparta fight the Peloponnesian War (431-404 BC).
Shortly after Alexander the Great (356-323 BC) dies, Macedonians take over
Athens and end the democracy.
o Most famous Greek literature comes from Athens during this era: the tragedies of
Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, the comedies of Aristophanes, the historical
writings of Herodotus, Thucydides and Xenophon, the philosophical writings of
Plato and Aristotle, and almost all Greek oratory.
Hellenistic Period (323-30 BC)
o Following the death of Alexander the Great, various peoples around the
Mediterranean attempt to recreate and control the empire he built. Macedonian
and Greek culture dominate the methods of empire-building during this period.

Cleopatra VII was the last Hellenistic ruler and her suicide in 30 BC in the wake
of Octavian/Augustus' attack marks the end of this era.
o Apollonius of Rhodes' Argonautica (his Medea influenced Virgil's Dido)
survives, as does much scholarly poetry which influenced Catullus, Horace, Ovid,
and others. Some Greek New Comedy (models for Plautus and Terence) survives.
The Hebrew Bible is translated into Greek (known as the Septuagint).
Roman Period (196 BC AD 476)
o Greece is "liberated" and made a province of the Roman empire. By the end, the
capital of the empire has moved to the Greek city of Byzantium (as
"Constantinople") in AD 330.
o Polybius (2nd century BC) writes an account of Romes domination of the
Mediterranean. Diodorus Siculus (1st century BC) compiles a world history.
Dionysius of Halicarnassus (1st century BC) writes scholarship and Roman
history. Plutarch (2nd century AD) writes his "Parallel Lives" of famous Greeks
and Romans plus many more essays. Lucian writes his satirical essays. The
earliest surviving novels and much scientific writing come from this period. The
New Testament is written and compiled.
Byzantine Period (AD 330-1453)
o While the Western part of the Roman empire splinters and becomes Medieval
Europe, the Greek-speaking Eastern part of the empire continues, headed by the
Orthodox church.
o A range of complex literature survives from this period, the most famous of which
is probably Procopius' Secret History.
Turkish Ottoman Period (1453-1821)
o In 1453, the Ottomans sack Byzantium/Constantinople (now Istanbul) and Greece
becomes part of the Ottoman empire. This is the grimmest time in Greece since
the Dark Age. Europeans begin looting antiquities from the land.
Modern Period (1821-present)
o Greeks declare their independence. Modern Greece is now an independent
democracy. Prominent authors of the modern period include Constantine Cavafy
and Nikos Kazantzakis.

Types of Greek
Greek has one of the longest written records of any language in the world. Of all the languages
of the world past and present, only two have written examples from the second millennium BC
and continue as living languages today: Chinese and Greek. The story of Greek is thus the story
of a long historical evolution.
Linear B: This is the earliest surviving written Greek of any kind, from about 1500 to 1000 BC.
It is found on clay tablets carved in wedge-like characters called "cuneiform." The documents in
this script are accounting records of various sorts (inventories, packing lists, etc). There are no
stories or narratives of any kind, but there are some interesting names (e.g., Athena, Achilles).
Homeric Greek or Epic Greek: These terms refer to the dialect of Greek used in the Iliad,
Odyssey, the writings of Hesiod, and some other similar poems. This Greek differs from later
Greek much as Shakespearean English differs from modern English. These were the first
writings recorded in the Greek alphabet.
Ionic and other dialects: Especially prior to the Classical Period, speakers in different areas used
different dialects and wrote their dialects as they spoke them. Most literature in these other
dialects is fragmentary. The history of Herodotus and the writings of Hippocrates are the most
important complete works written in Ionic Greek, named for the region of Ionia (now
southwestern Turkey), the home of this dialect.
Classical Greek or Attic Greek: These terms refer to the Greek used in Athens during the
Classical Period. Thus this is the Greek of all Greek drama and oratory, and most history and
philosophy.
Koine Greek and Biblical Greek: In the Hellenistic period, many non-Greeks (including the
Romans) began to learn Greek. Consequently, there developed a sort of standardized Attic Greek
which Greek speakers everywhere could learn and use. This is called koine ("common") Greek.
The most famous text in koine Greek is the New Testament. Sometimes koine is treated as
something wildly different from Classical Greek, but at the beginning and intermediate level
Classical and koine are effectively the same. Even at the advanced level, the differences are
minor unless you are doing specialized scholarly work.
Byzantine Greek: Most surviving Byzantine Greek is a later, complex, and elite version of
Classical Greek.
Kathareuousa: When Greece regained its independence in the 19th century, some Greek elites
and scholars wanted to restore Classical Greek as the language of the modern country. This
restored language was called kathereuousa "purified," and as late as the 1980s was in official
use in Greece.
Demotic and Modern Greek: Despite the efforts of the purists, Greek continued to evolve. Even
while official documents were in kathereuousa, most people spoke Demotic or "popular" Greek,
which is now the official language of modern Greece. In view of the fact that Greek has been

evolving for several thousand years, it is remarkably close to Ancient Greek. Modern Greek
differs from ancient Greek primarily in three ways: (1) the sound of several letters has shifted, so
the language sounds different (2) colloquialisms have changed, and (3) the word order has
stabilized and some complex syntax has shifted, in ways often parallel to English. Because of the
shifts in pronunciation, Modern Greek uses only one of the accents and breathings found in texts
of ancient Greek.
While there is a wealth of study of Greek down to the first century AD, because of the fierce
political debates about language use in Greece in the 19th and 20th centuries (principally
kathereuoousa vs. demotic), study of the last two thousand years of Greek has only recently been
able to advance relatively free of partisan debate. The standard starting place for the history of
the entire language is now Geoffrey Horrocks, Greek: A History of the Language and its
Speakers, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010) ISBN 978-1405134156. This is a mammoth
and detailed study, aimed primarily at linguists, but it does include examples of Greek from
every period, region and type, in the original, but also translitered and translated, with
explanations about what is distinct to each type. Horrocks also includes historical surveys to put
the changes in the language in context.

TYPING AND PRINTING GREEK

Computer technology has stabilized sufficiently that typing, printing, and transmitting digital
texts in Ancient Greek is a straightforward process.
Two Important Notes:
Almost all computers, font systems, etc. include the basic Greek alphabet and the vowels
with acute (/) accents: etc., called "monotonic" Greek. This set is designed for
Modern Greek but is not sufficient for typing ancient Greek, which has additional accents
and breathing marks. You will need "polytonic" Greek to type the characters for ancient
Greek.
As computers developed, a number of programs were created to type ancient Greek.
Unfortunately, most of these programs were incompatible with each other, making it
difficult to send documents in Greek to other users, post them online, etc. To avoid this
problem, use a system with a Unicode font!
Greek in Unicode
Unicode is a worldwide standard character set capable of handling many non-English languages.
Unicode includes a full set of characters for polytonic Greek. Unicode does not depend on a
specific program or font. ANY Unicode font will display the same characters, whether on a PC,
Apple, web page, or any other digital platform.
You need two components to use Unicode comfortably:
a Unicode font. Windows comes with Palatino Linotype, a Unicode font which displays
ancient Greek very well. Apple systems also incorporate the ability to read Unicode
fonts. A number of Unicode fonts are available for free download. Any Unicode font will
display polytonic Greek characters properly.
a utility program to input polytonic Greek from your computer keyboard. Visit
http://wiki.digitalclassicist.org/Greek_Keyboards_(Unicode) for a clear, compact
introduction and links. Determine what you need and what works best for you.
Greek pdfs
A very useful tool in sending Greek documents electronically is the pdf ("portable document
format," created by Adobe Acrobat). pdf has become the standard format for sending documents
and forms of all kinds electronically and posting them to web sites. pdf's imbed fonts, so the
person downloading the document does not need any specific Greek font or program on their
computer to read the document correctly.
You need a reasonably up-to-date Acrobat Reader (free, and standard with most systems
and browsers).
To create a pdf, most word-processing programs include a utility to print a pdf or you
can download any number of free utilities (e.g., www.pdf995.com).

10

TEXTBOOKS AND RESOURCES FOR BEGINNING GREEK

alphabetical by author:

Maurice Balme and Gilbert Lawall. Athenaze: An Introduction to Ancient Greek. 2 vols., rev.
ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 978-0195149562 & 978-0195056228.
o

Marketed as a reading approach, this is a widely-used textbook, but it is much more complex and
difficult to use than it may at first appear.

Nina Barclay. Eucleides' World: An Exploratory Introduction to Ancient Greek to

Accompany Ecce Romani. CANE (Classical Association of New England), 2002. ISBN: 9781934971208.
o

A useful introduction to the language, beginning with the alphabet in stages and working up to simple
readings. The topics are matched to the cultural material in Ecce Romani but not dependent on it.
Available at http://www.canepress.org/

Erikk Geannikis, Andrew Romiti and P.T. Wilford. Greek Paradigm Handbook.
Newburyport: Focus, 2008. ISBN 978-158510-3072.

JACT. Reading Greek. 2nd ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2007. ISBN
(Grammar and Exercises) 978-052106985-28, (Text and Vocabulary) 978-052106985-11, An
Independent Study Guide 978-052106985-04, (Speaking Greek CD) 978-0521-728966.

This British reading system has separate volumes for the texts, grammar and other materials.

T. Davina McClain. Graphic Greek Grammar. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci, 2005.

ISBN 978-0865165977
o

A handy 4 x 5 spiral-bound set of reference charts.

Six laminated cards which outline Greek grammar. Inflections are highlighted in red. Includes
everything from basic verb forms to basic syntax.

Anne H. Groton. From Alpha to Omega: An Introduction to Classical Greek. 3rd ed.
Newburyport, MA: Focus, 2000. ISBN 978-1585100347.
o

This textbook is full of very detailed explanations, so it actually serves as a useful reference grammar
for teachers.

C. Peckett and A.D. Munday. Thrasymachus: Greek through Reading. London: Duckworth,
2009. 978-0862921392.

Louise Pratt. The Essentials of Greek Grammar: A Reference for Intermediate Readers of
Attic Greek. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press, 2010. ISBN 978-086141435.

J.K. Rowling. . Andrew Wilson, trans.

London: Bloomsbury, 2004. ISBN 1-582234-826x
o Harry Potter and the Philosopher's Stone translated into Classical Greek!
C.W. Shelmerdine. Introduction to Greek. 2nd ed. Newburyport, MA: Focus, 2008. ISBN
978-1585101849.

A compact set of paradigms and grammatical information.

A compact, clear introduction to the language. See http://www.dramata.com for supplements as well.

Mathew D. Webb. Getting to Know Greek and Activitates Pro Liberis Vol. 5: Ancient Greek
Language and Culture Activities.
o

A recent reading approach.

An excellent collection of materials and information for beginning Greek, geared toward grades 5-8.
Available at http://www.ascaniusyci.org/store/gtkg-main.htm

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu A wonderful site with many Greek texts, grammatical links, online lexicon, translations, but slow and cumbersome.

11

Greek Geography, Historical Events and People

(Introduction to Greek Exam Syllabus II and III)
II. Geography
Most any map of the ancient Mediterranean will mark the required locations: Athens,
Sparta, Thebes, Troy, Delphi, Olympia, Corinth, Mycenae, Alexandria, Crete, Sicily,
Rhodes, Euboea, Aegean Sea, Ionian Sea, Black Sea, Adriatic Sea, Nile, Hellespont.
I have found the clearest and most helpful maps are those printed on the inside covers of
Barry B. Powell, Classical Myth, 7th ed., (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall 2011),
ISBN 978-0205176076, also printed in Ian Morris and Barry B. Powell, The Greeks:
History, Culture, and Society, 2nd ed., (Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice-Hall, 2009)
ISBN 978-0205697342, or in any previous edition of these books.
III. Historical Events and People
The Greek historian Herodotus tells the story of Darius, Xerxes, and the Persian Wars.
The Greek historian Thucydides tells the stories of Pericles, the Athenian Empire, and the
Peloponnesian War.
Virtually any decent reference work will have basic, reliable information about the above,
plus the three architectural orders (Ionic, Doric, Corinthian). For example,
o Wikipedia has entries for all these items. The Perseus Project
(http//:perseus.tufts.edu) includes a solid historical overview of ancient Greece by
Thomas Martin, and an analogous print version is available: Ancient Greece:
From Prehistoric to Hellenistic Times, updated ed. (New Haven: Yale University
Press, 2000), ISBN 0300084935.
o Other books on Greek history and culture include Morris & Powell (see above
under Geography), Sarah B. Pomeroy, Stanley M. Burstein, Walter Donlan, and
Jennifer Tolbert Roberts, A Brief History of Ancient Greece: Politics, Society and
Culture, 2nd ed. (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2009), ISBN 978-0195372359
and Jenifer Neils, The British Museum Concise Introduction to Ancient Greece
(Ann Arbor: University of Michigan, 2008), ISBN 978-0472033294.

12

THE GREEK ALPHABET

(Introduction to Greek Exam Syllabus I)
Greek has one of the most famous and admired writing systems in human history. Although it
looks exotic, it is really one of the most straightforward and clear systems for recording a
language ever developed. It is, after all, a direct ancestor of the alphabet you are reading right
now. For a simple, illustrated survey of the letters from Hebrew to modern English (including the
Greek and Roman alphabets along the way), see Don Robb and Annne Smith, Ox, House, Stick:
The History of Our Alphabet (Watertown, MA: Charlesbridge, 2007), ISBN 978-1570916090.
Upper Case and Lower Case Letters
Like modern English, Greek has a complete set of upper case and lower case letters. The upper
case letters came first, beginning as letters carved in stone, clay, wood, or metal. Thus they
consist mostly of straight lines easy for carving (think of the capital delta, ).
Until the Hellenistic period, the Greeks used only capital letters. Two developments brought
about lower case letters. First, more and more writing was done on papyrus with pens, as
opposed to being carved. Naturally, as people wrote more on paper, they shaped the letters in
ways that made them easier to write, which meant being more curved and easier to connect (e.g.,
the small delta, ).
Thus upper case letters are really carving letters and lower case letters are really cursive letters.
Modern printed editions of ancient Greek texts use almost exclusively lower case (cursive)
letters, because printed editions began as little more than reproductions of manuscripts, which
used cursive writing.
Imagine if English were printed in a cursive script all the time.

Imagine if English were printed in a cursive script all the time.

This is why printed Greek texts can look like chicken scratch, but once you know the alphabet, it
is just like reading someones handwriting.
Printed editions of ancient Greek texts use capital letters for only two reasons: (1) to indicate a
proper name or (2) to indicate the beginning of a direct quote.
NOTES:
Since early Greeks never used lower case letters, they never had reason to think of
whether a name should be capitalized, personified, etc. Thus an ancient text can never
distinguish between "truth" and "Truth," even if a modern printed edition or translation
does.
A capital letter indicates the beginning of a quote, but finding the end of a quotation can
be difficult. Sometimes modern editors add quotation marks to make ancient texts easier
to read.
Some texts capitalize the first letter of every paragraph, but this has no meaning.

13

The Ancient Greek Alphabet

(Introduction to Greek Exam Syllabus I)

Names and Sounds of the Letters

Letter

(rough breathing)

name
alpha
beta
gamma
delta
epsilon
zeta
eta
theta
iota
kappa
lambda
mu
nu
xi
omicron
pi
rho
sigma*
tau
upsilon
phi
chi
psi
omega
h

sound
ah
b
g
ng
d
eh
z (or sd)
ay
th
ih
k
l
m
n
x (ks)
oh
p
r
s
t
uy
ph
kh
ps
ohh

*Sigma: the type sigma appears only at the end of words. The type sigma appears
everywhere else. This is another holdover from cursive handwriting. Some texts now use c
("lunate sigma") in all places.
Nina Barclay's Eucleides' World has the music to sing the names of the Greek letters to either
"Itsy Bitsy Spider" or "Frres Jacques"!

14

The Ancient Greek Alphabet and Transliteration

(Introduction to Greek Exam Syllabus I)

Greek

(rough breathing)

Latinized
a
ae
b
g
ng
d
e
z
e
th
i
c
l
m
n
x
o
-us
p
r
s
t
y
eu
u
ph
ch
ps
o
h
rh

Restored
a
ai
b
g
ng
d
e
z
e
th
i
k
l
m
n
x
o
-os
p
r
s
t
y
eu
ou
ph
kh
ps
o
h
rh

For example:

Aeschylus

Aiskhylos

Thucydides

Thoukydides

15

SPELL IT LIKE IT SOUNDS!

Some basic principles about the ancient Greek alphabet:
Greeks spelled words the way they pronounced them
If they changed the pronunciation of a word, they changed the spelling to match.
Consider the verb record (reCORD) and the noun record (RECord), which are spelled
alike but pronounced differently in English.
In Greek, such words would be spelled according to their pronunciations: rikrd and
rkerd
Imagine these examples in English:
If anyone pronounced going as gonna, they would spell it gonna.
Homophones like but and butt would both be spelled but, even though they have
different meanings.
Therefore, the surest and most straightforward way to become comfortable reading and writing
Greek is to sound out the words and match the sounds to the letters on the page.
But Isn't It Hard? aka "It's All Greek to Me"
The mere mention of Greek is enough to send some people into a panic. You may hear horror
stories about spelling changes, an impossible myriad of forms, and so on. Ninety percent of the
quirks that cause people trouble result from not knowing or not applying this basic principle:
spell it like it sounds. Strangely, and unhelpfully, beginning Greek textbooks almost never make
this basic point.
In English, of course, we are used to somewhat stable spellings and pronunciations that vary
from their spellings. In Greek, pronunciation and spelling always match. Think of English
literature where dialects and individual speech patterns are represented. If your students can read
Huckleberry Finn, they can read Greek!
This principle also explains why dialects sometimes matter when reading Greek. Prior to the
Hellenistic period, at least, Greeks simply wrote to match they way they pronounced the
language. If one person contracted their vowels, they wrote their vowels contracted. If another
person did not contract their vowels, they left their vowels uncontracted.
While reading texts this way takes a little getting used to, there is a great side benefit! Greek
writers record every sound and bit of personality, every "um" and "uh." This is in part what
makes Greek drama, Plato's dialogues, Demosthenes' oratory, and Herodotus' storytelling so
compelling: you can hear every voice and detail.

16

VOWELS IN GREEK
Greek has roughly the same five vowels as English:

ah
eh
ih
o
uy
Long
ay or aah
ay
ee
ohh
h

Short
ah
eh
ih
oh
uy

Greek texts never display macrons over , or . Only a lexicon or grammar shows them.
Speakers of ancient Greek, especially Attic, did not like to say two vowel sounds in a row.
Consequently, if two vowels come together, they tended to merge them into one (called a
diphthong, Greek for double sound) or to contract them.
A vowel + or forms a diphthong.
+ = eye
+ = aah usually written
+ = ay
+ = ay usually written
+ = oy
+ = oh usually written
+ = wee

+ = ow!
+ = eu
+ = oo

, and contract with each other (in Attic Greek, and so also in koine).
+=

+=

+=

+=

+ =

+ =

+=

+ =

+ =

17

CONSONANTS IN GREEK

Labial
p
b
ph
ps
m

Dental
t
d
th
s
n
l

Palatal
k
g
kh
ks
, , , ng
r

= unvoiced
= voiced
= +
=+
= nasals
= liquids

One leftover: =
NOTE: In Greek, you never write , , , , and so on. If you ever add a to a , for
example, you automatically write . Similarly, the combinations , , etc., do not occur. If
you add to , you write (and say) only a .
Alphabet Algebra:
long =
+=
short =
+=
+=
+ voice =
+=
+=
+=
+=
+=
+=

18

ACCENTS, BREATHINGS, AND PUNCTUATION

When foreigners started learning Greek in the Hellenistic period, Greek scholars developed
additional symbols to help non-Greeks understand the language. Modern printed editions,
following medieval manuscripts, use the following:
Breathings
Greek does not use a separate letter for the h sound. As we saw earlier, Greek has the
aspirated consonants , , and to indicate this sound.
If a word begins with aspiration but not one with one of these consonants, however, the
aspirated consonants are no help, so Greek uses two symbols to indicate aspiration or
lack of it.
= no aspiration: = o (smooth breathing)
= aspiration: = ho (rough breathing)
A Greek word that begins with a vowel must bear one of these two breathing marks. The
breathing will appear over the second vowel in a diphthong.
It can happen that only a breathing marks the difference between words. For example:
(auton) = him
(autn) = her
(hauton) = himself (hautn) = herself
Accents
Most words in Greek display an accent. Most scholars believe that in antiquity the accent
reflected a raised pitch on the accented sound, but by the middle of the Roman period, it
indicated stress. Although there is only one type of accent, you will potentially see three different
symbols on a Greek word:

/ acute marks the accented vowel sound of a word.

\ grave marks an unaccented vowel; the symbol is used only to mark a vowel which
normally bears an acute accent but which becomes unaccented in practice (see p.25).
circumflex appears over a long vowel or diphthong to indicate that the first part of
the long sound is accented (while the second part is not):
o = , = .

For a diphthong, the accent is always printed over the second letter, even
if the first sound of the diphthong actually bears the accent.
o If the second sound bears the accent, it appears as an acute:
o = , = .

19

Accents
Most words in Greek display an accent. Most scholars believe that in antiquity the accent
reflected a raised pitch on the accented sound, but by the middle of the Roman period, it
indicated stress. Although there is only one type of accent, you will potentially see three different
symbols on a Greek word:

/ acute marks the accented vowel sound of a word.

\ grave marks an unaccented vowel; the symbol is used only to mark a vowel which
normally bears an acute accent but which becomes unaccented in practice (see p.25).
circumflex appears over a long vowel or diphthong to indicate that the first part of
the long sound is accented (while the second part is not):
o = , = .

For a diphthong, the accent is always printed over the second letter, even
if the first sound of the diphthong actually bears the accent.
o If the second sound bears the accent, it appears as an acute:
o = , = .

Placing the accent

The most common rule governing the placement of the accent on a word is that of recessive
accent. This means the accent tries to recede as far back (left) as possible, but it cannot
normally recede more than the length of three short vowel sounds:
(lpete) but (lipt = liptoo);
(dron = doron) but (drou = o dorou).
Some words accent according to other rules, but remember: the accent is always written out, so
just say it where it appears.

Punctuation
Greek uses four marks of punctuation:
full stop . (period)
half stop (colon; Greek for limb; ~ semi-colon)
pause , (comma; Greek for stamp mark)
question mark ;

20

RECOGNIZING GREEK WORDS

The two columns below show the same words printed entirely in capitals (on the left) and in
lower case (on the right). Each of these Greek words comes into English with little or no change.
Can you recognize the English word? One note of caution: Sometimes the meaning of the
English word is slightly different from the meaning of the Greek word. Thanks to Tom
Sienkewicz for this list.

A
IA
TIA
IA
IA
A
A
AA
IA
A
IA

21

OVERVIEW OF GREEK GRAMMAR

(Introduction to Greek Exam Syllabus V)
Parts of Speech in Greek
Greek has much the same parts of speech as English or Latin:

VERBS
NOUNS
ADJECTIVES
PRONOUNS
PREPOSITIONS
CONJUNCTIONS
ADVERBS
INTERJECTIONS and PARTICLES
o As noted earlier, Greek texts normally write out every interjection and verbal
grunt that a speaker says.

Some hints about Greek words:

Words beginning with or always have a rough breathing:
= rho, = rhythmos (rhythm)
= hyper above ( English hyper)
Greek words can end in a limited number of ways:
with a vowel sound
with the sounds (n), - (r), or (s)
o this includes (ks) or (ps)
the only exceptions are the words (ek) "out of, from" and (ouk) "not"
If any other consonant would otherwise end a word, it simply disappears.
If a word ends with - (-si), especially when the next word begins with a vowel, it can
add an additional (n) to make pronunciation easier.
o For example: (lyousi tous hippous) but
(lyousin hippous).

Remember the cardinal rule:

SPELL IT LIKE IT SOUNDS!

22

OVERVIEW OF GREEK VERBS

Greek verbs have generally the same attributes as Latin verbs.

Person: 1st, 2nd, 3rd

Number: Singular, Plural
o There is a dual, but it is rare
Tense: Present, Imperfect, Future, Aorist, Perfect, Pluperfect
o There is a Future Perfect tense, but it is very rare.
o The Aorist tense refers to a single action, usually in the past. In Latin, the Perfect
tense covers the meanings of both the Aorist and Perfect in Greek. For example,
in Latin, fcimus can mean either "we did" or "we have done." In Greek, the
Aorist would mean "we did" and the Perfect "we have done."
Mood: Indicative, Participle, Infinitive, Imperative, Subjunctive, Optative
o Only the indicative mood has all the tenses.
o Greek has participles only in the Present, Future, Aorist and Perfect tenses. Unlike
Latin, it has participles in all voices for each tense.
o The infinitive, imperative, subjunctive and optative moods exist primarily in the
present and aorist tenses. Other tenses are either extremely rare or do not exist.
o Like the Latin Subjunctive, the Greek Subjunctive has a hortatory/jussive use.
When it appears in a dependent clause, it rarely has any special meaning.
o The Optative expresses wish (cf. Latin optre) or potential. In dependent clauses,
it replaces the subjunctive in past tenses, again only rarely with any special
meaning. (Remember that in Latin the Sequence of Tenses calls for the Imperfect
or Pluperfect Subjunctive with main verbs in the past tense; Greek uses the
Optative the same way Latin uses the Imperfect and Pluperfect Subjunctive.)
Voice: Active, Middle, Passive
o The Middle voice means the action of the verb affects the subject in some way.
For example, "I buy a drink" is active but "I buy myself a drink" in Greek would
be in the Middle voice.
o One way to think of the Passive voice in Greek is as a specialized case of the
Middle Voice. Purely passive constructions in Greek are relatively rare until the
end of the Classical period, but by the time of the New Testament, they are
important.

23

Conjugations and the Organization of Greek verb endings

Whereas Latin has four conjugations based on thematic vowels (, , e, ) and some verbs with
no thematic vowel (e.g., sum esse; fer, ferre), all verbs in Greek are a mix of a single thematic
conjugation and an athematic conjugation:
- ("omega" or "-") thematic conjugation (thematic vowel o/e)
o The name refers to the 1st person singular ending (the exact equivalent of the
ending for Latin verbs).
- (-mi) athematic conjugation
o The name refers to the 1st person singular ending (the analogue of the m ending
for Latin verbs).
The personal endings of Greek verbs in the indicative fall into six groups, organized as follows:

Primary (present, future, perfect tenses; subjunctive mood)

o 1. - ("omega" or "-") conjugation active:

() [- eis -ei omen ete ousi(n)]

The Introduction to Greek level of the National Greek Exam tests only
this set of endings.

Most verbs use these endings in the present tense.

All verbs use these endings in the future tense, subjunctive mood and, with
small changes, the perfect tense.
o 2. - (-mi) conjugation active: ()

Some verbs use these endings in the present tense.
o 3. Middle Voice:

All verbs use these same endings for primary tenses in the Middle Voice.
Secondary (imperfect, aorist, pluperfect tenses; optative mood)
o 4. - ("omega" or "-") conjugation active:

Most verbs use these endings in the imperfect tense.

Some verbs use these endings in the aorist tense.
o 5. - (-mi) conjugation active:

Some verbs use these endings in the imperfect and/or aorist tenses.

Most verbs use a variation of these endings in the aorist tense.

All verbs use these endings for the pluperfect.

All verbs use a variation of these endings for an intransitive version of the
aorist and for the optative mood.
o 6. Middle Voice:

All verbs use these same endings for secondary tenses in the Middle Voice.
 Greek does not have a unique set of endings to mark passive constructions.

24

Frequency of Greek Tenses, Moods and Voices

Anne Mahoney, The Forms You Really Need to Know, Classical Outlook 81 (2004) 101-105.
Tenses
Present (46.7%)
Aorist (28.0%)
Imperfect (13.2%)
Perfect (6.4%)
Future (4.8%)
Pluperfect (0.8%)
Future Perfect (0.1%)
Moods
Indicative (41.6%)
Participle (30.6%)
Infinitive (13.4%)
Subjunctive (5.7%)
Imperative (3.9%)
Optative (2.8%)
Voices
Active (85.5%)
Middle (10.2%)
Passive (4.3%)

25

OVERVIEW OF GREEK NOUNS, PRONOUNS AND ADJECTIVES

Greek nouns, pronouns, and adjectives have generally the same attributes as in Latin.

Gender: masculine, feminine, neuter

Number: Singular, Plural
o There is a dual, but it is rare.
Case:
o Nominative

Subject
o Genitive

possession, separation, generally = "of"
o Dative

indirect object, means/instrument, location (time/space)
o Accusative

direct object
o Vocative

direct address, prayer

Greek has no Ablative case. The functions of the Ablative in Latin appear in other cases:
Means/Instrument  Dative
Locative  Dative
Separation  Genitive
Beyond the core functions listed above, Greek tends to use prepositions rather than just the case
form of a noun. Prepositions govern the Genitive, Dative and Accusative cases according to the
following pattern:
Separation
away from, out of
 Genitive

Location
in, at
 Dative

Motion
towards, into
 Accusative

Greek nouns fall into three declensions.

Like Latin nouns, Greek adjectives must agree with their nouns in gender, number and case (but
not declension).

26

UNDERSTANDING A GREEK TEXT

(Introduction to Greek Exam Syllabus V)
VERBS
Present Indicative Active
Regular Greek verbs use the following endings to designate person and number:
- (-) "I"
- (-eis) "you"
- (-ei) "s/he, it, etc."

- (-omen) "we"
- (-ete) "you, y'all"
-() "ousi(n)" "they, etc."

A lexicon or vocabulary lists Greek verbs in their first person singular present indicative active
form. (Unlike for Latin verbs, the infinitive is not listed.)
(lambn) take
(lambn) I take
(lambneis) you take
(lambnei) s/he takes

(lambnomen) we take
(lambnete) y'all take
() (lambnousi[n]) they take

Accenting Greek verbs:

Greek verbs accent recessively (see p. 19 above). For present indicative active forms, this means:
The accent is always acute (/).
The acute accent always appears over the last vowel of the verb's stem (-- in the above
example).
Other types of verbs:
The overwhelming majority of Greek verbs follow the above pattern. If a verb is not listed with
the ending, it is irregular in one or more of three ways:
If it ends in (-mai), the verb is deponent, having forms only in the middle and/or
passive voices.
If it ends in (-mi), the verb uses endings of the (-mi) conjugation in the present
tense.
If it ends in (-a), the verb is defective and has no present tense.
In Attic and koine Greek, verbs with stems ending in - (a), - (e) or (o) (and thus with
entries ending in , - or -) contract these vowels with the thematic vowel
(following the chart on page 17), but such verbs (called "contract verbs") are omitted
here.

27

NOUNS
2nd Declension
Greek has a definite article "the," which operates like an adjective, agreeing with its noun in
gender, number and case.
The masculine forms resemble the endings of the 2nd Declension:
Singular
Plural
Nominative (ho)
(hoi)
Genitive
(tou)
(tn)
Dative
(ti)
(tois)
Accusative
(ton)
(tous)
The particle "" regularly precedes noun(s) in the vocative case.
Nouns of the 2nd Declension use endings similar to the article:

Nominative
Genitive
Dative
Accusative
Vocative

Singular
- (-os)
- (-ou)
- (-i)
- (-on)
- (-e)

Plural
- (-oi)
- (-n)
- (-ois)
- (-ous)
- (-oi)

Nominative
Genitive
Dative
Accusative
Vocative

Singular
(lgos)
(lgou)
(lgi)
(lgon)
(lge)

Plural
(lgoi)
(lgn)
(lgois)
(lgous)
(lgoi)

In a lexicon or vocabulary, a Greek noun is listed as:

nominative singular: -
genitive singular ending: -
nominative singular of the article which corresponds to its gender:
meaning
Thus

word
Feminine nouns in this declension are identical with masculine nouns.

28

NOUNS
2nd Declension neuter
As in Latin, neuter nouns in Greek follow two basic rules:
the nominative, accusative and vocative singular must be identical
the nominative, accusative and vocative plural must end in (-a).
The neuter article thus becomes:
Singular
Plural
Nominative (to)
(ta)
Genitive
(tou)
(tn)
Dative
(ti)
(tois)
Accusative
(to)
(ta)
The particle "" regularly precedes noun(s) in the vocative case.
Nouns of the 2nd Declension use endings similar to the article:

Nominative
Genitive
Dative
Accusative
Vocative

Singular
- (-on)
- (-ou)
- (-i)
- (-on)
- (-on)

Plural
- (-a)
- (-n)
- (-ois)
- (-a)
- (-a)

Nominative
Genitive
Dative
Accusative
Vocative

Singular
(rgon)
(rgou)
(rgi)
(rgon)
(rgon)

Plural
(rga)
(rgn)
(rgois)
(rga)
(rga)

In a lexicon or vocabulary, such a Greek noun is listed as:

nominative singular: -
genitive singular ending: -
nominative singular of the article which corresponds to its gender:
meaning
Thus

deed

29

NOUNS
1st Declension
Greek has a definite article "the," which operates like an adjective, agreeing with its noun in
gender, number and case.
The feminine forms resemble the endings of the 1st Declension:
Singular
Plural
Nominative (h)
(hai)
Genitive
(ts)
(tn)
Dative
(ti)
(tais)
Accusative
(tn)
(tas)
The particle "" regularly precedes noun(s) in the vocative case.
Nouns of the 1st Declension use endings similar to the article:
Singular
Nominative - (-)
Genitive
- (-s)
Dative
- (-i)
Accusative
- (-n)
Vocative = Nominative

Plural
- (-ai)
- (-n)
- (-ais)
- (-as)

Singular
Nominative (nk)
Genitive
(nks)
Dative
(nki)
Accusative
(nkn)
Vocative = Nominative

Plural
(nkai)
(nkn)
(nkais)
(nkas)

In a lexicon or vocabulary, such a Greek noun is listed as:

nominative singular: -
genitive singular ending: -
nominative singular of the article which corresponds to its gender:
meaning
Thus

victory

30

NOUNS
1st Declension variations
The 1st Declension has subgroups of nouns with small differences in their endings. These
variations affect only the singular forms. The changes have no affect on the meaning, the article,
or any adjectives modifying these nouns.
A few nouns have a short (a) in their nominative and accusative singular:

opinion, glory
Singular
Nominative (dksa)
Genitive
(dkss)
Dative
(dksi)
Accusative
(dksan)
Vocative = Nominative
Nouns with stems which end in (-) (-i) or (-r) change their () to a long (a). Often
the (a) in the nominative and accusative singular will be short, but this short vowel will not be
apparent except in a lexicon.

force

rock

Singular
Nominative (ba)
Genitive
(bas)
Dative
(bas)
Accusative
(ban)
Vocative = Nominative

Singular
Nominative (ptra)
Genitive
(ptras)
Dative
(ptrai)
Accusative
(ptran)
Vocative = Nominative

Masculine nouns in the 1st declension have - (-s) in the nominative, (-ou) in the genitive,
and (a) in the vocative:

citizen
Nominative
Genitive
Dative
Accusative
Vocative

Singular
(polts)
(poltou)
(polti)
(poltn)
(polta)

There are no neuter nouns in this declension.

31

ACCENTING GREEK NOUNS

The placement of accents on nouns shifts more than on verbs. First, note the following two rules:

The endings and count as a single short vowel sound when determining the
position of the accent (rather than as a long diphthong).
o This is a general rule in Greek, but for purposes of the Introduction to Greek
Exam, it affects only the nominative/vocative plural endings for masculine and
feminine nouns in the 1st and 2nd declension.
The accent on the genitive plural of first declension nouns is always a circumflex on the
ending: -.
o This is because of a hidden contraction of an -- in the stem, e.g.:
(nikoon)  (nikn)  (nikn).

All of the noun paradigms on the previous pages follow the rules of recessive accent, just like
verbs. Here are some other examples:

tongue, language
Nominative
Genitive
Dative
Accusative
Vocative

Singular

= Nominative

Nominative
Genitive
Dative
Accusative
Vocative

Plural

= Nominative

gift
Nominative
Genitive
Dative
Accusative
Vocative

Singular

= Nominative
= Nominative

Nominative
Genitive
Dative
Accusative
Vocative

Plural

= Nominative
= Nominative

Nominative
Genitive
Dative
Accusative
Vocative

Plural

= Nominative

human
Nominative
Genitive
Dative
Accusative
Vocative

Singular

Note: violates a general rule of accent placement by receding more than three short-vowel-sounds. This
happens with some nouns, usually because the accent was fixed when the word had a different form (here, probably
) and the accent stayed in place after the word changed pronunciation.

32

Some nouns carry their accent on the last syllable rather than letting it recede, showing a pattern
that resembles that of the definite article:
The nominative and accusative endings bear an acute (/) accent.
The genitive and dative endings bear a circumflex (^) accent.
The Definite Article
Nom
Gen
Dat
Acc

Masculine
Singular
Plural
(ho)
(hoi)
(tou)
(tn)
(ti)
(tois)
(ton)
(tous)

Feminine
Singular
Plural
(h)
(hai)
(ts)
(tn)
(ti)
(tais)
(tn)
(tas)

Neuter
Singular
(to)
(tou)
(ti)
(to)

honor

god

Singular
Nominative
Genitive
Dative
Accusative
Vocative

(bam)
(squeak)
(squeak)
(bam)
(bam)

Singular
Nominative
Genitive
Dative
Accusative
Vocative

(bam)
(squeak)
(squeak)
(bam)
(bam)

Plural
Nominative
Genitive
Dative
Accusative
Vocative

(bam)
(squeak)
(squeak)
(bam)
(bam)

Plural
Nominative
Genitive
Dative
Accusative
Vocative

(bam)
(squeak)
(squeak)
(bam)
(bam)

Plural
(ta)
(tn)
(tois)
(ta)

The "bam-squeak-squeak-bam-bam" pattern can serve as a mnemonic device for remembering

the accents (bam = acute, squeak = circumflex, derived from the sound chalk makes when
writing these accents on the board).
It is extremely rare for the accent to affect the form or meaning of a noun, so you need to know
accent rules for nouns and adjectives primarily when writing Greek rather than just reading.

33

ADJECTIVES
1st and 2nd Declension
Like Latin adjectives, Greek adjectives agree with their nouns in gender, number and case. Greek
adjectives use the same endings and follow the same accent rules as nouns.
NB: Because adjectives do not have the hidden -- in their stem, when they use 1st
Declension endings, they do not have a circumflex accent on the genitive plural ending.
Like Latin us a um adjectives, most Greek adjectives use the endings of the 1st and 2nd
Declension.
- - (sophs n) wise
means
the adjective uses 2nd declension masculine endings to modify masculine nouns
o cf. word
the adjective uses 1st declension feminine endings to modify feminine nouns
o cf. victory
the adjective uses 2nd declension neuter endings to modify neuter nouns
o cf. deed
If the stem of the adjective ends in (-) (-i) or (-r), like 1st Declension nouns, they
change their () to a long (a) in the singular.
- - (mikrs n) small
means
the adjective uses 2nd declension masculine endings to modify masculine nouns
o cf. word
the adjective uses 1st declension feminine endings to modify feminine nouns
o cf. force
the adjective uses 2nd declension neuter endings to modify neuter nouns
o cf. deed
Some adjectives use 2nd Declension endings at all times.
- (dikos on) wrong, unjust
means
the adjective uses 2nd declension masculine endings to modify masculine or feminine
nouns
o cf. word
the adjective uses 2nd declension neuter endings to modify neuter nouns
o cf. deed

34

WORD ORDER
Classical Greek allows any order for the subject, object and verb:
. (h logos lambnei to rgon)
. (to rgon lambnei h logos)
. (lambnei to rgon h logos)
. (lambnei h logos to rgon)
. (h logos to rgon lambnei)
. (to rgon h logos lambnei)
= "The word takes the deed."
Unlike English, which prefers Subject-Verb-Object or Latin, which prefers Subject-Object-Verb,
Classical Greek has no default word order for these elements.
THE GRAVE (\) ACCENT
Notice in the above sentences that the accent on the definite article (t) appears with a
grave accent, as (t). When the last syllable of a word (or, in this case, a singlesyllable word) has an acute accent and another word follows in the sentence, the accent
changes to grave (\). This indicates that the accent effectively is nullified when speaking,
but the grave accent marks where the accent belongs. This is ONLY use of the grave
accent.
In practice, this means that the definite article and other words with acute accents on their
final syllables will almost always appear in texts bearing grave accents, but in paradigms
will have the original acute accent.
This change to a grave accent has no effect on the form or meaning of the word.
ATTRIBUTIVE AND PREDICATE POSITION
Greek is much more particular about the placement of adjectives and predicate nouns. Any
adjective or phrase (1) immediately after the definite article and/or (2) immediately before a
noun is in the attributive position and modifies the noun:
(h sophs lgos) = "the wise word"
(h lgos h sophs) = "the wise word"
(sophs lgos) = "a wise word"
(h sophs) = "the wise ('man' understood)"
In any other place, the adjective is in the predicate position and translates as if using the verb
"be":
(h lgos sophs) = "the word (is) wise"
(lgos sophs) = "the word (is) wise"
(sophs h nthrpos) = "the man (is) wise"

35

Prepositions/Prefixes
(prepositions which also serve as prefixes to Greek verbs)
Normal form
(before consonants)

before vowels

+ case

general meaning

+ acc.

around

+ acc.

up

+ gen.

back

+ gen.

from

+ gen, acc.

through

+ acc.

into

+ gen

out of

+ dat

in

, -,

+ gen, dat, acc

on

+ gen, acc

down

+ gen, acc

with, after

+ gen, dat, acc

beside

+ gen, acc

around

+ gen

before

+ gen, dat, acc

toward

, -, -, -

+ dat

with

+ gen, acc

above

+ gen, dat, acc

under

can contract

NOTES: and , only when prefixes, assimilate with the first consonant of the verb. So they
become - and - before a labial (, , , ), - and - before a palatal (, , , ), before . For example, + = , + = .
The prepositions , , , , , drop their final vowel before a word
or verb stem beginning with a vowel. If the following vowel also has a rough breathing, then the
final or aspirates (, ). For example: , , .

36

DERIVATIVES
(Introduction to Greek Exam Syllabus IV)
The syllabus calls for knowing derivatives of the following prepositions and prefixes.

transliterated
amphi

meaning
around, both

example
amphibian

anti

opposite

antibiotic

apo

from

apology, apostle

dia

through

diabolical, diameter

dys

difficult, abnormal

dysfunction, dyslexic

ec

out of, from

eclectic, eclipse

en

in, inside

enthusiasm, endocrine

epi

on, at, next to

epicenter, epilogue

eu, ev

well, good

eulogy, evangelical

meta

past, change

metaphor, metamorphosis

pan

all

pandemic, panorama

peri

around

periscope

pro

before, in front

problem, proboscis

pros

near, in front

prosthetic, proselytize

syn

with

synchronize, symbol

hyper (super)

over, above

hyperbole, hypertext

hypo

under, below

hypodermic

37

CORE VOCABULARY
Common Verbs in Greek
regular - verbs only
announce
say, proclaim
lead, bring
(Attic ) sing
muster
raise
dishonor
hear
make a mistake, miss the target
change
ward off
lead up
pick up
board, cross
recognize
hold up
force, compel
open up
release, escape
announce
carry off
step from
keep away
die
kill
take from
leave behind
set free from
send away
sail away
send away
display
join (mid: touch)
please
snatch
rule
increase
walk
throw
be king, rule, reign
, force, compel
hurt

see
deliberate
come to know, learn
write
cry
fear
step across
throw across
discuss
dissolve
pass over, accomplish
consume, spend time
carry on, make a difference
escape
destroy
teach
judge
pursue
wake up
wish
lead
carry into, pay taxes
lead out
throw out
refute
leave out
send out
fall out
stretch out
carry out
drive
refute
hope for
throw in
fall on
meet with
examine
press hard (mid: hurry)
announce
bring on
throw on

38

 plan against
hold on to
entrust
put upon
eat
find
have, hold
have come, be present
bury
be in awe
serve
die
sacrifice
make sit down, seat
work
step down
have prejudice, charge
lead down
take hold of
leave behind
put down
strike down
equip
subdue
flee for refuge
restrain
order
risk
steal
bend
punish
bring
cut
judge, decide
hide
kill
prevent
obtain by a lottery
take
do without being noticed
say, speak
leave
loosen, destroy
learn
intend, going to
stay
change

summon
be involved (+ gen.)
remind
distribute
consider
call by name
make angry
owe
educate
transmit
provide
receive
prepare
sprinkle
suffer, experience
stop
persuade
test
send
destroy
drink
fall
trust
strike
participate in government or politics
carry, march
do
lead on
greet
put before
hold to, offer
have arrived
take or receive besides
fall upon, strike against
place at
bring to
show
hurry
hurry
send
do military service
encamp
turn
bring together
bind together
collect
happen, agree with
throw together

39

 advise
benefit (+ dat.)
arrange
kill
save
arrange
stretch
cut
build
give birth
turn
nourish
run
rub
happen (+ part.) hit, meet, have (+ gen.)
insult, offend, disrespect
excel

listen to
begin, exist
take up
stay behind, survive
show, appear
claim
carry
flee, run away
anticipate
destroy
tell
think
guard
produce
be happy
lie, cheat
vote

40

Common Nouns in Greek

organized by declension and paradigm
1st Declension
, victory
, love, charity
-, sister
, necessity
-, excellence
-, beginning, rule
, blindness, destruction
-, plan, council
, thought, intelligence, opinion
, arrangement
, justice
, justice, lawsuit
-, peace
-, knowledge
-, message, letter
-, pleasure
-, head
, village
, pool, swamp
, battle
-, device
, memory
, victory
, bride
-, anger
-, attack
-, preparation
, gate
, strength
, moon
, tent, stage
-, libation
-, eagerness
, pardon
, composition, contract
-, leisure
-, completion, death
, art, skill
-, value
-, nourishment, food
, luck
-, excess

-, escape
-, guard
-, race, tribe
-, sound, voice
-, breath

41

 , force
, -, market place
-, cause
-, helplessness
, kingdom
, force
, assembly
, freedom
, authority
, evening
, day
-, goddess
-, time of life, age
, quiet
, door
, sacrifice
, inquiry
, heart
, insanity
, witness, testimony, evidence
, sea battle
, house, household
, substance, property
, siege
, constitution, citizenship,
republic
, journey
, eagerness
, wisdom
, expedition, campaign
, army
, alliance
-, accident
, safety
, help, vengeance
, love, friendship
-, guard
, use
, land
, season

, glory, opinion
, tongue, language
, lifestyle
, glory, opinion
, the sea
, rock
-, truth
, security
, help
, earth
, thought, intention
, care, attention
, good-will
-, fate
, rock
, foresight
, citizen
-, master
, judge, juror
-, kin, cousin
, a private person, an individual
, judge
, servant
, heavily-armed soldier, hoplite
, creator, poet
, citizen
, ambassador
, prophet
, soldier

42

2nd Declension
, word
, messenger, angel
, brother
-, prisoner of war
, wind
-, / human being
, number
, book
, life
, mortal
, altar
, wedding, marriage
-, people
, trick
-, slave
, a lament
, year
-, companion
, sun
, the land
, death
, god
, heat
, seat
, soul, spirit
, doctor
, horse
, the right time
, fruit
, danger
, womb, bay
, order
, circle
, lord, master
, stone
, or hunger
, word
, crest (esp. of a helmet), mane,
ridge
, pay
, story
, corpse
, custom, law
, disease
, foreigner, stranger
, house

, oath
, , mountain, hill
, , boundary
, sky, heaven
, eye
, crowd, mob
, wealth
, war
, work
, river
, ancestor
, rhythm
, grain
, expedition
, general
, army
, bull
, tomb
, place, topic
, way
, ruler, tyrant
, son
, sleep
, fear
, slaughter
, time
, gold
(feminine nouns)
, island
, road
, girl
, vote

43

 , work, deed
, prize
-, silver, a silver coin
, feast
, tree
, court
, gift
, work
, temple
, a large room
, wood
, weapon, tool
, plain

, ship
, face
, wing
, sign
, stade = roughly 1/8 of a mile
, chest
, camp
, an amount of silver
worth 600 drachma
, evidence
, child
, bow
, drug
, place

Common Adjectives in Greek

organized by paradigm
- - wise
- - good
- - disgraceful
other
-- royal, kingly
best
naked
- - cowardly
- awesome
- - clear
- - able
each
that
- - my, mine
deserted
last
or ready
- least
- awesome
- - sufficient
equal
- - bad
- - beautiful
- - empty
- - common
- strongest
- - white
- remaining
- middle

alone, single
- - naval
customary
few
whole
as many as
straight
however much
- - on foot
- - faithful
most
- - political
first
your, yours
- - wise
fourth
third
highest, the top of
- - high
trivial
beloved, dear
- - difficult
useful
- - useful
wo termination
unjust
impossible

44

 domestic
such a kind
or like
of what sort
old
resembling
of or belonging to one's father
five hundred
- - disabled
near
rich
what sort of?
hostile (m.pl.: the enemy)
evil, painful
which of the two?
drinkable
before
easy
their (own)
last, final
four hundred
, three hundred
your, yours
following
- clear
friendly, dear
a thousand

- immortal
contrary to expectation,
paradoxical
eager
specially called
allied
- - small
wretched
crowded
responsible, guilty
top
someone else's
both
necessary
manly, brave
worthy
inexperienced, ignorant
best
ancient
foreign, barbarous
kingly, royal
firm
- - right
second
two hundred
just
divine
two thousand
each of two
free
opposite
some
convenient
other
- hated
our
divine
one's own
- holy
- - strong
- - pure
- - bright
- - long
- - small
countless
young

45