Diode: For Data Diodes, See - For Other Uses, See

Diode
From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For data diodes, see Unidirectional network. For other uses, see Diodes (disambiguation).
Closeup of a diode, showing the square-shaped semiconductor crystal(black object on left).
Various semiconductor diodes. Bottom: A bridge rectifier. In most diodes, a white or black painted band identifies
the cathode terminal, that is, the terminal that positive charge (conventional current) will flow out of when the diode is
conducting.[1][2][3][4]
Structure of a vacuum tube diode. The filament may be bare, or more commonly (as shown here), embedded within
and insulated from an enclosing cathode.
In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with asymmetric conductance; it has

low (ideally zero) resistance to currentin one direction, and high (ideally infinite) resistance in the
other. A semiconductor diode, the most common type today, is a crystallinepiece
of semiconductor material with a pn junction connected to two electrical terminals.[5] A vacuum
tube diode has two electrodes, aplate (anode) and a heated cathode. Semiconductor diodes were
the first semiconductor electronic devices. The discovery of crystals'rectifying abilities was made by
German physicist Ferdinand Braun in 1874. The first semiconductor diodes, called cat's whisker
diodes, developed around 1906, were made of mineral crystals such as galena. Today, most diodes
are made of silicon, but other semiconductors such as selenium or germanium are sometimes used.
[6]
Contents
[hide]
1 Main functions
2 History
o
2.1 Vacuum tube diodes
2.2 Solid-state diodes
2.3 Etymology
2.3.1 Rectifiers
3 Thermionic diodes
4 Semiconductor diodes
4.1 Electronic symbols
4.2 Point-contact diodes
4.3 Junction diodes
4.3.1 pn junction diode
4.3.2 Schottky diode
4.4 Currentvoltage characteristic
4.5 Shockley diode equation
4.6 Small-signal behavior
4.7 Reverse-recovery effect
5 Types of semiconductor diode
6 Numbering and coding schemes

o
6.1 EIA/JEDEC
6.2 JIS
6.3 Pro Electron
7 Related devices
8 Applications
o
8.1 Radio demodulation
8.2 Power conversion
8.3 Over-voltage protection
8.4 Logic gates
8.5 Ionizing radiation detectors
8.6 Temperature measurements
8.7 Current steering
8.8 Waveform Clipper
8.9 Clamper
9 Abbreviations
10 See also
11 References
12 External links
o
12.1 Interactive and animations
Main functions[edit]
The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called
the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction).
Thus, the diode can be viewed as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior
is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current, including extraction
ofmodulation from radio signals in radio receiversthese diodes are forms of rectifiers.
However, diodes can have more complicated behavior than this simple onoff action, due to
their nonlinear current-voltage characteristics. Semiconductor diodes begin conducting electricity
only if a certain threshold voltage or cut-in voltage is present in the forward direction (a state in which
the diode is said to be forward-biased). The voltage drop across a forward-biased diode varies only
a little with the current, and is a function of temperature; this effect can be used as a temperature
sensor or voltage reference.
Semiconductor diodes' currentvoltage characteristic can be tailored by varying the semiconductor
materials and doping, introducing impurities into the materials. These techniques are used to create
special-purpose diodes that perform many different functions. For example, diodes are used to
regulate voltage (Zener diodes), to protect circuits from high voltage surges (avalanche diodes), to
electronically tune radio and TV receivers (varactor diodes), to generate radiofrequency oscillations (tunnel diodes, Gunn diodes,IMPATT diodes), and to produce light (lightemitting diodes). Tunnel, Gunn and IMPATT diodes exhibit negative resistance, which is useful
in microwave and switching circuits.
History[edit]
Thermionic (vacuum tube) diodes and solid state (semiconductor) diodes were developed
separately, at approximately the same time, in the early 1900s, as radio receiverdetectors. Until the
1950s vacuum tube diodes were more often used in radios because the early point-contact type
semiconductor diodes (cat's-whisker detectors) were less stable, and because most receiving sets
had vacuum tubes for amplification that could easily have diodes included in the tube (for example
the 12SQ7 double diode triode), and vacuum tube rectifiers and gas-filled rectifiers handled some
high voltage/high current rectification tasks beyond the capabilities of semiconductor diodes (such
as selenium rectifiers) available at the time.
Vacuum tube diodes[edit]

Further information: Vacuum tube
In 1873, Frederick Guthrie discovered the basic principle of operation of thermionic diodes.[7]
[8]
Guthrie discovered that a positively charged electroscope could be discharged by bringing
a grounded piece of white-hot metal close to it (but not actually touching it). The same did not apply
to a negatively charged electroscope, indicating that the current flow was only possible in one
direction.
Thomas Edison independently rediscovered the principle on February 13, 1880. At the time, Edison
was investigating why the filaments of his carbon-filament light bulbs nearly always burned out at the
positive-connected end. He had a special bulb made with a metal plate sealed into the glass
envelope. Using this device, he confirmed that an invisible current flowed from the glowing filament
through the vacuum to the metal plate, but only when the plate was connected to the positive supply.
Edison devised a circuit where his modified light bulb effectively replaced the resistor in
a DC voltmeter. Edison was awarded a patent for this invention in 1884.[9] Since there was no
apparent practical use for such a device at the time, the patent application was most likely simply a
precaution in case someone else did find a use for the so-called Edison effect.
About 20 years later, John Ambrose Fleming (scientific adviser to the Marconi Company and former
Edison employee) realized that the Edison effect could be used as a precision radio detector.
Fleming patented the first true thermionic diode, the Fleming valve, in Britain on November 16,
1904[10] (followed by U.S. Patent 803,684 in November 1905).
Solid-state diodes[edit]
In 1874 German scientist Karl Ferdinand Braun discovered the "unilateral conduction" of crystals. [11]
[12]
Braun patented the crystal rectifier in 1899.[13] Copper oxide and selenium rectifiers were
developed for power applications in the 1930s.
Indian scientist Jagadish Chandra Bose was the first to use a crystal for detecting radio waves in
1894.[14] The crystal detector was developed into a practical device for wireless
telegraphy by Greenleaf Whittier Pickard, who invented a silicon crystal detector in 1903 and
received a patent for it on November 20, 1906.[15] Other experimenters tried a variety of other
substances, of which the most widely used was the mineral galena (lead sulfide). Other substances
offered slightly better performance, but galena was most widely used because it had the advantage
of being cheap and easy to obtain. The crystal detector in these early crystal radio sets consisted of
an adjustable wire point-contact (the so-called "cat's whisker"), which could be manually moved over
the face of the crystal in order to obtain optimum signal. This troublesome device was superseded
by thermionic diodes by the 1920s, but after high purity semiconductor materials became available,
the crystal detector returned to dominant use with the advent of inexpensive fixed-germanium diodes
in the 1950s. Bell Labs also developed a germanium diode for microwave reception, and AT&T used
these in their microwave towers that criss-crossed the nation starting in the late 1940s, carrying
telephone and network television signals. Bell Labs did not develop a satisfactory thermionic diode
for microwave reception.
Etymology[edit]
At the time of their invention, such devices were known as rectifiers. In 1919, the year tetrodes were
invented, William Henry Eccles coined the term diode from the Greek rootsdi (from ), meaning
"two", and ode (from ), meaning "path". (However, the word diode itself, as well
as triode, tetrode, penthode, hexode, was already in use as a term ofmultiplex telegraphy; see, for
example, The telegraphic journal and electrical review, September 10, 1886, p. 252).
Rectifiers[edit]
Main article: Rectifier
Although all diodes rectify, the term 'rectifier' is normally reserved for higher currents and voltages
than would normally be found in the rectification of lower power signals; examples include:
Power supply rectifiers (half-wave, full-wave, bridge)
Flyback diodes
Thermionic diodes[edit]
Diode vacuum tube construction
The symbol for an indirect heated vacuum-tube diode. From top to bottom, the components are the anode, the
cathode, and the heater filament.
A thermionic diode is a thermionic-valve device (also known as a vacuum tube, tube, or valve),
consisting of a sealed evacuated glass envelope containing two electrodes: a cathode heated by
a filament, and a plate (anode). Early examples were fairly similar in appearance to incandescent
light bulbs.
In operation, a separate current through the filament (heater), a high resistance wire made
of nichrome, heats the cathode red hot (8001000 C), causing it to release electrons into the
vacuum, a process called thermionic emission. The cathode is coated with oxides of alkaline earth
metals such as barium and strontium oxides, which have a low work function, to increase the
number of electrons emitted. (Some valves use direct heating, in which a tungsten filament acts as
both heater and cathode.) The alternating voltage to be rectified is applied between the cathode and
the concentric plate electrode. When the plate has a positive voltage with respect to the cathode,
itelectrostatically attracts the electrons from the cathode, so a current of electrons flows through the
tube from cathode to plate. However when the polarity is reversed and the plate has a negative
voltage, no current flows, because the cathode electrons are not attracted to it. The unheated plate
does not emit any electrons itself. So electrons can only flow through the tube in one direction, from
cathode to plate.
In a mercury-arc valve, an arc forms between a refractory conductive anode and a pool of liquid
mercury acting as cathode. Such units were made with ratings up to hundreds of kilowatts, and were
important in the development of HVDC power transmission. Some types of smaller thermionic
rectifiers sometimes had mercury vapor fill to reduce their forward voltage drop and to increase
current rating over thermionic hard-vacuum devices.
Throughout the vacuum tube era, valve diodes were used in analog signal applications and as
rectifiers in DC power supplies in consumer electronics such as radios, televisions, and sound
systems. They were replaced in power supplies beginning in the 1940s by selenium rectifiers and
then by semiconductor diodes by the 1960s. Today they are still used in a few high power
applications where their ability to withstand transients and their robustness gives them an advantage
over semiconductor devices. The recent (2012) resurgence of interest among audiophiles and
recording studios in old valve audio gear such as guitar amplifiers and home audio systems has
provided a market for the legacy consumer diode valves.
Semiconductor diodes[edit]
Electronic symbols[edit]
Main article: Electronic symbol
The symbol used for a semiconductor diode in a circuit diagram specifies the type of diode. There
are alternative symbols for some types of diodes, though the differences are minor.
Diode
Light Emitting Diode(LED)
Photodiode
Schottky diode
Transient Voltage Suppression (TVS)
Tunnel diode
Varicap
Zener diode
Typical diode packages in same alignment as diode symbol. Thin bar depicts the cathode.
Point-contact diodes[edit]
A point-contact diode works the same as the junction diodes described below, but their
construction is simpler. A block of n-type semiconductor is built, and a conducting sharp-point
contact made with some group-3 metal is placed in contact with the semiconductor. Some metal
migrates into the semiconductor to make a small region of p-type semiconductor near the contact.
The long-popular 1N34 germanium version is still used in radio receivers as a detector and
occasionally in specialized analog electronics.
Junction diodes[edit]
pn junction diode[edit]
Main article: pn diode
A pn junction diode is made of a crystal of semiconductor, usually silicon,

but germanium and gallium arsenide are also used. Impurities are added to it to create a region on
one side that contains negative charge carriers (electrons), called n-type semiconductor, and a
region on the other side that contains positive charge carriers (holes), called p-type semiconductor.
When two materials i.e. n-type and p-type are attached together, a momentary flow of electrons
occur from n to p side resulting in a third region where no charge carriers are present. This region is
called the depletion region due to the absence of charge carriers (electrons and holes in this case).
The diode's terminals are attached to the n-type and p-type regions. The boundary between these
two regions, called a pn junction, is where the action of the diode takes place. The crystal allows
electrons to flow from the N-type side (called the cathode) to the P-type side (called the anode), but
not in the opposite direction.
Schottky diode[edit]
Main article: Schottky diode
Another type of junction diode, the Schottky diode, is formed from a metalsemiconductor
junction rather than a pn junction, which reduces capacitance and increases switching speed.
Currentvoltage characteristic[edit]
IV (current vs. voltage) characteristics of a pn junction diode
A semiconductor diode's behavior in a circuit is given by its currentvoltage characteristic, or IV

graph (see graph below). The shape of the curve is determined by the transport of charge carriers
through the so-calleddepletion layer or depletion region that exists at the pn junction between
differing semiconductors. When a pn junction is first created, conduction-band (mobile) electrons
from the N-doped region diffuse into the P-doped region where there is a large population of holes
(vacant places for electrons) with which the electrons "recombine". When a mobile electron
recombines with a hole, both hole and electron vanish, leaving behind an immobile positively
charged donor (dopant) on the N side and negatively charged acceptor (dopant) on the P side. The
region around the pn junction becomes depleted of charge carriers and thus behaves as
aninsulator.
However, the width of the depletion region (called the depletion width) cannot grow without limit. For
eachelectronhole pair that recombines, a positively charged dopant ion is left behind in the Ndoped region, and a negatively charged dopant ion is left behind in the P-doped region. As
recombination proceeds more ions are created, an increasing electric field develops through the
depletion zone that acts to slow and then finally stop recombination. At this point, there is a "built-in"
potential across the depletion zone.
If an external voltage is placed across the diode with the same polarity as the built-in potential, the
depletion zone continues to act as an insulator, preventing any significant electric current flow
(unless electronhole pairs are actively being created in the junction by, for instance, light;
see photodiode). This is the reverse bias phenomenon. However, if the polarity of the external
voltage opposes the built-in potential, recombination can once again proceed, resulting in substantial
electric current through the pn junction (i.e. substantial numbers of electrons and holes recombine
at the junction). For silicon diodes, the built-in potential is approximately 0.7 V (0.3 V for Germanium
and 0.2 V for Schottky). Thus, if an external current passes through the diode, the voltage across the
diode increases logarithmic with the current such that the P-doped region is positive with respect to
the N-doped region and the diode is said to be "turned on" as it has a forward bias. The diode is
commonly said to have a forward "threshold" voltage, which it conducts above and is cutoff below.
However, this is only an approximation as the forward characteristic is according to the Shockley
equation absolutely smooth (see graph below).
A diode's IV characteristic can be approximated by four regions of operation:
1. At very large reverse bias, beyond the peak inverse voltage or PIV, a process called
reverse breakdown occurs that causes a large increase in current (i.e., a large number of
electrons and holes are created at, and move away from the pn junction) that usually
damages the device permanently. The avalanche diode is deliberately designed for use in
the avalanche region. In the Zener diode, the concept of PIV is not applicable. A Zener diode
contains a heavily doped pn junction allowing electrons to tunnel from the valence band of
the p-type material to the conduction band of the n-type material, such that the reverse
voltage is "clamped" to a known value (called the Zener voltage), and avalanche does not
occur. Both devices, however, do have a limit to the maximum current and power in the
clamped reverse-voltage region. Also, following the end of forward conduction in any diode,
there is reverse current for a short time. The device does not attain its full blocking capability
until the reverse current ceases.
2. At reverse biases more positive than the PIV, has only a very small reverse saturation
current. In the reverse bias region for a normal PN rectifier diode, the current through the
device is very low (in the A range). However, this is temperature dependent, and at
sufficiently high temperatures, a substantial amount of reverse current can be observed (mA
or more).
3. With a small forward bias, where only a small forward current is conducted, the current
voltage curve is exponential in accordance with the ideal diode equation. There is a definite
forward voltage at which the diode starts to conduct significantly. This is called the knee
voltage or cut-in voltage and is equal to the barrier potential of the p-n junction. This is a
feature of the exponential curve, and is seen more prominently on a current scale more
compressed than in the diagram here.
4. At larger forward currents the current-voltage curve starts to be dominated by the ohmic
resistance of the bulk semiconductor. The curve is no longer exponential, it is asymptotic to
a straight line whose slope is the bulk resistance. This region is particularly important for
power diodes. The effect can be modelled as an ideal diode in series with a fixed resistor.
In a small silicon diode at rated currents, the voltage drop is about 0.6 to 0.7 volts. The value is
different for other diode typesSchottky diodes can be rated as low as 0.2 V, Germanium diodes
0.25 to 0.3 V, and red or blue light-emitting diodes (LEDs) can have values of 1.4 V and 4.0 V
respectively.[16]
At higher currents the forward voltage drop of the diode increases. A drop of 1 V to 1.5 V is typical at
full rated current for power diodes.
Shockley diode equation[edit]

The Shockley ideal diode equation or the diode law (named after transistor co-inventor William
Bradford Shockley) gives the IV characteristic of an ideal diode in either forward or reverse bias (or
no bias). The following equation is called the Shockley ideal diode equation when n, the ideality
factor, is set equal to 1 :
where
I is the diode current,
IS is the reverse bias saturation current (or scale current),
VD is the voltage across the diode,
VT is the thermal voltage, and
n is the ideality factor, also known as the quality factor or sometimes emission coefficient.
The ideality factor n typically varies from 1 to 2 (though can in some cases be higher),
depending on the fabrication process and semiconductor material and in many cases is
assumed to be approximately equal to 1 (thus the notation n is omitted). The ideality factor
does not form part of the Shockley ideal diode equation, and was added to account for
imperfect junctions as observed in real transistors. The factor is mainly accounting for carrier
recombination as the charge carriers cross the depletion region. By setting n = 1 above, the
equation reduces to the Shockley ideal diode equation.
The thermal voltage VT is approximately 25.85 mV at 300 K, a temperature
close to "room temperature" commonly used in device simulation software.
At any temperature it is a known constant defined by:
where k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute temperature of the

pn junction, and q is the magnitude of charge of
an electron (the elementary charge).
The reverse saturation current, IS, is not constant for a given device, but
varies with temperature; usually more significantly than VT, so
that VD typically decreases as T increases.
The Shockley ideal diode equation or the diode law is derived with the
assumption that the only processes giving rise to the current in the
diode are drift (due to electrical field), diffusion, and
thermal recombinationgeneration (RG) (this equation is derived by
setting n = 1 above). It also assumes that the RG current in the
depletion region is insignificant. This means that the Shockley ideal
diode equation doesn't account for the processes involved in reverse
breakdown and photon-assisted RG. Additionally, it doesn't describe
the "leveling off" of the IV curve at high forward bias due to internal
resistance. Introducing the ideality factor, n, accounts for recombination
and generation of carriers.
Under reverse bias voltages the exponential in the diode equation is
negligible, and the current is a constant (negative) reverse current
value of IS. The reverse breakdown region is not modeled by the

Shockley diode equation.
For even rather small forward bias voltages the exponential is very
large, since the thermal voltage is very small in comparison. The
subtracted '1' in the diode equation is then negligible and the forward
diode current can be approximated by
The use of the diode equation in circuit problems is illustrated in the

article on diode modeling.
Small-signal behavior[edit]
For circuit design, a small-signal model of the diode behavior often
proves useful. A specific example of diode modeling is discussed in
the article on small-signal circuits.
Reverse-recovery effect[edit]
Following the end of forward conduction in a pn type diode, a
reverse current can flow for a short time. The device does not attain
its blocking capability until the mobile charge in the junction is
depleted.
The effect can be significant when switching large currents very
quickly.[17] A certain amount of "reverse recovery time" tr (on the
order of tens of nanoseconds to a few microseconds) may be
required to remove the reverse recovery charge Qr from the diode.
During this recovery time, the diode can actually conduct in the
reverse direction. This might give rise to a large constant current in
the reverse direction for a short period of time and while the diode
is reverse biased. The magnitude of such reverse current is
determined by the operating circuit (i.e., the series resistance) and
the diode is called to be in the storage-phase.[18] In certain realworld cases it can be important to consider the losses incurred by
this non-ideal diode effect.[19] However, when the slew rate of the
current is not so severe (e.g. Line frequency) the effect can be
safely ignored. For most applications, the effect is also negligible
for Schottky diodes.
The reverse current ceases abruptly when the stored charge is
depleted; this abrupt stop is exploited in step recovery diodes for
generation of extremely short pulses.
Types of semiconductor diode[edit]
Several types of diodes. The scale is centimeters.
Typical datasheet drawing showing the dimensions of a DO-41 diode

package
There are several types of pn junction diodes, which emphasize

either a different physical aspect of a diode often by geometric
scaling, doping level, choosing the right electrodes, are just an
application of a diode in a special circuit, or are really different
devices like the Gunn and laser diode and the MOSFET:
Normal (pn) diodes, which operate as described above, are

usually made of doped silicon or, more rarely, germanium. Before
the development of silicon power rectifier diodes, cuprous
oxide and later selenium was used; its low efficiency gave it a much
higher forward voltage drop (typically 1.4 to 1.7 V per "cell", with
multiple cells stacked to increase the peak inverse voltage rating in
high voltage rectifiers), and required a large heat sink (often an
extension of the diode's metal substrate), much larger than a silicon
diode of the same current ratings would require. The vast majority
of all diodes are the pn diodes found in CMOS integrated circuits,
which include two diodes per pin and many other internal diodes.
Avalanche diodes
These are diodes that conduct in the reverse direction when the reverse bias voltage
exceeds the breakdown voltage. These are electrically very similar to Zener diodes (and are
often mistakenly called Zener diodes), but break down by a different mechanism:
theavalanche effect. This occurs when the reverse electric field across the pn junction
causes a wave of ionization, reminiscent of an avalanche, leading to a large current.
Avalanche diodes are designed to break down at a well-defined reverse voltage without
being destroyed. The difference between the avalanche diode (which has a reverse
breakdown above about 6.2 V) and the Zener is that the channel length of the former
exceeds the mean free path of the electrons, so there are collisions between them on the
way out. The only practical difference is that the two types have temperature coefficients of
opposite polarities.
Cat's whisker or crystal diodes
These are a type of point-contact diode. The cat's whisker diode consists of a thin or
sharpened metal wire pressed against a semiconducting crystal, typically galena or a piece
of coal. The wire forms the anode and the crystal forms the cathode. Cat's whisker diodes
were also called crystal diodes and found application in crystal radio receivers. Cat's whisker
diodes are generally obsolete, but may be available from a few manufacturers. [citation needed]
Constant current diodes
These are actually JFETs[20] with the gate shorted to the source, and function like a twoterminal current-limiting analog to the voltage-limiting Zener diode. They allow a current
through them to rise to a certain value, and then level off at a specific value. Also
called CLDs, constant-current diodes, diode-connected transistors, or current-regulating
diodes.
Esaki or tunnel diodes
These have a region of operation showing negative resistance caused by quantum
tunneling,[21] allowing amplification of signals and very simple bistable circuits. Due to the high
carrier concentration, tunnel diodes are very fast, may be used at low (mK) temperatures,
high magnetic fields, and in high radiation environments.[22] Because of these properties, they
are often used in spacecraft.
Gunn diodes
These are similar to tunnel diodes in that they are made of materials such as GaAs or InP
that exhibit a region of negative differential resistance. With appropriate biasing, dipole
domains form and travel across the diode, allowing high frequency microwave oscillators to
be built.
Light-emitting diodes (LEDs)
In a diode formed from a direct band-gap semiconductor, such as gallium arsenide, carriers
that cross the junction emit photons when they recombine with the majority carrier on the
other side. Depending on the material, wavelengths (or colors)[23] from the infrared to the
near ultraviolet may be produced.[24] The forward potential of these diodes depends on the
wavelength of the emitted photons: 2.1 V corresponds to red, 4.0 V to violet. The first LEDs
were red and yellow, and higher-frequency diodes have been developed over time. All LEDs
produce incoherent, narrow-spectrum light; "white" LEDs are actually combinations of three
LEDs of a different color, or a blue LED with a yellow scintillator coating. LEDs can also be
used as low-efficiency photodiodes in signal applications. An LED may be paired with a
photodiode or phototransistor in the same package, to form an opto-isolator.
Laser diodes
When an LED-like structure is contained in a resonant cavity formed by polishing the parallel
end faces, a laser can be formed. Laser diodes are commonly used in optical
storage devices and for high speed optical communication.
Thermal diodes
This term is used both for conventional pn diodes used to monitor temperature due to their
varying forward voltage with temperature, and for Peltier heat pumps forthermoelectric
heating and cooling. Peltier heat pumps may be made from semiconductor, though they do
not have any rectifying junctions, they use the differing behaviour of charge carriers in N and
P type semiconductor to move heat.
Photodiodes
All semiconductors are subject to optical charge carrier generation. This is typically an
undesired effect, so most semiconductors are packaged in light blocking material.
Photodiodes are intended to sense light(photodetector), so they are packaged in materials
that allow light to pass, and are usually PIN (the kind of diode most sensitive to light). [25] A
photodiode can be used in solar cells, in photometry, or in optical communications. Multiple
photodiodes may be packaged in a single device, either as a linear array or as a twodimensional array. These arrays should not be confused with charge-coupled devices.
PIN diodes
A PIN diode has a central un-doped, or intrinsic, layer, forming a p-type/intrinsic/n-type
structure.[26] They are used as radio frequency switches and attenuators. They are also used
as large-volume, ionizing-radiation detectors and as photodetectors. PIN diodes are also
used in power electronics, as their central layer can withstand high voltages. Furthermore,
the PIN structure can be found in many power semiconductor devices, such as IGBTs,
power MOSFETs, and thyristors.
Schottky diodes
Schottky diodes are constructed from a metal to semiconductor contact. They have a lower
forward voltage drop than pn junction diodes. Their forward voltage drop at forward currents
of about 1 mA is in the range 0.15 V to 0.45 V, which makes them useful in voltage clamping
applications and prevention of transistor saturation. They can also be used as low
loss rectifiers, although their reverse leakage current is in general higher than that of other
diodes. Schottky diodes are majority carrier devices and so do not suffer from minority carrier
storage problems that slow down many other diodesso they have a faster reverse
recovery than pn junction diodes. They also tend to have much lower junction capacitance
than pn diodes, which provides for high switching speeds and their use in high-speed
circuitry and RF devices such as switched-mode power supply, mixers, and detectors.
Zener diode
Zener diode
Zener diode
Type
Passive
Working principle
Zener breakdown
First production
Clarence Zener (1934)
Pin configuration
anode and cathode
Electronic symbol
A Zener diode is a diode which allows current to flow in the forward direction in the same manner as
an ideal diode, but also permits it to flow in the reverse direction when the voltage is above a certain
value known as the breakdown voltage, "Zener knee voltage", "Zener voltage", "avalanche point", or
"peak inverse voltage".
The device was named after Clarence Zener, who discovered this electrical property. Strictly
speaking, a Zener diode is one in which the reverse breakdown is due to electron quantum
tunnelling under high electric field strengththe Zener effect. However, many diodes described as
"Zener" diodes rely instead on avalanche breakdown as the mechanism. Both types are used with
the Zener effect predominating under 5.6 V and avalanche breakdown above. Common applications
include providing a reference voltage forvoltage regulators, or to protect other semiconductor
devices from momentary voltage pulses.
Contents
[hide]
1 Operation
o
1.1 Waveform clipper
1.2 Voltage shifter
1.3 Voltage regulator
2 Construction
o
2.1 Surface Zeners
2.2 Subsurface Zeners
3 Uses
4 See also
5 References
6 Further reading
Operation[edit]
Current-voltage characteristic of a Zener diode with a breakdown voltage of 17 volts. Notice the change of voltage
scale between the forward biased (positive) direction and the reverse biased (negative) direction.
TC depending on Zener voltage
A conventional solid-state diode allows significant current if it is reverse-biased above its

reverse breakdown voltage. When the reverse bias breakdown voltage is exceeded, a conventional
diode is subject to high current due to avalanche breakdown. Unless this current is limited by
circuitry, the diode may be permanently damaged due to overheating. A Zener diode exhibits almost
the same properties, except the device is specially designed so as to have a reduced breakdown
voltage, the so-called Zener voltage. By contrast with the conventional device, a reverse-biased
Zener diode exhibits a controlled breakdown and allows the current to keep the voltage across the
Zener diode close to the Zener breakdown voltage. For example, a diode with a Zener breakdown
voltage of 3.2 V exhibits a voltage drop of very nearly 3.2 V across a wide range of reverse currents.
The Zener diode is therefore ideal for applications such as the generation of a reference
voltage (e.g. for an amplifier stage), or as a voltage stabilizer for low-current applications. [1]
Another mechanism that produces a similar effect is the avalanche effect as in the avalanche diode.
[1]
The two types of diode are in fact constructed the same way and both effects are present in diodes
of this type. In silicon diodes up to about 5.6 volts, the Zener effect is the predominant effect and
shows a marked negative temperature coefficient. Above 5.6 volts, the avalanche effect becomes
predominant and exhibits a positive temperature coefficient.[2]
In a 5.6 V diode, the two effects occur together, and their temperature coefficients nearly cancel
each other out, thus the 5.6 V diode is useful in temperature-critical applications. An alternative,
which is used for voltage references that need to be highly stable over long periods of time, is to use
a Zener diode with a temperature coefficient of +2 mV/C (breakdown voltage 6.26.3 V) connected
in series with a forward-biased silicon diode (or a transistor B-E junction) manufactured on the same
chip.[3] The forward-biased diode has a temperature coefficient of 2 mV/C, causing the TCs to
cancel out.
Modern manufacturing techniques have produced devices with voltages lower than 5.6 V with
negligible temperature coefficients,[citation needed] but as higher-voltage devices are encountered, the
temperature coefficient rises dramatically. A 75 V diode has 10 times the coefficient of a 12 V diode.
Zener and avalanche diodes, regardless of breakdown voltage, are usually marketed under the
umbrella term of "Zener diode".
Waveform clipper[edit]
Examples of a Waveform Clipper
Two Zener diodes facing each other in series will act to clip both halves of an input signal. Waveform
clippers can be used to not only reshape a signal, but also to prevent voltage spikes from affecting
circuits that are connected to the power supply.[4]
Voltage shifter[edit]
Examples of a Voltage Shifter
A Zener diode can be applied to a circuit with a resistor to act as a voltage shifter. This circuit lowers
the input voltage by a quantity that is equal to the Zener diode's breakdown voltage.
Voltage regulator[edit]
Examples of a Voltage Regulator
A Zener diode can be applied to a circuit to regulate the voltage applied to a load, such as in a linear
regulator.
Construction[edit]
The Zener diode's operation depends on the heavy doping of its p-n junction. The depletion region
formed in the diode is very thin (<1 m) and the electric field is consequently very high (about
500 kV/m) even for a small reverse bias voltage of about 5 V, allowing electrons totunnel from the
valence band of the p-type material to the conduction band of the n-type material.
In the atomic scale, this tunneling corresponds to the transport of valence band electrons into the
empty conduction band states; as a result of the reduced barrier between these bands and high
electric fields that are induced due to the relatively high levels of dopings on both sides. [2] The
breakdown voltage can be controlled quite accurately in the doping process. While tolerances within
0.07% are available, the most widely used tolerances are 5% and 10%. Breakdown voltage for
commonly available Zener diodes can vary widely from 1.2 volts to 200 volts.
Surface Zeners[edit]
The emitter-base junction of a bipolar NPN transistor behaves as a Zener diode, with breakdown
voltage at about 6.8 V for common bipolar processes and about 10 V for lightly doped base regions
in BiCMOS processes. Older processes with poor control of doping characteristics had the variation
of Zener voltage up to 1 V, newer processes using ion implantation can achieve no more than
0.25 V. The NPN transistor structure can be employed as a surface Zener diode, with collector and
emitter connected together as its cathode and base region as anode. In this approach the base
doping profile usually narrows towards the surface, creating a region with intensified electric field
where the avalanche breakdown occurs. The hot carriers produced by acceleration in the intense
field sometime shoot into the oxide layer above the junction and become trapped there. The
accumulation of trapped charges can then cause 'Zener walkout', a corresponding change of the
Zener voltage of the junction. The same effect can be achieved by radiation damage.
The emitter-base Zener diodes can handle only smaller currents as the energy is dissipated in the
base depletion region which is very small. Higher amount of dissipated energy (higher current for
longer time, or a short very high current spike) causes thermal damage to the junction and/or its
contacts. Partial damage of the junction can shift its Zener voltage. Total destruction of the Zener
junction by overheating it and causing migration of metallization across the junction ("spiking") can
be used intentionally as a 'Zener zap'antifuse.[5]
Subsurface Zeners[edit]
A subsurface Zener diode, also called 'buried Zener', is a device similar to the Surface Zener, but
with the avalanche region located deeper in the structure, typically several micrometers below the
oxide. The hot carriers then lose energy by collisions with the semiconductor lattice before reaching
the oxide layer and cannot be trapped there. The Zener walkout phenomenon therefore does not
occur here, and the buried Zeners have voltage constant over their entire lifetime. Most buried
Zeners have breakdown voltage of 57 volts. Several different junction structures are used. [6]
Uses[edit]
Zener diode shown with typical packages.Reverse current
is shown.
Zener diodes are widely used as voltage references and as shunt regulators to regulate the voltage
across small circuits. When connected in parallel with a variable voltage source so that it is reverse
biased, a Zener diode conducts when the voltage reaches the diode's reverse breakdown voltage.
From that point on, the relatively low impedance of the diode keeps the voltage across the diode at
that value.[7]
In this circuit, a typical voltage reference or regulator, an input voltage, U IN, is regulated down to a
stable output voltage UOUT. The breakdown voltage of diode D is stable over a wide current range and
holds UOUT relatively constant even though the input voltage may fluctuate over a fairly wide range.
Because of the low impedance of the diode when operated like this, resistor R is used to limit current
through the circuit.
In the case of this simple reference, the current flowing in the diode is determined using Ohm's law
and the known voltage drop across the resistor R;
The value of R must satisfy two conditions :

1. R must be small enough that the current through D keeps D in reverse breakdown. The
value of this current is given in the data sheet for D. For example, the common
BZX79C5V6[8] device, a 5.6 V 0.5 W Zener diode, has a recommended reverse current
of 5 mA. If insufficient current exists through D, then UOUT is unregulated and less than
the nominal breakdown voltage (this differs to voltage-regulator tubes where the output
voltage will be higher than nominal and could rise as high as UIN). When calculating R,
allowance must be made for any current through the external load, not shown in this
diagram, connected across UOUT.
2. R must be large enough that the current through D does not destroy the device. If the
current through D is ID, its breakdown voltage VB and its maximum power
dissipationPMAX correlate as such:
.
A load may be placed across the diode in this reference circuit, and as long as the Zener stays
in reverse breakdown, the diode provides a stable voltage source to the load. Zener diodes in
this configuration are often used as stable references for more advanced voltage regulator
circuits.
Shunt regulators are simple, but the requirements that the ballast resistor be small enough to
avoid excessive voltage drop during worst-case operation (low input voltage concurrent with
high load current) tends to leave a lot of current flowing in the diode much of the time, making for
a fairly wasteful regulator with high quiescent power dissipation, only suitable for smaller loads.
These devices are also encountered, typically in series with a base-emitter junction, in transistor
stages where selective choice of a device centered around the avalanche or Zener point can be
used to introduce compensating temperature co-efficient balancing of the transistor pn junction.
An example of this kind of use would be a DC error amplifierused in a regulated power
supply circuit feedback loop system.
Zener diodes are also used in surge protectors to limit transient voltage spikes.
Another application of the Zener diode is the use of noise caused by its avalanche breakdown in
a random number generator.
Light-emitting diode
"LED" redirects here. For other uses, see LED (disambiguation).
Light-emitting diode
Blue, pure green, and red LEDs in 5 mm diffused cases
Type
Passive, optoelectronic
Working principle
Electroluminescence
Invented
Oleg Losev (1927)[1][2][3]

James R. Biard (1961)[4]
Nick Holonyak (1962)[5]
First production
1968[6]
Pin configuration
anode and cathode
Electronic symbol
Parts of an LED. Although not directly labeled, the flat bottom surfaces of the anvil and post embedded inside the
epoxy act as anchors, to prevent the conductors from being forcefully pulled out from mechanical strain or vibration.
A bulb-shaped modern retrofit LED lamp with aluminium heat sink, a lightdiffusing dome and E27 screw base, using a
built-in power supply working on mains voltage
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a two-lead semiconductor light source. It is a basic pnjunction diode, which emits light when activated.[7] When a suitable voltage is applied to the
leads, electrons are able to recombine with electron holes within the device, releasing energy in the
form of photons. This effect is called electroluminescence, and the color of the light (corresponding
to the energy of the photon) is determined by the energy band gap of the semiconductor.
An LED is often small in area (less than 1 mm2) and integrated optical components may be used to
shape its radiation pattern.[8]
Appearing as practical electronic components in 1962,[9] the earliest LEDs emitted low-intensity
infrared light. Infrared LEDs are still frequently used as transmitting elements in remote-control
circuits, such as those in remote controls for a wide variety of consumer electronics. The first visiblelight LEDs were also of low intensity, and limited to red. Modern LEDs are available across
the visible,ultraviolet, and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
Early LEDs were often used as indicator lamps for electronic devices, replacing small incandescent
bulbs. They were soon packaged into numeric readouts in the form of seven-segment displays, and
were commonly seen in digital clocks.
Recent developments in LEDs permit them to be used in environmental and task lighting. LEDs have
many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption, longer
lifetime, improved physical robustness, smaller size, and faster switching. Light-emitting diodes are
now used in applications as diverse as aviation lighting, automotive headlamps, advertising, general
lighting, traffic signals, and camera flashes. However, LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are
still relatively expensive, and require more precise current and heat management than
compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
LEDs have allowed new text, video displays, and sensors to be developed, while their high switching
rates are also useful in advanced communications technology.
On October 7, 2014, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Isamu Akasaki, Hiroshi
Amano and Shuji Nakamura for "the invention of efficient blue light-emitting diodes which has
enabled bright and energy-saving white light sources" or, less formally, LED lamps.[10]
Contents
[hide]
1 History
o
1.1 Discoveries and early devices
1.2 Commercial development
1.3 The blue and white LED
2 Technology
o
2.1 Physics
2.2 Refractive index

2.2.1 Transition coatings
2.3 Efficiency and operational parameters
2.3.1 Efficiency droop
2.3.1.1 Possible solutions

2.4 Lifetime and failure
3 Colors and materials

o
3.1 Ultraviolet and blue LEDs
3.2 White light
3.2.1 RGB systems
3.2.2 Phosphor-based LEDs
3.2.3 Other white LEDs
3.3 Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs)
3.4 Quantum dot LEDs (experimental)
4 Types
o
4.1 Miniature
4.2 Mid-range
4.3 High-power
4.4 AC driven LED
4.5 Application-specific variations
4.5.1 Flashing
4.5.2 Bi-color LED
4.5.3 Tri-color
4.5.4 RGB
4.5.5 Decorative multicolor
4.5.6 Alphanumeric
4.5.7 Digital RGB

5 Considerations for use
5.1 Power sources
5.2 Electrical polarity
5.3 Safety and health
5.4 Advantages
5.5 Disadvantages
6 Applications
o
6.1 Indicators and signs
6.2 Lighting
6.3 Data communication and other signaling
6.4 Sustainable lighting
6.4.1 Energy consumption
6.4.2 Economically sustainable
6.5 Light sources for machine vision systems
6.6 Electronic contact lenses
6.7 Other applications
7 See also
8 References
9 Further reading
10 External links
History[edit]
Discoveries and early devices[edit]
Green electroluminescence from a point contact on a crystal of SiCrecreates H. J. Round's original experiment from
1907.
Electroluminescence as a phenomenon was discovered in 1907 by the British experimenter H. J.

Round of Marconi Labs, using a crystal of silicon carbide and a cat's-whisker detector.[11][12] Russian
inventor Oleg Losev reported creation of the first LED in 1927.[13] His research was distributed in
Russian, German and British scientific journals, but no practical use was made of the discovery for
several decades.[14][15] Kurt Lehovec, C. A. Accardo and E. Jamgochian, explained these first lightemitting diodes in 1951 using an aparatus employing SiC crystals with a current source of battery or
pulse generator and with a comparison to a variant, pure, crystal in 1953. [16] [17]
Rubin Braunstein[18] of the Radio Corporation of America reported on infrared emission from gallium
arsenide (GaAs) and other semiconductor alloys in 1955.[19] Braunstein observed infrared emission
generated by simple diode structures using gallium antimonide(GaSb), GaAs, indium
phosphide (InP), and silicon-germanium (SiGe) alloys at room temperature and at 77 kelvins.
In 1957, Braunstein further demonstrated that the rudimentary devices could be used for non-radio
communication across a short distance. As noted by Kroemer[20] Braunstein".. had set up a simple
optical communications link: Music emerging from a record player was used via suitable electronics
to modulate the forward current of a GaAs diode. The emitted light was detected by a PbS diode
some distance away. This signal was fed into an audio amplifier, and played back by a loudspeaker.
Intercepting the beam stopped the music. We had a great deal of fun playing with this setup." This
setup presaged the use of LEDs for optical communication applications.
Diagram of the tunnel diode constructed on a zinc diffused area of gallium arsenide semi-insulating substrate
In the fall of 1961, while working at Texas Instruments Inc. in Dallas, TX, James R. Biard and Gary
Pittman found that gallium arsenide(GaAs) emitted infrared light when electric current was applied.
On August 8, 1962, Biard and Pittman filed a patent titled "Semiconductor Radiant Diode" based on
their findings, which described a zinc diffused pn junction LED with a spaced cathode contact to
allow for efficient emission of infrared light under forward bias.
After establishing the priority of their work based on engineering notebooks predating submissions
from G.E. Labs, RCA Research Labs,IBM Research Labs, Bell Labs, and Lincoln Lab at MIT,
the U.S. patent office issued the two inventors the first patent for the infrared (IR) light-emitting diode
(U.S. Patent US3293513), the first modern LED.[21] Immediately after filing the patent, Texas
Instruments began a project to manufacture infrared diodes. In October 1962 they announced the
first LED commercial product (the SNX-100), which employed a pure GaAs crystal to emit a 900 nm
output.
The first visible-spectrum (red) LED was developed in 1962 by Nick Holonyak, Jr., while working
at General Electric Company.[9] Holonyak first reported this breakthrough in the journal Applied
Physics Letters on the December 1, 1962.[22][23] M. George Craford,[24] a former graduate student of
Holonyak, invented the first yellow LED and improved the brightness of red and red-orange LEDs by
a factor of ten in 1972.[25] In 1976, T. P. Pearsall created the first high-brightness, high-efficiency
LEDs for optical fiber telecommunications by inventing new semiconductor materials specifically
adapted to optical fiber transmission wavelengths.[26]
Commercial development[edit]
The first commercial LEDs were commonly used as replacements
for incandescent and neon indicator lamps, and in seven-segment displays,[27] first in expensive
equipment such as laboratory and electronics test equipment, then later in such appliances as TVs,
radios, telephones, calculators, as well as watches (see list of signal uses). Until 1968, visible and
infrared LEDs were extremely costly, in the order of US$200 per unit, and so had little practical use.
[6]
The Monsanto Company was the first organization to mass-produce visible LEDs, using gallium
arsenide phosphide (GaAsP) in 1968 to produce red LEDs suitable for indicators. [6] Hewlett
Packard (HP) introduced LEDs in 1968, initially using GaAsP supplied by Monsanto. These red
LEDs were bright enough only for use as indicators, as the light output was not enough to illuminate
an area. Readouts in calculators were so small that plastic lenses were built over each digit to make
them legible. Later, other colors became widely available and appeared in appliances and
equipment. In the 1970s commercially successful LED devices at less than five cents each were
produced by Fairchild Optoelectronics. These devices employed compound semiconductor chips
fabricated with the planar process invented by Dr. Jean Hoerni at Fairchild Semiconductor.[28][29] The
combination of planar processing for chip fabrication and innovative packaging methods enabled the
team at Fairchild led by optoelectronics pioneer Thomas Brandt to achieve the needed cost
reductions.[30] These methods continue to be used by LED producers.[31]
LED display of a TI-30 scientific calculator (ca. 1978), which uses plastic lenses to increase the visible digit size
As LED materials technology grew more advanced, light output rose, while maintaining efficiency
and reliability at acceptable levels. The invention and development of the high-power white-light LED
led to use for illumination, and is slowly replacing incandescent and fluorescent lighting [32][33] (see list
of illumination applications).
Most LEDs were made in the very common 5 mm T1 and 3 mm T1 packages, but with rising power
output, it has grown increasingly necessary to shed excess heat to maintain reliability,[34] so more
complex packages have been adapted for efficient heat dissipation. Packages for state-of-theart high-power LEDs bear little resemblance to early LEDs.
The blue and white LED[edit]
Illustration of Haitz's law. Light output per LED per production year, with a logarithmic scale on the vertical axis
The first high-brightness blue LED was demonstrated by Shuji Nakamura of Nichia Corporation in
1994 and was based onInGaN.[35] Its development built on critical developments in GaN nucleation
on sapphire substrates and the demonstration ofp-type doping of GaN, developed by Isamu
Akasaki and Hiroshi Amano in Nagoya.[citation needed] In 1995, Alberto Barbieri at the Cardiff
University Laboratory (GB) investigated the efficiency and reliability of high-brightness LEDs and
demonstrated a "transparent contact" LED using indium tin oxide (ITO) on (AlGaInP/GaAs). The
existence of blue LEDs and high-efficiency LEDs quickly led to the development of the first white
LED, which employed a Y
3Al
5O
12:Ce, or "YAG", phosphor coating to mix down-converted yellow light with blue to produce light that
appears white. Nakamura was awarded the 2006 Millennium Technology Prize for his invention.
[36]
Akasaki, Amano, and Nakamura were awarded the 2014 Nobel prize in physics for the invention
of the blue LED.[37]
The development of LED technology has caused their efficiency and light output to rise
exponentially, with a doubling occurring approximately every 36 months since the 1960s, in a way
similar to Moore's law. This trend is generally attributed to the parallel development of other
semiconductor technologies and advances in optics and material science, and has been
called Haitz's law after Dr. Roland Haitz.[38]
In 2001[39] and 2002,[40] processes for growing gallium nitride (GaN) LEDs on silicon were successfully
demonstrated. In January 2012, Osram demonstrated high-power InGaN LEDs grown on silicon
substrates commercially.[41] It has been speculated that the use of six-inch silicon wafers instead of
two-inch sapphire wafers and epitaxy manufacturing processes could reduce production costs by up
to 90%.[42]
Technology[edit]
The inner workings of an LED, showing circuit (top) and band diagram (bottom)
I-V diagram for a diode. An LED will begin to emit light when the on-voltage is exceeded. Typical on voltages are 2
3 volts.
Physics[edit]
The LED consists of a chip of semiconducting material doped with impurities to create a p-n junction.
As in other diodes, current flows easily from the p-side, or anode, to the n-side, or cathode, but not in
the reverse direction. Charge-carrierselectrons and holesflow into the junction
from electrodes with different voltages. When an electron meets a hole, it falls into a lower energy
level and releases energy in the form of a photon.
The wavelength of the light emitted, and thus its color, depends on the band gap energy of the
materials forming the p-n junction. In silicon or germanium diodes, the electrons and holes usually
recombine by a non-radiative transition, which produces no optical emission, because these
are indirect band gap materials. The materials used for the LED have a direct band gap with
energies corresponding to near-infrared, visible, or near-ultraviolet light.
LED development began with infrared and red devices made with gallium arsenide. Advances
in materials science have enabled making devices with ever-shorter wavelengths, emitting light in a
variety of colors.
LEDs are usually built on an n-type substrate, with an electrode attached to the p-type layer
deposited on its surface. P-type substrates, while less common, occur as well. Many commercial
LEDs, especially GaN/InGaN, also use sapphire substrate.
Most materials used for LED production have very high refractive indices. This means that much
light will be reflected back into the material at the material/air surface interface. Thus, light extraction
in LEDs is an important aspect of LED production, subject to much research and development.
Refractive index[edit]
Idealized example of light emission cones in a semiconductor, for a single point-source emission zone. The left
illustration is for a fully translucent wafer, while the right illustration shows the half-cones formed when the bottom
layer is fully opaque. The light is actually emitted equally in all directions from the point-source, so the areas between
the cones shows the large amount of trapped light energy that is wasted as heat.[43]
The light emission cones of a real LED wafer are far more complex than a single point-source light emission. The
light emission zone is typically a two-dimensional plane between the wafers. Every atom across this plane has an
individual set of emission cones. Drawing the billions of overlapping cones is impossible, so this is a simplified
diagram showing the extents of all the emission cones combined. The larger side cones are clipped to show the
interior features and reduce image complexity; they would extend to the opposite edges of the two-dimensional
emission plane.
Bare uncoated semiconductors such as silicon exhibit a very high refractive index relative to open
air, which prevents passage of photons arriving at sharp angles relative to the air-contacting surface
of the semiconductor. This property affects both the light-emission efficiency of LEDs as well as the
light-absorption efficiency of photovoltaic cells. The refractive index of silicon is 3.96 (590 nm),
[44]
while air is 1.0002926.[45]
In general, a flat-surface uncoated LED semiconductor chip will emit light only perpendicular to the
semiconductor's surface, and a few degrees to the side, in a cone shape referred to as the light
cone, cone of light,[46] or the escape cone.[43] The maximum angle of incidence is referred to as
the critical angle. When this angle is exceeded, photons no longer escape the semiconductor but are
instead reflected internally inside the semiconductor crystal as if it were a mirror.[43]
Internal reflections can escape through other crystalline faces, if the incidence angle is low enough
and the crystal is sufficiently transparent to not re-absorb the photon emission. But for a simple
square LED with 90-degree angled surfaces on all sides, the faces all act as equal angle mirrors. In
this case most of the light can not escape and is lost as waste heat in the crystal. [43]
A convoluted chip surface with angled facets similar to a jewel or fresnel lens can increase light
output by allowing light to be emitted perpendicular to the chip surface while far to the sides of the
photon emission point.[47]
The ideal shape of a semiconductor with maximum light output would be a microsphere with the
photon emission occurring at the exact center, with electrodes penetrating to the center to contact at
the emission point. All light rays emanating from the center would be perpendicular to the entire
surface of the sphere, resulting in no internal reflections. A hemispherical semiconductor would also
work, with the flat back-surface serving as a mirror to back-scattered photons. [48]
Transition coatings[edit]
After the doping of the wafer, it is cut apart into individual dies. Each die is commonly called a chip.
Many LED semiconductor chips are encapsulated or potted in clear or colored molded plastic shells.
The plastic shell has three purposes:
1. Mounting the semiconductor chip in devices is easier to accomplish.
2. The tiny fragile electrical wiring is physically supported and protected from damage.
3. The plastic acts as a refractive intermediary between the relatively high-index semiconductor
and low-index open air.[49]
The third feature helps to boost the light emission from the semiconductor by acting as a diffusing
lens, allowing light to be emitted at a much higher angle of incidence from the light cone than the
bare chip is able to emit alone.
Efficiency and operational parameters[edit]

Typical indicator LEDs are designed to operate with no more than 3060 milliwatts (mW) of electrical
power. Around 1999,Philips Lumileds introduced power LEDs capable of continuous use at one watt.
These LEDs used much larger semiconductor die sizes to handle the large power inputs. Also, the
semiconductor dies were mounted onto metal slugs to allow for heat removal from the LED die.
One of the key advantages of LED-based lighting sources is high luminous efficacy. White LEDs
quickly matched and overtook the efficacy of standard incandescent lighting systems. In 2002,
Lumileds made five-watt LEDs available with aluminous efficacy of 1822 lumens per watt (lm/W).
For comparison, a conventional incandescent light bulb of 60100 watts emits around 15 lm/W, and
standard fluorescent lights emit up to 100 lm/W.
As of 2012, the Lumiled catalog gives the following as the best efficacy for each color.[50] The wattper-watt value is derived using the luminosity function.
Color
Wavelength range
(nm)
Typical efficacy
(lm/W)
Typical efficiency
(W/W)
Red
620 < < 645
72
0.39
Red-orange
610 < < 620
98
0.29
Green
520 < < 550
93
0.15
Cyan
490 < < 520
75
0.26
Blue
460 < < 490
37
0.35
In September 2003, a new type of blue LED was demonstrated by the company Cree Inc. to provide
24 mW at 20 milliamperes (mA). This produced a commercially packaged white light giving 65 lm/W
at 20 mA, becoming the brightest white LED commercially available at the time, and more than four
times as efficient as standard incandescents. In 2006, they demonstrated a prototype with a record
white LED luminous efficacy of 131 lm/W at 20 mA. Nichia Corporation has developed a white LED
with luminous efficacy of 150 lm/W at a forward current of 20 mA.[51] Cree's XLamp XM-L LEDs,
commercially available in 2011, produce 100 lm/W at their full power of 10 W, and up to 160 lm/W at
around 2 W input power. In 2012, Cree announced a white LED giving 254 lm/W,[52] and 303 lm/W in
March 2014 .[53] Practical general lighting needs high-power LEDs, of one watt or more. Typical
operating currents for such devices begin at 350 mA.
Note that these efficiencies are for the LED chip only, held at low temperature in a lab. Lighting
works at higher temperature and with drive circuit losses, so efficiencies are much lower. United
States Department of Energy (DOE) testing of commercial LED lamps designed to replace
incandescent lamps or CFLs showed that average efficacy was still about 46 lm/W in 2009 (tested
performance ranged from 17 lm/W to 79 lm/W).[54]
Cree issued a press release on February 3, 2010 about a laboratory prototype LED achieving
208 lm/W at room temperature. The correlated color temperature was reported to be 4579 K.[55] In
December 2012 Cree issued another press release announcing commercial availability of 200 lm/W
LED at room temperature.[56] In a March 2014 press release Cree revealed breaking the 300 lm/W
barrier for high-power white LEDs with a 303 lm/W 5150K white LED at standard room temperature.
Efficiency droop[edit]
Efficiency droop is the decrease (up to 20%[citation needed]) in luminous efficacy of LEDs as the electrical
current increases above tens of milliamps (mA).
This effect, first reported in 1999,[citation needed] was initially theorized to be related to elevated
temperatures. Scientists proved the opposite to be true that, although the life of an LED would be
shortened, the efficiency droop is less severe at elevated temperatures. [57] The mechanism causing
efficiency droop was identified in 2007 as Auger recombination, which was taken with mixed
reaction.[58] In 2013, a study conclusively identified Auger recombination as the cause of efficiency
droop.[59]
In addition to being less efficient, operating LEDs at higher electrical currents creates higher heat
levels which compromise the lifetime of the LED. Because of this increased heating at higher
currents, high-brightness LEDs have an industry standard of operating at only 350 mA, which is a
good compromise between light output, efficiency, and longevity.[58][60][61][62]
Possible solutions[edit]
Instead of increasing current levels, luminance is usually increased by combining multiple LEDs in
one bulb. Solving the problem of efficiency droop would mean that household LED light bulbs would
need fewer LEDs, which would significantly reduce costs.
Researchers at the U.S. Naval Research Laboratory have found a way to lessen the efficiency
droop. They found that the droop arises from non-radiative Auger recombination of the injected
carriers. They created quantum wells with a soft confinement potential to lessen the non-radiative
Auger processes.[63]
Researchers at Taiwan National Central University and Epistar Corp are developing a way to lessen
the efficiency droop by using ceramic aluminium nitride (AlN) substrates, which are more thermally
conductive than the commercially used sapphire. The higher thermal conductivity reduces selfheating effects.[64]
Lifetime and failure[edit]

Main article: List of LED failure modes
Solid-state devices such as LEDs are subject to very limited wear and tear if operated at low
currents and at low temperatures. Many of the LEDs made in the 1970s and 1980s are still in service
in the early 21st century. Typical lifetimes quoted are 25,000 to 100,000 hours, but heat and current
settings can extend or shorten this time significantly. [65]
The most common symptom of LED (and diode laser) failure is the gradual lowering of light output
and loss of efficiency. Sudden failures, although rare, can occur as well. Early red LEDs were
notable for their short service life. With the development of high-power LEDs the devices are
subjected to higher junction temperatures and higher current densities than traditional devices. This
causes stress on the material and may cause early light-output degradation. To quantitatively
classify useful lifetime in a standardized manner it has been suggested to use the terms L70 and
L50, which is the time it will take a given LED to reach 70% and 50% light output respectively.[66]
LED performance is temperature dependent. Most manufacturers' published ratings of LEDs are for
an operating temperature of 25 C (77 F). LEDs used outdoors, such as traffic signals or inpavement signal lights, and that are utilized in climates where the temperature within the light fixture
gets very high, could result in low signal intensities or even failure.[67]
LED light output rises at lower temperatures, leveling off, depending on type, at around 30 C
(22 F).[citation needed] Thus, LED technology may be a good replacement in uses such as
supermarket freezer lighting[68][69][70] and will last longer than other technologies. Because LEDs emit
less heat than incandescent bulbs, they are an energy-efficient technology for uses such as in
freezers and refrigerators. However, because they emit little heat, ice and snow may build up on the
LED light fixture in colder climates.[67]Similarly, this lack of waste heat generation has been observed
to sometimes cause significant problems with street traffic signals and airport runway lighting in
snow-prone areas. In response to this problem, some LED lighting systems have been designed
with an added heating circuit at the expense of reduced overall electrical efficiency of the system;
additionally, research has been done to develop heat sink technologies that will transfer heat
produced within the junction to appropriate areas of the light fixture.[71]
Colors and materials[edit]
Conventional LEDs are made from a variety of inorganic semiconductor materials. The following
table shows the available colors with wavelength range, voltage drop and material:
Color
Wavelength
[nm]
Infrared > 760
Voltage
drop [V]
Semiconductor material
V < 1.63
Gallium arsenide (GaAs)

Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)
Red
610 < <

760
1.63 < V <

2.03
Aluminium gallium arsenide (AlGaAs)

Gallium arsenide phosphide (GaAsP)
Aluminium gallium indium phosphide (AlGaInP)
Gallium(III) phosphide (GaP)
Orange
590 < <

610
2.03 < V <

2.10

Yellow
570 < <

590
2.10 < V <

2.18

Traditional green:
< V <
Aluminium gallium phosphide (AlGaP)
Pure green:
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN) / Gallium(III)
nitride (GaN)
Green
500 < <

570
1.9[72]
4.0
Blue
450 < <

500
2.48 < V <

3.7
Zinc selenide (ZnSe)

Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Silicon carbide (SiC) as substrate
Silicon (Si) as substrateunder development
Violet
400 < <

450
2.76 < V <

4.0
Indium gallium nitride (InGaN)
Purple
Multiple types
Ultraviol
< 400
et
2.48 < V <

3.7
Dual blue/red LEDs,

blue with red phosphor,
or white with purple plastic
3.1 < V <

4.4
Diamond (235 nm)[73]

Boron nitride (215 nm)[74][75]
Aluminium nitride (AlN) (210 nm)[76]
Aluminium gallium nitride (AlGaN)
Aluminium gallium indium nitride (AlGaInN)
down to 210 nm[77]
Pink
Multiple types V ~ 3.3[78]
Blue with one or two phosphor layers:

yellow with red, orange or pink phosphor
added afterwards,
or white phosphors with pink pigment or dye
over top.[79]
White
Broad
spectrum
Blue/UV diode with yellow phosphor
V = 3.5
Ultraviolet and blue LEDs[edit]
Blue LEDs
Current bright blue LEDs are based on the wide band gap semiconductors GaN (gallium nitride)
and InGaN (indium gallium nitride). They can be added to existing red and green LEDs to produce
the impression of white light. Modules combining the three colors are used in bigvideo screens and
in adjustable-color fixtures.
The first blue-violet LED using magnesium-doped gallium nitride was made at Stanford University in
1972 by Herb Maruska and Wally Rhines, doctoral students in materials science and engineering. [80]
[81]
At the time Maruska was on leave from RCA Laboratories, where he collaborated with Jacques
Pankove on related work. In 1971, the year after Maruska left for Stanford, his RCA colleagues
Pankove and Ed Miller demonstrated the first blue electroluminescence from zinc-doped gallium
nitride, though the subsequent device Pankove and Miller built, the first actual gallium nitride lightemitting diode, emitted green light.[82][83] In 1974 the U.S. patent office awarded Maruska, Rhines and
Stanford professor David Stevenson a patent for their work in 1972 (U.S. Patent US3819974 A) and
today magnesium-doping of gallium nitride continues to be the basis for all commercial blue LEDs
and laser diodes. These devices built in the early 1970s had too little light output to be of practical
use and research into gallium nitride devices slowed. In August 1989, Cree Inc. introduced the first
commercially available blue LED based on the indirect bandgap semiconductor, silicon carbide.
[84]
SiC LEDs had very low efficiency, no more than about 0.03%, but did emit in the blue portion of
the visible light spectrum.
In the late 1980s, key breakthroughs in GaN epitaxial growth and p-type doping[85] ushered in the
modern era of GaN-based optoelectronic devices. Building upon this foundation, in 1993 highbrightness blue LEDs were demonstrated.[86] High-brightness blue LEDs invented by Shuji
Nakamura of Nichia Corporation using gallium nitride revolutionized LED lighting, making high-power
light sources practical. Nakamura, along with Hiroshi Amano and Isamu Akasaki were awarded
the Nobel Prize in Physics for this work in 2014.[10][37][87]
By the late 1990s, blue LEDs became widely available. They have an active region consisting of one
or more InGaN quantum wells sandwiched between thicker layers of GaN, called cladding layers. By
varying the relative In/Ga fraction in the InGaN quantum wells, the light emission can in theory be
varied from violet to amber. Aluminium gallium nitride(AlGaN) of varying Al/Ga fraction can be used
to manufacture the cladding and quantum well layers for ultraviolet LEDs, but these devices have
not yet reached the level of efficiency and technological maturity of InGaN/GaN blue/green devices.
If un-alloyed GaN is used in this case to form the active quantum well layers, the device will emit
near-ultraviolet light with a peak wavelength centred around 365 nm. Green LEDs manufactured
from the InGaN/GaN system are far more efficient and brighter than green LEDs produced with nonnitride material systems, but practical devices still exhibit efficiency too low for high-brightness
applications.
With nitrides containing aluminium, most often AlGaN and AlGaInN, even shorter wavelengths are
achievable. Ultraviolet LEDs in a range of wavelengths are becoming available on the market. NearUV emitters at wavelengths around 375395 nm are already cheap and often encountered, for
example, as black light lamp replacements for inspection of anti-counterfeiting UV watermarks in
some documents and paper currencies. Shorter-wavelength diodes, while substantially more
expensive, are commercially available for wavelengths down to 240 nm.[88] As the photosensitivity of
microorganisms approximately matches the absorption spectrum of DNA, with a peak at about
260 nm, UV LED emitting at 250270 nm are to be expected in prospective disinfection and
sterilization devices. Recent research has shown that commercially available UVA LEDs (365 nm)
are already effective disinfection and sterilization devices.[89]
Deep-UV wavelengths were obtained in laboratories using aluminium nitride (210 nm),[76] boron
nitride (215 nm)[74][75] and diamond (235 nm).[73]
White light[edit]
There are two primary ways of producing white light-emitting diodes (WLEDs), LEDs that generate
high-intensity white light. One is to use individual LEDs that emit three primary colors[90]red, green,
and blueand then mix all the colors to form white light. The other is to use a phosphor material to
convert monochromatic light from a blue or UV LED to broad-spectrum white light, much in the same
way a fluorescent light bulb works.
There are three main methods of mixing colors to produce white light from an LED:
blue LED + green LED + red LED (color mixing; can be used as backlighting for displays)
near-UV or UV LED + RGB phosphor (an LED producing light with a wavelength shorter than
blue's is used to excite an RGB phosphor)
blue LED + yellow phosphor (two complementary colors combine to form white light; more
efficient than first two methods and more commonly used) [91]
Because of metamerism, it is possible to have quite different spectra that appear white. However, the
appearance of objects illuminated by that light may vary as the spectrum varies.
RGB systems[edit]
Combined spectral curves for blue, yellow-green, and high-brightness red solid-state semiconductor
LEDs. FWHM spectral bandwidth is approximately 2427 nm for all three colors.
RGB LED.
White light can be formed by mixing differently colored lights; the most common method is to
use red, green, and blue(RGB). Hence the method is called multi-color white LEDs (sometimes
referred to as RGB LEDs). Because these need electronic circuits to control the blending
and diffusion of different colors, and because the individual color LEDs typically have slightly
different emission patterns (leading to variation of the color depending on direction) even if they are
made as a single unit, these are seldom used to produce white lighting. Nevertheless, this method is
particularly interesting in many uses because of the flexibility of mixing different colors, [92] and, in
principle, this mechanism also has higher quantum efficiency in producing white light.
There are several types of multi-color white LEDs: di-, tri-, and tetrachromatic white LEDs. Several
key factors that play among these different methods, include color stability, color rendering capability,
and luminous efficacy. Often, higher efficiency will mean lower color rendering, presenting a trade-off
between the luminous efficiency and color rendering. For example, the dichromatic white LEDs have
the best luminous efficacy (120 lm/W), but the lowest color rendering capability. However,
although tetrachromatic white LEDs have excellent color rendering capability, they often have poor
luminous efficiency. Trichromatic white LEDs are in between, having both good luminous efficacy
(>70 lm/W) and fair color rendering capability.
One of the challenges is the development of more efficient green LEDs. The theoretical maximum for
green LEDs is 683 lumens per watt but as of 2010 few green LEDs exceed even 100 lumens per
watt. The blue and red LEDs get closer to their theoretical limits.
Multi-color LEDs offer not merely another means to form white light but a new means to form light of
different colors. Most perceivable colors can be formed by mixing different amounts of three primary
colors. This allows precise dynamic color control. As more effort is devoted to investigating this
method, multi-color LEDs should have profound influence on the fundamental method that we use to
produce and control light color. However, before this type of LED can play a role on the market,
several technical problems must be solved. These include that this type of LED's emission
power decays exponentially with rising temperature,[93] resulting in a substantial change in color
stability. Such problems inhibit and may preclude industrial use. Thus, many new package designs
aimed at solving this problem have been proposed and their results are now being reproduced by
researchers and scientists.
Correlated color temperature (CCT) dimming for LED technology is regarded as a difficult task, since
binning, age and temperature drift effects of LEDs change the actual color value output. Feedback
loop systems are used for example with color sensors, to actively monitor and control the color
output of multiple color mixing LEDs.[94]
Phosphor-based LEDs[edit]
Spectrum of a white LED showing blue light directly emitted by the GaN-based LED (peak at about 465 nm) and the
more broadband Stokes-shifted light emitted by the Ce3+:YAG phosphor, which emits at roughly 500700 nm
This method involves coating LEDs of one color (mostly blue LEDs made of InGaN)
with phosphors of different colors to form white light; the resultant LEDs are called phosphor-based
or phosphor-converted white LEDs (pcLEDs).[95] A fraction of the blue light undergoes the Stokes
shift being transformed from shorter wavelengths to longer. Depending on the color of the original
LED, phosphors of different colors can be employed. If several phosphor layers of distinct colors are
applied, the emitted spectrum is broadened, effectively raising the color rendering index (CRI) value
of a given LED.[96]
Phosphor-based LED efficiency losses are due to the heat loss from the Stokes shift and also other
phosphor-related degradation issues. Their luminous efficacies compared to normal LEDs depend
on the spectral distribution of the resultant light output and the original wavelength of the LED itself.
For example, the luminous efficacy of a typical YAG yellow phosphor based white LED ranges from
3 to 5 times the luminous efficacy of the original blue LED because of the human eye's greater
sensitivity to yellow than to blue (as modeled in the luminosity function). Due to the simplicity of
manufacturing the phosphor method is still the most popular method for making high-intensity white
LEDs. The design and production of a light source or light fixture using a monochrome emitter with
phosphor conversion is simpler and cheaper than a complex RGB system, and the majority of highintensity white LEDs presently on the market are manufactured using phosphor light conversion.
Among the challenges being faced to improve the efficiency of LED-based white light sources is the
development of more efficient phosphors. As of 2010, the most efficient yellow phosphor is still the
YAG phosphor, with less than 10% Stoke shift loss. Losses attributable to internal optical losses due
to re-absorption in the LED chip and in the LED packaging itself account typically for another 10% to
30% of efficiency loss. Currently, in the area of phosphor LED development, much effort is being
spent on optimizing these devices to higher light output and higher operation temperatures. For
instance, the efficiency can be raised by adapting better package design or by using a more suitable
type of phosphor. Conformal coating process is frequently used to address the issue of varying
phosphor thickness.
Some phosphor-based white LEDs encapsulate InGaN blue LEDs inside phosphor-coated epoxy.
Alternatively, the LED might be paired with a remote phosphor, a preformed polycarbonate piece
coated with the phosphor material. Remote phosphors provide more diffuse light, which is desirable
for many applications. Remote phosphor designs are also more tolerant of variations in the LED
emissions spectrum. A common yellow phosphor material is cerium-doped yttrium aluminium
garnet (Ce3+:YAG).
White LEDs can also be made by coating near-ultraviolet (NUV) LEDs with a mixture of highefficiency europium-based phosphors that emit red and blue, plus copper and aluminium-doped zinc
sulfide (ZnS:Cu, Al) that emits green. This is a method analogous to the way fluorescent lamps work.
This method is less efficient than blue LEDs with YAG:Ce phosphor, as the Stokes shift is larger, so
more energy is converted to heat, but yields light with better spectral characteristics, which render
color better. Due to the higher radiative output of the ultraviolet LEDs than of the blue ones, both
methods offer comparable brightness. A concern is that UV light may leak from a malfunctioning light
source and cause harm to human eyes or skin.
Other white LEDs[edit]
Another method used to produce experimental white light LEDs used no phosphors at all and was
based on homoepitaxially grown zinc selenide (ZnSe) on a ZnSe substrate that simultaneously
emitted blue light from its active region and yellow light from the substrate. [97]
A new style of wafers composed of gallium-nitride-on-silicon (GaN-on-Si) is being used to produce
white LEDs using 200-mm silicon wafers. This avoids the typical costly sapphire substrates in
relatively small 100- or 150-mm wafer sizes.[98] It is predicted that by 2020, 40% of all GaN LEDs will
be made with GaN-on-Si. Manufacturing large sapphire material is difficult, while large silicon
material is cheaper and more abundant. LED companies shifting from using sapphire to silicon
should be a minimal investment.[99]
Organic light-emitting diodes (OLEDs)[edit]

Main article: Organic light-emitting diode
Demonstration of a flexible OLEDdevice
Orange light-emitting diode
In an organic light-emitting diode (OLED), the electroluminescent material comprising the emissive
layer of the diode is an organic compound. The organic material is electrically conductive due to
the delocalization of pi electrons caused by conjugation over all or part of the molecule, and the
material therefore functions as an organic semiconductor.[100] The organic materials can be small
organicmolecules in a crystalline phase, or polymers.
The potential advantages of OLEDs include thin, low-cost displays with a low driving voltage, wide
viewing angle, and high contrast and color gamut.[101] Polymer LEDs have the added benefit of
printable[102][103] and flexible[104] displays. OLEDs have been used to make visual displays for portable
electronic devices such as cellphones, digital cameras, and MP3 players while possible future uses
include lighting and televisions.[101]
Quantum dot LEDs (experimental)[edit]

Quantum dots (QD) are semiconductor nanocrystals that possess unique optical properties.[105] Their
emission color can be tuned from the visible throughout the infrared spectrum. This allows quantum
dot LEDs to create almost any color on the CIE diagram. This provides more color options and better
color rendering than white LEDs since the emission spectra is much more narrow, characteristic of
quantum confined states. There are two types of schemes for QD excitation. One uses photo
excitation with a primary light source LED (typically blue or UV LEDs are used). The other is direct
electrical excitation first demonstrated by Alivisatos et al.[106]
One example of the photo-excitation scheme is a method developed by Michael Bowers,
at Vanderbilt University in Nashville, involving coating a blue LED with quantum dots that glow white
in response to the blue light from the LED. This method emits a warm, yellowish-white light similar to
that made by incandescent bulbs.[107] Quantum dots are also being considered for use in white lightemitting diodes in liquid crystal display (LCD) televisions.[108]
In February 2011 scientists at PlasmaChem GmbH could synthesize quantum dots for LED
applications and build a light converter on their basis, which could efficiently convert light from blue
to any other color for many hundred hours.[109] Such QDs can be used to emit visible or near infrared
light of any wavelength being excited by light with a shorter wavelength.
The structure of QD-LEDs used for the electrical-excitation scheme is similar to basic design
of OLED. A layer of quantum dots is sandwiched between layers of electron-transporting and holetransporting materials. An applied electric field causes electrons and holes to move into the quantum
dot layer and recombine forming an exciton that excites a QD. This scheme is commonly studied
for quantum dot display. The tunability of emission wavelengths and narrow bandwidth is also
beneficial as excitation sources for fluorescence imaging. Fluorescence near-field scanning optical
microscopy (NSOM) utilizing an integrated QD-LED has been demonstrated.[110]
In February 2008, a luminous efficacy of 300 lumens of visible light per watt of radiation (not per
electrical watt) and warm-light emission was achieved by using nanocrystals.[111]
Types[edit]
LEDs are produced in a variety of shapes and sizes. The color of the plastic lens is often the same as the actual color
of light emitted, but not always. For instance, purple plastic is often used for infrared LEDs, and most blue devices
have colorless housings. Modern high-power LEDs such as those used for lighting and backlighting are generally
found in surface-mount technology (SMT) packages (not shown).
The main types of LEDs are miniature, high-power devices and custom designs such as
alphanumeric or multi-color.[112]
Miniature[edit]
Photo of miniature surface mountLEDs in most common sizes. They can be much smaller than a traditional 5 mm
lamp type LED which is shown on the upper left corner.
Very small (1.6x1.6x0.35 mm) Red, Green, Blue surface mount miniature LED package with gold wire bondingdetails.
These are mostly single-die LEDs used as indicators, and they come in various sizes from 2 mm to
8 mm, through-hole and surface mount packages. They usually do not use a separate heat sink.
[113]
Typical current ratings ranges from around 1 mA to above 20 mA. The small size sets a natural
upper boundary on power consumption due to heat caused by the high current density and need for
a heat sink.
Common package shapes include round, with a domed or flat top, rectangular with a flat top (as
used in bar-graph displays), and triangular or square with a flat top. The encapsulation may also be
clear or tinted to improve contrast and viewing angle.
Researchers at the University of Washington have invented the thinnest LED. It is made of twodimensional (2-D) flexible materials. It is 3atoms thick, which is 10 to 20 times thinner than threedimensional (3-D) LEDs and is also 10,000 times smaller than the thickness of a human hair. These
2-D LEDs are going to make it possible to create smaller, more energy-efficient lighting, optical
communication andnano lasers.[114]
There are three main categories of miniature single die LEDs:
Low-current: typically rated for 2 mA at around 2 V (approximately 4 mW consumption).
Standard: 20 mA LEDs (ranging from approximately 40 mW to 90 mW) at around:

1.9 to 2.1 V for red, orange and yellow,
3.0 to 3.4 V for green and blue,
2.9 to 4.2 V for violet, pink, purple and white.
Ultra-high-output: 20 mA at approximately 2 V or 45 V, designed for viewing in direct

sunlight.
5 V and 12 V LEDs are ordinary miniature LEDs that incorporate a suitable series resistor for
direct connection to a 5 V or 12 V supply.
Mid-range[edit]
Medium-power LEDs are often through-hole-mounted and mostly utilized when an output of just
tens of lumens are needed. They sometimes have the diode mounted to four leads (two cathode
leads, two anode leads) for better heat conduction and carry an integrated lens. An example of
this is the Superflux package, from Philips Lumileds. These LEDs are most commonly used in
light panels, emergency lighting, and automotive tail-lights. Due to the larger amount of metal in
the LED, they are able to handle higher currents (around 100 mA). The higher current allows for
the higher light output required for tail-lights and emergency lighting.
High-power[edit]
High-power light-emitting diodes attached to an LED star base (Luxeon,Lumileds)
See also: Solid-state lighting, LED lamp and Thermal management of high-power LEDs
High-power LEDs (HPLEDs) or high-output LEDs (HO-LEDs) can be driven at currents from
hundreds of mA to more than an ampere, compared with the tens of mA for other LEDs. Some
can emit over a thousand lumens.[115][116] LED power densities up to 300 W/cm2have been
achieved.[117] Since overheating is destructive, the HPLEDs must be mounted on a heat sink to
allow for heat dissipation. If the heat from a HPLED is not removed, the device will fail in
seconds. One HPLED can often replace an incandescent bulb in a flashlight, or be set in an
array to form a powerful LED lamp.
Some well-known HPLEDs in this category are the Nichia 19 series, Lumileds Rebel Led, Osram
Opto Semiconductors Golden Dragon, and Cree X-lamp. As of September 2009, some HPLEDs
manufactured by Cree Inc. now exceed 105 lm/W[118] (e.g. the XLamp XP-G LED chip emitting
Cool White light) and are being sold in lamps intended to replace incandescent, halogen, and
even fluorescent lights, as LEDs grow more cost competitive.
The impact of Haitz's law which describes the exponential rise in light output of LEDs over time
can be readily seen in year over year increases in lumen output and efficiency. For example, the
CREE XP-G series LED achieved 105 lm/W in 2009, [118] while Nichia released the 19 series with
a typical efficacy of 140 lm/W in 2010.[119]
AC driven LED[edit]
LEDs have been developed by Seoul Semiconductor that can operate on AC power without the
need for a DC converter. For each half-cycle, part of the LED emits light and part is dark, and
this is reversed during the next half-cycle. The efficacy of this type of HPLED is typically 40
lm/W.[120] A large number of LED elements in series may be able to operate directly from line
voltage. In 2009, Seoul Semiconductor released a high DC voltage LED, named as 'Acrich MJT',
capable of being driven from AC power with a simple controlling circuit. The low-power
dissipation of these LEDs affords them more flexibility than the original AC LED design. [121]
Application-specific variations[edit]
Flashing[edit]
Used as attention seeking indicators without requiring external electronics. Flashing LEDs
resemble standard LEDs but they contain an integrated multivibrator circuit that causes the LED
to flash with a typical period of one second. In diffused lens LEDs this is visible as a small black
dot. Most flashing LEDs emit light of one color, but more sophisticated devices can flash
between multiple colors and even fade through a color sequence using RGB color mixing.
Bi-color LED[edit]
Two different LED emitters in one case. There are two types of these. One type consists of two
dies connected to the same two leads antiparallel to each other. Current flow in one direction
emits one color, and current in the opposite direction emits the other color. The other type
consists of two dies with separate leads for both dies and another lead for common anode or
cathode, so that they can be controlled independently.
A decorative garden light that changes color
Tri-color[edit]
Three different LED emitters in one case. Each emitter is connected to a separate lead so they
can be controlled independently. A four-lead arrangement is typical with one common lead
(anode or cathode) and an additional lead for each color.
RGB[edit]
Tri-color LEDs with red, green, and blue emitters, in general using a four-wire connection with
one common lead (anode or cathode). These LEDs can have either common positive or
common negative leads. Others however, have only two leads (positive and negative) and have
a built in tiny electronic control unit.
Decorative multicolor[edit]
incorporate several emitters of different colors supplied by only two lead-out wires. Colors are
switched internally simply by varying the supply voltage. (In a cheap 'Melinera' garden lamp supplied
by OWIM GmbH & Co KG in 2013 the LEDs are within a clear casting of 5mm diameter, 10mm long
which encapsulates 3 LEDs which change between red, green and blue as the DC supply varies
between about 2 volts and 3 volts).
Alphanumeric[edit]
available in seven-segment, starburst and dot-matrix format. Seven-segment displays handle all
numbers and a limited set of letters. Starburst displays can display all letters. Dot-matrix displays
typically use 5x7 pixels per character. Seven-segment LED displays were in widespread use in the
1970s and 1980s, but rising use of liquid crystal displays, with their lower power needs and greater
display flexibility, has reduced the popularity of numeric and alphanumeric LED displays.
Digital RGB[edit]
These are RGB LEDs that contain their own "smart" control electronics. In addition to power and
ground, these provide connections for data in, data out, and sometimes a clock or strobe signal.
These are connected in a daisy chain, with the data in of the first LED sourced by a microprocessor,
which can control the brightness and color of each LED independently of the others. They are used
where a combination of maximum control and minimum visible electronics are needed such as
strings for Christmas and similar decorations, few even have refresh rates in the kHz range allowing
for basic video applications.
Thermal diode
The term thermal diode is sometimes used for a (possibly non-electrical) device which causes heat
to flow preferentially in one direction. Or, the term may be used to describe an electrical
(semiconductor) diode in reference to a thermal effect or function. Or the term may be used to
describe both situations, where an electrical diode is used as a heat-pump or thermoelectric cooler.
Contents
[hide]
1 One-way heat-flow
2 Electrical diode thermal effect or function
3 Thermoelectric heat-pump or cooler

o
3.1 Peltier devices
4 Advancements
5 See also
6 References
7 External links
One-way heat-flow[edit]
A thermal diode can be:
a heat engine which converts a heat difference directly into electric power.
a heat engine working backwards as a refrigerator, such as a Stirling engine.
a type of heat pipe which will only allow heat to flow from the evaporator to the condenser.
When the condenser is hotter than the evaporator, the coolant in the heat pipe condenses in a
reservoir at the evaporator end. This reservoir does not have a capillary connection with the
condenser, preventing the liquid from returning to the condenser. During normal heat pipe
operation, when the evaporator and reservoir become hotter than the condenser, the reservoir is
emptied by evaporation, and heat is transferred to the condenser.
Due to the second law of thermodynamics a passive system cannot move heat from a cold source to
a hot destination. But the law allows to avoid or minimize the flow in this direction. If the source is
hotter than the destination heat flows with a low thermal resistance towards the destination.
Electrical diode thermal effect or function[edit]
a sensor device embedded on microprocessors used to monitor the temperature of the

processor's die.
This application of thermal diode is based on its property to change voltage across it linearly
according to temperature. As the temperature increases, diodes forward voltage decreases.
Microprocessors having high clock rate encounter high thermal loads. To monitor the temperature
limits thermal diodes are used. They are usually placed in that part of the processor core where
highest temperature is encountered. Voltage developed across it varies with the temperature of the
diode. All modern Intel CPUs have on-chip thermal diodes. As they are right there in the middle it
provides most relevant CPU temperature readings. The silicon diodes have temperature
dependency of -2mV per degree celsius. Thus we can determine the junction temperature by
passing a current through the diode and then measuring voltage developed across it. In addition to
processors, the same technology is widely used in dedicated temperature sensor IC's.
Thermoelectric heat-pump or cooler[edit]

There are two types. One uses semiconductor, or less efficient metal, i.e. thermocouples, working on
the principles of the Peltier-Seebeck effect. The other relies on vacuum tubes and the principles
of thermionic emission.
Peltier devices[edit]
a heat engine working backwards as a refrigerator, such as a Peltier device (diode)
Advancements[edit]
A team at MIT is working for construction of thermal diodes that convert heat to electricity at lower
temperatures than before.[1] This can be used in construction of engines or in electricity production.
The efficiency of present thermal diodes is about 18% between the temperature range of 200-300
degree celsius.[2]
See also[edit]
Drinking bird
Loop heat pipe
Thermosiphon

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Diode

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Closeup of a diode, showing the square-shaped semiconductor crystal(black object on left).

In electronics, a diode is a two-terminal electronic component with asymmetric conductance; it has

2.1 Vacuum tube diodes

2.2 Solid-state diodes

4.1 Electronic symbols

4.2 Point-contact diodes

4.3 Junction diodes

4.3.1 pn junction diode

4.3.2 Schottky diode

4.4 Currentvoltage characteristic

4.5 Shockley diode equation

4.6 Small-signal behavior

4.7 Reverse-recovery effect

5 Types of semiconductor diode

6 Numbering and coding schemes

6.3 Pro Electron

8.1 Radio demodulation

8.2 Power conversion

8.3 Over-voltage protection

8.4 Logic gates

8.5 Ionizing radiation detectors

8.6 Temperature measurements

8.7 Current steering

8.8 Waveform Clipper

12.1 Interactive and animations

Vacuum tube diodes[edit]

Power supply rectifiers (half-wave, full-wave, bridge)

Diode vacuum tube construction

Light Emitting Diode(LED)

Transient Voltage Suppression (TVS)

A pn junction diode is made of a crystal of semiconductor, usually silicon,

IV (current vs. voltage) characteristics of a pn junction diode

A semiconductor diode's behavior in a circuit is given by its currentvoltage characteristic, or IV

Shockley diode equation[edit]

where k is the Boltzmann constant, T is the absolute temperature of the

value of IS. The reverse breakdown region is not modeled by the

The use of the diode equation in circuit problems is illustrated in the

Types of semiconductor diode[edit]

Several types of diodes. The scale is centimeters.

Typical datasheet drawing showing the dimensions of a DO-41 diode

There are several types of pn junction diodes, which emphasize

Normal (pn) diodes, which operate as described above, are

Clarence Zener (1934)

anode and cathode

1.1 Waveform clipper

1.2 Voltage shifter

1.3 Voltage regulator

2.1 Surface Zeners

2.2 Subsurface Zeners

TC depending on Zener voltage

A conventional solid-state diode allows significant current if it is reverse-biased above its

Examples of a Waveform Clipper

Examples of a Voltage Shifter

Examples of a Voltage Regulator

Zener diode shown with typical packages.Reverse current

The value of R must satisfy two conditions :