Elements of CLT

Communication According to Ability

Whether CLT should be considered an approach or a methodology is a more abstract
debate and here I want to deal with its more practical aspects. In fact, it is those very
elements, and the name itself, which have been used to challenge the future relevance
of CLT. Firstly, the label implies a focus on communication and some might argue that
this method can't be employed genuinely with low levels as there is no authentic
communication, due to a limited vocabulary and restricted range of functions. Initially,
many of a learner's utterances are very formulaic. As an aside, consider just what
percentage of our own English expressions are unique, and how often we rely on a set
phrase; just because it is delivered unselfconsciously and with natural intonation does
not make it original. The aim is that the length and complexity of exchanges, and
confident delivery, will grow with the student's language ability.
With the emphasis on communication, there is also the implication that spoken
exchanges should be authentic and meaningful; detractors claim that the artificial nature
of classroombased (i.e. teacher - created) interactions makes CLT an oxymoron.
Nevertheless, a proficient teacher will provide a context so that class interactions are
realistic and meaningful but with the support needed to assist students to generate the
target language. We need to consider that producing language is a skill and when we
learn a skill we practise in improvised settings. For example, before a nurse gives a real
injection, they have punctured many a piece of fruit to hone their technique.

Accuracy as Well as Fluency

It might also be argued that the extent of some of the structures or functions may never
be used in real life. One example is adjective order; I have given students an exercise
where they have to produce a phrase with a string of adjectives, such as "a strong,
orange, Norwegian, canvas tent." This is very unnatural, as most times we only
combine two or three adjectives. The other example is directions we have students
follow a map and negotiate exhaustive directions which suggest maze-like complexity.
In reality, most of us probably are only involved in a three-phase set of directions. In
fact, what we are doing with these exercises is exposing students to patterns which they
can later activate.
This focus on accuracy versus fluency is one of the issues not often considered in a
discussion of CLT. The teacher decides to pay attention to one or other end of this band,
depending on the type of lesson, or the stage of a particular lesson, and accuracy is
their choice if they want to deal with students getting things right, take an opportunity for
correction, or gauge the success of their teaching, for example. Freer speaking involves
more choice, therefore more ambiguity, and less teacher intervention. While CLT implies
the lessons are more student-centred, this does not mean they are un-structured. The

teacher does have a very important role in the process, and that is setting up activities
so that communication actually happens. There is a lot of preparation; accuracy practice
is the bridge to a fluency activity. By implication, CLT involves equipping students with
vocabulary, structures and functions, as well as strategies, to enable them to interact
successfully.
The reference to strategies introduces the matter of grammatical versus communicative
competence. If we view the two as mutually exclusive, then we are likely to champion
one over the other, in terms of approach, curriculum or whatever else determines and
defines our classroom teaching. In fact, Canale and Swain's model of communicative
competence, referred to by Guangwei Hu, includes four sub-categories, namely
grammatical, sociolinguistic discourse and strategic. They consider someone competent
in English should demonstrate both rules of grammar and use.

Promoting Learning
This returns us to the consideration of who we are teaching, and why. Are our students
aiming to learn or acquire English? Do they need to know lexical items and linguistic
rules as a means of passing an exam, or do they want to be able to interact in English?
For those inclined to maintain the dichotomy between learning and acquisition, and who
argue that our primary focus is learners, CLT still has relevance. It is timely to review an
early definition of CLT. According to Richards and Rodgers, in Guangwei Hu, CLT is
basically about promoting learning.
Then again, Mark Lowe suggests that we follow Halliday's lead and drop the distinction
between learning and acquisition, and refer to language mastery instead. After all, if the
students master the language, they will certainly be able to perform better in exams, if
that is their goal. In addition, those who do see a purpose beyond classroom-related
English will be better equipped for using the language socially.

Motivation
One of the constant discussions in all my teacher training groups was how to motivate
students. This suggests that the focus on passing the exam was not always enough.
Motivation relates to engaging students but also includes confidence building. If there is
a climate of trust and support in the classroom, then students are more likely to
contribute. One way of developing this is to allow pair-checking of answers before openclass checking occurs. Another way is to include an opportunity for students to discuss
a topic in small groups before there is any expectation that they speak in front of the
whole class. Evelyn Doman suggests that "The need for ongoing negotiation during
interaction increases the learners' overt participation..." It is this involvement we need to
harness and build on.

Sometimes the participation is hardly what we would define as 'negotiation', but merely
a contribution. For a few students, just uttering a word or a phrase can be an
achievement. Indeed, some of the teachers in the training sessions said this was the
goal they set for their more reticent pupils. And I have had students who, after writing
their first note or e-mail in English, expressed their pride at being able to do so.
If teachers consider an activity to be irrelevant or not engaging enough, there are many
other tasks which may be more appropriate, such as surveys, using a stimulus picture
and prompt questions (Who... Where... When...What...), or a series of pictures which
need to be sequenced before a story is discussed. In this respect, CLT addresses
another area which constantly challenges teachers, the mixed-ability class. When the
lesson progresses to a freer-speaking activity, students can contribute according to their
ability and confidence, although I acknowledge both need to be stretched. So there is a
challenge for the more capable students, while those with an average ability still feel
their effort is valid. This compares with the less creative opportunities offered by some
textbooks, where students read a dialogue, perhaps doing a substitution activity, for
example.
A basic responsibility is considering and responding to the needs of our students, so if
the course book is inadequate we need to employ the following steps: select, adapt,
reject and supplement. Moreover, because each class we teach has its own
characteristics and needs, CLT will vary each time we employ it.
Characteristics of the Communicative Classroom

The classroom is devoted primarily to activities that foster acquisition of L2.

Learning activities involving practice and drill are assigned as homework.

The instructor does not correct speech errors directly.

Students are allowed to respond in the target language, their native language, or
a mixture of the two.

The focus of all learning and speaking activities is on the interchange of a

message that the acquirer understands and wishes to transmit, i.e. meaningful
communication.

The students receive comprehensible input in a low-anxiety environment and are

personally involved in class activities. Comprehensible input has the following major
components:

a. a context
b. gestures and other body language cues
c. a message to be comprehended
d. a knowledge of the meaning of key lexical items in the utterance
Stages of language acquisition in the communicative approach
1. Comprehension or pre-production
a. Total physical response
b. Answer with names--objects, students, pictures
2. Early speech production
a. Yes-no questions
b. Either-or questions
c. Single/two-word answers
d. Open-ended questions
e. Open dialogs
f. Interviews
3. Speech emerges
a. Games and recreational activities
b. Content activities

c. Humanistic-affective activities
d. Information-problem-solving activities

Teaching approaches: task-based

learning
By Tim Bowen

Type: Reference material

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An article discussing different models for the organization of language

lessons, including Task-Based Learning.

What is TBL?
How often do we as teachers ask our students to do something in class which they would do in everyday life
using their own language? Probably not often enough.
If we can make language in the classroom meaningful therefore memorable, students can process language
which is being learned or recycled more naturally.
Task-based learning offers the student an opportunity to do exactly this. The primary focus of classroom
activity is the task and language is the instrument which the students use to complete it. The task is an activity
in which students use language to achieve a specific outcome. The activity reflects real life and learners focus
on meaning, they are free to use any language they want. Playing a game, solving a problem or sharing
information or experiences, can all be considered as relevant and authentic tasks. In TBL an activity in which
students are given a list of words to use cannot be considered as a genuine task. Nor can a normal role play if
it does not contain a problem-solving element or where students are not given a goal to reach. In many role
plays students simply act out their restricted role. For instance, a role play where students have to act out roles
as company directors but must come to an agreement or find the right solution within the given time limit can be
considered a genuine task in TBL.

In the task-based lessons included below our aim is to create a need to learn and use language. The tasks will
generate their own language and create an opportunity for language acquisition (Krashen*). If we can take the
focus away from form and structures we can develop our students ability to do things in English. That is not to
say that there will be no attention paid to accuracy, work on language is included in each task and feedback
and language focus have their places in the lesson plans. We feel that teachers have a responsibility to enrich
their students language when they see it is necessary but students should be given the opportunity to use
English in the classroom as they use their own languages in everyday life.

How can I use TBL in the classroom?

Most of the task-based lessons in this section are what Scrivener** classifies as authentic and follow the task
structure proposed by Willis and Willis***.
Each task will be organized in the following way:

Pre-task activity an introduction to topic and task

Task cycle: Task > Planning > Report
Language Focus and Feedback
A balance should be kept between fluency, which is what the task provides, and accuracy, which is provided by
task feedback.

A traditional model for the organization of language lessons, both in the classroom and in course-books, has
long been the PPP approach (presentation, practice, production). With this model individual language items
(for example, the past continuous) are presented by the teacher, then practised in the form of spoken and
written exercises (often pattern drills), and then used by the learners in less controlled speaking or writing
activities. Although the grammar point presented at the beginning of this procedure may well fit neatly into a
grammatical syllabus, a frequent criticism of this approach is the apparent arbitrariness of the selected
grammar point, which may or may not meet the linguistic needs of the learners, and the fact that the production
stage is often based on a rather inauthentic emphasis on the chosen structure.
An alternative to the PPP model is the Test-Teach-Test approach (TTT), in which the production stage comes
first and the learners are "thrown in at the deep end" and required to perform a particular task (a role play, for
example). This is followed by the teacher dealing with some of the grammatical or lexical problems that arose
in the first stage and the learners then being required either to perform the initial task again or to perform a
similar task. The language presented in the teach stage can be predicted if the initial production task is
carefully chosen but there is a danger of randomness in this model.
Jane Willis (1996), in her book A Framework for Task-Based Learning, outlines a third model for organizing
lessons. While this is not a radical departure from TTT, it does present a model that is based on sound
theoretical foundations and one which takes account of the need for authentic communication. Task-based
learning (TBL) is typically based on three stages. The first of these is the pre-task stage, during which the
teacher introduces and defines the topic and the learners engage in activities that either help them to recall
words and phrases that will be useful during the performance of the main task or to learn new words and
phrases that are essential to the task. This stage is followed by what Willis calls the "task cycle". Here the
learners perform the task (typically a reading or listening exercise or a problem-solving exercise) in pairs or
small groups. They then prepare a report for the whole class on how they did the task and what conclusions
they reached. Finally, they present their findings to the class in spoken or written form. The final stage is the

language focus stage, during which specific language features from the task and highlighted and worked on.
Feedback on the learners performance at the reporting stage may also be appropriate at this point.
The main advantages of TBL are that language is used for a genuine purpose meaning that real
communication should take place, and that at the stage where the learners are preparing their report for the
whole class, they are forced to consider language form in general rather than concentrating on a single form
(as in the PPP model). Whereas the aim of the PPP model is to lead from accuracy to fluency, the aim of TBL is
to integrate all four skills and to move from fluency to accuracy plus fluency. The range of tasks available
(reading texts, listening texts, problem-solving, role-plays, questionnaires, etc) offers a great deal of flexibility in
this model and should lead to more motivating activities for the learners.
Learners who are used to a more traditional approach based on a grammatical syllabus may find it difficult to
come to terms with the apparent randomness of TBL, but if TBL is integrated with a systematic approach to
grammar and lexis, the outcome can be a comprehensive, all-round approach that can be adapted to meet the
needs of all learners.

Tasks: Getting to know your centre

The object of the following two tasks is for students to use English to:

Find out what resources are available to them and how they can use their resource room.
Meet and talk to each of the teachers in their centre.
To do these tasks you will require the PDF worksheets at the bottom of the page.

Task 1: Getting to know your resources

Level: Pre-intermediate and above
It is assumed in this lesson that your school has the following student resources; books (graded readers),
video, magazines and Internet. Dont worry if it doesnt, the lesson can be adjusted accordingly.
Pre-task preparation: One of the tasks is a video exercise which involves viewing a movie clip with the sound
turned off. This can be any movie depending on availability, but the clip has to involve a conversation between
two people.
Pre-task activity: In pairs students discuss the following questions:

Do you use English outside the classroom?

How?
What ways can you practise English outside the classroom?
Stage one - Running dictation
Put the text from worksheet one on the wall either inside or outside the classroom. Organize your students into
pairs. One student will then go to the text, read the text and then go back to her partner and relay the

information to her. The partner who stays at the desk writes this information. When teams have finished check
for accuracy. You can make this competitive should you wish.
Stage two
In pairs students then read the Getting To Know Your Resources task sheet (worksheet two). Check any
problem vocabulary at this stage. This worksheet can be adapted according to the resource room at your
school.

Stage three
Depending on how the resources are organized in your centre, students then go, in pairs, to the resource room
or wherever the resources are kept and complete the tasks on the task sheet.
Stage four
Working with a different partner students now compare and share their experience.
Stage five - Feedback
Having monitored the activity and the final stage, use this opportunity to make comments on your students
performance. This may take form of a correction slot on errors or pronunciation, providing a self-correction slot.

Task 2 - Getting to know your teachers

Level: Pre-intermediate and above
Students may need at least a week to do this activity, depending on the availability of the teachers in your
centre
Pre-task activity: In pairs students talk about an English teacher they have had.

What was her name?

Where was she from?
How old was she?
Do you remember any of her lessons?
What was your favourite activity in her class?
Stage one
Using the Getting To Know Your Teachers task sheet (worksheet three) and the Interview Questions (worksheet
four) students write the questions for the questionnaire they are going to use to interview the teachers.
Stage two
To set up the activity students then interview you and record the information.
Stage three
Depending on which teachers are free at this time they can then go and interview other teachers and record the
information. You may wish to bring other teachers into your class to be interviewed or alternatively give your
students a week or so to complete the task, interviewing teachers before or after class, or whenever they come
to the centre.
Stage four
Working with a different partner students compare their answers and experiences then decide on their final
answers on the superlative questions.
Stage five

Feedback and reflection. Allow time for students to express their opinions and experiences of the activity.
Provide any feedback you feel is necessary.

The lexical approach is a method of teaching foreign languages described by Michael Lewis in
the early 1990s. The basic concept on which this approach rests is the idea that an important
part of learning a language consists of being able to understand and produce lexicalphrases as
chunks

Lexical Approach
In creating the pedagogical materials for Franais interactif, the developers decided to move away from the traditional
grammatical syllabus and adopt features of the Lexical Approach instead.
Lewis (1993) suggests the following:

Lexis is the basis of language.

Grammatical mastery is not a requirement for effective communication.

Any meaning-centered syllabus should be organized around lexis rather than grammar.

Types of Lexical Units

Lewis also suggests that Native speakers have a large inventory of lexical chunks that are vital for fluent production.
Chunks include collocations and fixed and semi-fixed expressions and idioms. Fluency does not depend on a set of
generative grammar rules and a separate store of isolated words, but on the ability to rapidly access this inventory of
chunks. These chunks occupy a crucial role in facilitating language production and are the key to fluency. Two points
to remember about lexical chunks: learners are able to-

comprehend lexical phrases as unanalyzed wholes or chunks.

use whole phrases without understanding their constituent parts.

Taxonomy of Lexical Items (Lewis, 1997)

Lexical Item

Examples

words

book, pen

polywords

by the way, upside down

collocations

prices fell, rancid butter

institutionalized utterances

sentence frames and heads

text frames

I'll get it; That'll do

That is not as [adjective] as you think;

The danger was...

In this paper we will explore...; Firstly...

Lexis in Language Teaching and Learning

The language activities consistent with the lexical approach must be directed toward naturally occurring language and
toward raising learners' awareness of the lexical nature of language. Activites of this nature include the following:

intensive and extensive listening and reading in the target language

first and second language comparisons and translation

repetition and recycling of activities to keep words and expressions that have been learned active

guessing the meaning of vocabulary items from context

noticing and recording language patterns and collocations

working with dictionaries and other reference tools

working with language corpuses to research word partnerships, preposition usage, style, and so on