STANDARDS OF MEASUREMENTS

Definition of Standards:
A standard is defined as something that is set up and
established by an authority as rule of the measure of
quantity, weight, extent, value or quality.
For example, a metre is a standard established by an
international organization for measurement of length.
Industry, commerce, international trade in modern civilization
would be impossible without a good system of standards.
Role of Standards: The role of standards is to achieve
uniform, consistent and repeatable measurements
throughout the world.
Today our entire industrial economy is based on the
interchangeability of parts the method of manufacture.
To achieve this, a measuring system adequate to define
the features to the accuracy required & the standards of
sufficient accuracy to support the measuring system are
necessary.
STANDARDS OF LENGTH
In practice, the accurate measurement must be made by
comparison with a standard of known dimension and such a
standard is called Primary Standard
The first accurate standard was made in England and was
known as Imperial Standard yard which was followed by
International Prototype metre made in France. Since these

two standards of length were made of metal alloys they are

called material length standards.
International Prototype metre:
It is defined as the straight line distance, at 0 oC, between the
engraved lines of pure platinum-iridium alloy (90% platinum
& 10% iridium) of 1020 mm total length and having a tresca
cross section as shown in fig. The graduations are on the
upper surface of the web which coincides with the neutral
axis of the section.
Engraved lines
Engraved lines
Neutral axis

mm16
Platinum-iridium aloy

1 metre(at 0deg C)

1020 mm

16 mm

Web

Historical International Prototype Metre bar, made of an alloy of platinum and

iridium, that was the standard from 1889 to 1960.
The tresca cross section gives greater rigidity for the amount of material
involved and is therefore economic in the use of an expensive metal. The
platinum-iridium alloy is used because it is non oxidizable and retains good
polished surface required for engraving good quality lines.
Imperial Standard yard:
An imperial standard yard, shown in fig, is a bronze (82% Cu, 13% tin, 5% Zinc)
bar of 1 inch square section and 38 inches long. A round recess, 1 inch away
from the two ends is cut at both ends upto the central or neutral plane of the bar.
Further, a small round recess of (1/10) inch in diameter is made below the center.
Two gold plugs of (1/10) inch diameter having engravings are inserted into these
holes so that the lines (engravings) are in neutral plane.

38"
36" at 62 deg F
Neutral axis

1"
1"

Gold plug

Bronze bar 82% Cu, 13% Tin, 5% Zinc

1"

Enlarged view of gold plug showing engraving

Yard is defined as the distance between the two central transverse lines of the
0

gold plug at 62 F.
The purpose of keeping the gold plugs in line with the neutral axis is to ensure
that the neutral axis remains unaffected due to bending, and to protect the gold
plugs from accidental damage.

Bronze Yard was the official standard of length for the United States between
1855 and 1892, when the US went to metric standards. 1 yard = 0.9144 meter.
The yard is used as the standard unit of field-length measurement in American,
Canadian and Association football, cricket pitch dimensions, swimming pools, and
in some countries, golf fairway measurements.

Disadvantages of Material length standards:

1. Material length standards vary in length over the years
owing to molecular changes in the alloy.
2. The exact replicas of material length standards were not
available for use somewhere else.
3. If these standards are accidentally damaged or destroyed
then exact copies could not be made.
4. Conversion factors have to be used for changing over to
metric system.
Light (Optical) wave Length Standard:
Because of the problems of variation in length of material
length standards, the possibility of using light as a basic unit
to define primary standard has been considered. The
wavelength of a selected radiation of light is used as the basic
unit of length. Since the wavelength is not a physical one, it
need not be preserved & can be easily reproducible without
considerable error.

A krypton-filled discharge tube in the shape of the element's atomic symbol. A

colorless, odorless, tasteless noble gas, krypton occurs in trace amounts in the
atmosphere, is isolated by fractionally distilling liquefied air. The high power and
relative ease of operation of krypton discharge tubes caused (from 1960 to 1983) the
official meter to be defined in terms of one orange-red spectral line of krypton-86.

Metre as on Today: In 1983, the 17th general conference on weights &

measures proposed the use of speed of light as a technically feasible &
practicable definition of meter.
Meter is now defined as the length of path of travelled by light in vacuum in
(1/ 299792458) second. The light used is iodine stabilized helium-neon laser.
Advantages of using wave length standards:
1. Length does not change.
2. It can be easily reproduced easily if destroyed.
3. This primary unit is easily accessible to any physical laboratories.
4. It can be used for making measurements with much higher accuracy than
material standards.
5. Wavelength standard can be reproduced consistently at any time and at any
place.

Subdivision of standards:
The imperial standard yard and the international prototype meter are master
standards & cannot be used for ordinary purposes. Thus based upon the accuracy
required, the standards are subdivided into four grades namely;
1. Primary Standards
2. Secondary standards
3. Teritiary standards
4. Working standards
Primary standards:
They are material standard preserved under most careful conditions.
These are not used for directly for measurements but are used once in 10 or
20 years for calibrating secondary standards.
Ex: International Prototype metre, Imperial Standard yard.
Secondary standards:
These are close copies of primary standards w.r.t design, material & length.
Any error existing in these standards is recorded by comparison with

primary standards after long intervals. They are kept at a number of places
under great supervision and serve as reference for tertiary standards. This
also acts as safeguard against the loss or destruction of primary standards.
Teritiary standards:
The primary or secondary standards exist as the ultimate controls for reference at
rare intervals.
Tertiary standards are the reference standards employed by National
Physical laboratory (N.P.L) and are the first standards to be used for
reference in laboratories & workshops. They are made as close copies of
secondary standards & are kept as reference for comparison with working
standards.
Working standards:
These standards are similar in design to primary, secondary & tertiary
standards. But being less in cost and are made of low grade materials, they
are used for general applications in metrology laboratories.
Sometimes, standards are also classified as;
Reference standards (used as reference purposes)
Calibration standards (used for calibration of inspection & working
standards)
Inspection standards (used by inspectors)
Working standards (used by operators)
LINE STANDARDS
When the length being measured is expressed as the distance between two
lines, then it is called Line Standard.
Examples: Measuring scales, Imperial standard yard, International prototype meter,
etc.

Characteristics of Line Standards:

1. Scales can be accurately engraved but it is difficult to take the full advantage
of this accuracy. Ex: A steel rule can be read to about 0.2 mm of true
dimension.
2. A scale is quick and easy to use over a wide range of measurements.
3. The wear on the leading ends results in under sizing
4. A scale does not possess a built in datum which would allow easy scale
alignment with the axis of measurement, this again results in under
sizing.
5. Scales are subjected to parallax effect, which is a source of both positive
& negative reading errors

6 Scales are not convenient for close tolerance length measurements

except in conjunction with microscopes.
END STANDARDS
When the length being measured is expressed as the distance between two
parallel faces, then it is called End standard.
End standards can be made to a very high degree of accuracy.
Ex: Slip gauges, Gap gauges, Ends of micrometer anvils, etc.
Characteristics of End Standards:
1. End

standards

are

highly

accurate

and

are

well

suited

for

measurements of close tolerances as small as 0.0005 mm.

2. They are time consuming in use and prove only one dimension at a time.
3. End standards are subjected to wear on their measuring faces.
4. End standards have a built in datum, because their measuring faces are flat
&
parallel and can be positively located on a datum surface.
5. They are not subjected to the parallax effect since their use depends on
feel.
6. Groups of blocks may be wrung together to build up any length. But
faulty wringing leads to damage.
7. The accuracy of both end & line standards are affected by temperature
change.
TRANSFER FROM LINE STANDARD TO END STANDARD
(NPL method of deriving End standard from line standard)
Line Standard Comparator:

Measured differenced =x1-x2

x1

36 inch line standard

/2

x2

inch block

a b

35 /2 inch end standard

l

c d

/ inch block

1 2

A line standard comparator is used to transfer the line standard correctly to the
ends of a bar.
It consists of two microscopes mounted about a yard apart over a table. An end
standard about 351/2 inch in length is produced with flat & parallel faces. Two 1/2
inch blocks with centrally engraved lines are wrung to the ends of this end standard,
such that the distance between the center lines is approximately 36 inches.

The difference of readings between the lines on the line standard & the lines on
the end standard are noted every time, by arranging the end blocks in different
ways to eliminate errors in wringing & of marking of center lines.
If the actual length of the end standard is l, then for the four different ways of
wringing the end blocks, we can write;
l+ b+ c = 36+d1

l+ b+ d = 36+d2

l+ a+ c = 36+d3

l+ a+ d = 36+d4

Where d1, d2, d3 & d4 are the differences noted for the successive positions of
the 1/2 inch blocks respectively.
Taking mean,
l+ 0.5(a+b+c+d) = 36+0.25(d1+d2+d3 +d4 )
1

Next the 35 /2 inch end standard wrung with one of the 1/2 inch blocks is
compared with 36 inch end bar (to be calibrated) on a Brookes level comparator
& the deviation D1 may be noted.

D1

b
a

Then the other 1/2 inch block is wrung with it & again is compared with the end
bar (to be calibrated) & the deviation D 2 is noted. If L is the actual length of the
36 inch end bar, then;
l +a +b=L+D1,

l+ c+ d =L+D2

Combining the above equations,

------------------------------------------------------------------line and end standard measurements: Comparison between line standards and End
Standards:
Sr.No.
1.

2.

Characteristics
Principle

Accuracy

Line standard

End standard

Length is expressed as the

Length is expressed as the distance

distance between two lines

between two flat parallel faces

Limited to 0.2 mm.For high

Highly accurate for measurement of

accuracy, scales have to be used

close tolerances up to 0.001 mm.

in conjunction with magnifying

glass or microscope.

3.

4.

Ease and time

Measurement is quick and easy.

of and easy.

Effect of wear

Use of end standard requires skill and is

time consuming.

Scale markings are not subject

These are subjected to wear on their

to wear. However, significant

measuring surfaces.

wear may occur on leading

ends. Thus it may be difficult
to assume zero of scale as
datum.

5.

6.

Can not be easily aligned with

Can be easily aligned with the axis of

the axis of measurement.

measurement.

Manufacture

Simple to manufacture at low

Manufacturing process is complex and

and cost

cost.

cost is high

They are subjected to parallax

They are not subjected to parallax error.

Alignment

7.

Parallax effect

8.

Examples

error.
Scale (yard, metre etc.,)

Slip gauges, end bars, V. caliper,

micrometers etc.

CALIBRATION OF END BARS

The actual lengths of end bars can be found by wringing them together and
comparing them with a calibrated standard using a level comparator and also
individually comparing among themselves. This helps to set up a system of linear
equations which can be solved to find the actual lengths of individual bars.
The procedure is clearly explained in the forthcoming numerical problems.
Numerical problem-1:
Three 100 mm end bars are measured on a level comparator by first wringing them
together and comparing with a calibrated 300 mm bar which has a known error of
+40m. The three end bars together measure 64 m less than the 300 m bar. Bar A is
18 m longer than bar B and 23 m longer than bar C. Find the actual length of each

bar.

300 mm+40m

64m
C

Bar

18m
LA

23m
A

L
B

LC

SLIP GAUGES OR GAUGE BLOCKS

(JOHANSSON GAUGES)
Slip gauges are rectangular blocks of steel having cross section of 30 mm face length &

10 mm face width as shown in fig.

Measuring face

Slip gauge
length l

Facelength
a

ew

id

Slip gauges are blocks of steel that have been hardened and stabilized by heat
treatment. They are ground and lapped to size to very high standards of accuracy and
surface finish. A gauge block (also known Johansson gauge, slip gauge, or Jo block) is a
precision length measuring standard consisting of a ground and lapped metal or ceramic
block. Slip gauges were invented in 1896 by Swedish machinist Carl Edward Johansson

The cross- sections of these gauges are 9mm 30mm for sizes up to 10mm and
9mm35mm for larger sizes. Any two slips when perfectly clean may be wrung together.
The dimensions are permanently marked on one of the measuring faces of gauge blocks.

Gauges blocks are used for:

(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
(v)

(vi)

Direct precise measurement, where the accuracy of

the work piece demands it.
For checking accuracy of venire calipers, micro
metes, and such other measuring instruments.
Setting up a comparator to specific dimension.
For measuring angle of work piece and also for
angular setting in conjunction with a sine bar.
The distances of plugs, spigots, etc. on fixture are
often best measured with the slip gauges or end
bars for large dimensions.
To check gap between parallel locations such as in
gap gauges or between two mating parts.

There are many measurements which can be made with slip gauges either alone or in
conjunction with other simple apparatus such as straight edges, rollers, balls sine bars
etc.

When correctly cleaned and wrung together, the individual slip gauges adhere to
each other by molecular attraction and, if left like this for too long, a partial cold
weld will take place.
If this is allowed to occur, the gauging surface will be irreparable after use, hence the
gauges should be separated carefully by sliding them apart. They should then be
cleaned, smeared with petroleum jelly (Vaseline) and returned to their case.

Protector Slips:
In addition, some sets also contain protector slips that are 2.50mm thick and are
made from a hard, wear resistant material such as tungsten carbide. These are
added to the ends of the slip gauge stack to protect the other gauge blocks from
wear. Allowance must be made of the thickness of the protector slips when they
are used.

Wringing of Slip Gauges:

Slip gauges are wrung together to give a stack of the required dimension. In
order to achieve the maximum accuracy the following precautions must be taken.

Use the minimum number of blocks.

Wipe the measuring faces clean using soft clean chamois leather.

Wring the individual blocks together by first pressing at right angles, sliding &
then twisting.

Wringing of Slip Gauges

36 Johansson gauge blocks wrung together easily

support their own weight

INDIAN STANDARD ON SLIP GAUGES (IS

2984-1966)
Slip gauges are graded according to their accuracy as
Grade 0, Grade I & Grade II. Grade II is intended for use
in workshops during actual production of components,
tools & gauges.
Grade I is of higher accuracy for use in inspection
departments.
Grade 0 is used in laboratories and standard rooms for
periodic calibration of Grade I & Grade II gauges.

Important notes on building of Slip Gauges:

Always start with the last decimal place.

Then take the subsequent decimal places.

Minimum number of slip gauges should be used

by selecting the largest possible block in each
step.

If in case protector slips are used, first deduct their

thickness from the required dimension then proceed as

per above order.

Numerical problem-1
Build the following dimensions using M-87 set. (i) 49.3825
mm (ii) 87.3215 mm
Solution:
(i) To build 49.3825 mm:
Combination of slips; 40+6+1.38+1.002+1.0005 = 49.3825 mm

40

6 1.38 1.002

1.0005
(ii) To build 87.3215 mm:
Combination of slips; 80+4+1.32+1.001+1.0005 = 87.3215 mm

80

1.0005

4 1.32 1.001

Numerical problem-2
Build up a length of 35.4875 mm using M112 set. Use two protector slips of 2.5 mm each.

Solution:
Combination of slips; 2.5+25+2+1.48+1.007+1.0005+2.5 = 35.4875 mm

(Protector
slip)
2.5
25

(Protector
2 1.48 2.5

slip)

1.007 1.0005

Slip gauges are classified according to their guaranteed

accuracy :
AA for master slip gauges, A for reference purpose, and B
for
working
slip
gauges.
Johannsen AA slip gauges are accurate to plus or minus
two microns per metre. Type A is guaranteed accurate up
to plus or minus four microns per metre, while type B
for plus or minus eight microns per metre. The
guaranteed error is not divided for a block which is less than
25 mm ; such a slip gauge has same tolerance as 25 mm
gauge. The workshop type, i.e., B type gauges are finished
on their measuring faces approximately to within 250 um for
flatness and parallelism. The corresponding figures for types
A and AA are 125 and 75 u.m respectively.

As regards grades or classes of slip gauges, these could

also be designed in five grades as under:
Grade 2. This is the workshop grade. Typical uses include
setting up machine tools, positioning milling cutters and
checking mechanical widths.
Grade 1. Used for more precise work, such as that carried
out in a good-class toolroom. Typical uses include setting up
sine bars and sine tables, checking gap gauges and setting
dial test indicators to zero.
Grade 0. This is more commonly known as the Inspection
grade, and its use is confined to toolroom or machine shop
inspection. This means that it is the Inspection Department
only who have access to this grade of slips. In this way it is
not possible for these slip gauges to be damaged or abused
by the rough usage to be expected on the shop floor.
Grade 00. This grade would be kept in the Standard Room
and would be kept for work of the highest precision only. A
typical example would be the determination of any errors
present in the workshop or Grade 2 slips, occasioned by
rough or continual usage.
Calibration grade. This is a special grade, with the actual
sizes of the slips stated or calibrated on a special chart
supplied with the set. This chart must be consulted when
making up a dimension, and because these slips are not
made to specific or set tolerances, they are not as expensive
as the Grade 00. It must be remembered that a slip gauge,
like any other engineering component, cannot be made to an

exact size. All slip gauges must have tolerances on the

length, flatness and parallelism of measuring faces.
Except for the calibration grade, all slip gauge sets are
manufactured to within specified limits ; the closer the limits
the more expensive the slip gauges, but in the case of the
calibration grade, greater tolerances on length are
permissible. Because the actual lengths are known or
recorded in the calibration chart, due allowance can be
made when the slips are used.
Tungsten Carbide Slip Gauges, Ceramic Slip Gauges
Tungsten Carbide Slip Gauges are manufactured from specially
selected grade of Carbide with hardness of 1500 Vickers. Rigid
attention is paid throughout the manufacturing process for
flatness, parallelism and every slip gauge is rigorously checked
and calibrated in NABL accredited laboratory.
Why Tungsten Carbide ?
The mere suspicion that carbide is a brittle material had held
back its use for quite some time, till a number of actual trials
were conducted. It is some 50 years, since tests in the USA
indicated that hard metal slips could outlast steel by at least ten
times and in certain conditions even 100 times.
Features

Dimensional Stability

Ability to Wring

Resistance to Corrosion

Resistance to Wear

Economy

Tungsten Slip Gauges

Ceramic Slip Gauges

Salient Features
CORROSION Resistant
Unaffected by water, acids

and alkalis.
Simple maintenance with no
requirements of any anti corrosion treatment
No adverse effects due to
fingering while using.
Resistant to IMPACT
. Zirconia ceramic blocks
are hard and highly tough
to withstand the knocks
and drops that occur during
use and will not chip or
fracture easily
Resistant to WEAR

About 10 times life or even

more compared to steel slip
gauges. The natural
stability and durability due
to its low friction coefficient maintains their
geometry longer.

SuperiorWRINGABILITY
The uniform and close
grain structure enables
the blocks rigidly wrung
together and easy to
operate
Dents and burns are not
easily produced on gauge
surface
THERMAL expansion
The lowest thermal
conductivity makes these
gauge blocks easy to use
at different temperatures.