Engineering Surveying

Lecture 3

Baku,2020
 Linear measurements
Meaning of distance in Surveying. Tapes and their types, Taping, Ranging
direct and indirect, Corrections to distance measured. Mapping using
Tape. Problems in taping. Setting out and dropping perpendicular,
establishing parallel lines. Obstacles in taping and ranging.
EDMI – Electronic Distance Measuring Instrument, Characteristics. Basic
Principles, Classification, Principle of Operation (pulse and phase
difference method, Fundamental Equation of EDMI, Errors in EDMI
Linear measurement
Distance is one of the fundamental measurements in surveying. Although
frequently measured as a spatial distance (sloping distance) in three-
dimensional space, usually it is the horizontal component which is
required. Distance is required in many instances, e.g. to give scale to a
network of control points, to fix the position of topographic detail by offsets
or polar coordinates, to set out the position of a point in construction work,
etc.
The basic methods of measuring distance are, at the present time, by taping
or by electromagnetic (or electro-optical ) distance measurement, generally
designated as EDM
For distances over 5 km, GPS satellite methods, which can measure the
vectors between two points accurate to 0.0001% are usually more suitable.
 Mechanical

Methods of
determining
distance

Electronic Optical
Mechanical Methods are…
• Pacing – for very rough reconnaissance surveys or approximate estimates pacing may be
suitable.
• Tapes: are in a variety of lengths and materials. For engineering work the lengths are
generally 10 m, 30 m, 50 m and 100 m.
• Cloth tapes; we don’t use in surveying
• Linen or glass fibre tapes used for general use, where precision is not a prime
consideration. Glass fiber tapes mostly used, where precision is not a prime
consideration. These tapes are graduated in 5-mm intervals only.
• More precise versions of the above tapes are made of steel and graduated in millimeters.
They are standardized so that they measure their nominal length when the temperature
is 20°C and the applied tension between 50 N to 80 N. This information is clearly printed
on the zero end of the tape.
• For the most precise work, invar tapes made from 35% nickel and 65% steel are available
with advantage of negligible coefficient of expansion compared with steel
 RANGE
POLE/RANGING RODS

TAPING
PINS/ARROWS

TAPES

PLUMB BOBS
Taping Procedures are…
• Ranging rods: The ranging rods are used for making the intermediate positions / points
of stations and for ranging the lines (For temporary marking). They are circular or
octagonal in cross section with 3cm diameter and have a length of either 2 or 3 m. In
order to make them visible at a distance, they are pained alternatively black and white or
red and white.
• Spring Balance: Spring balances are generally used with roller-grips or tapeclamps to grip
the tape firmly when the standard tension is applied
• Arrows: For transition measurement. The height is (400mm), Diameter of top is (50mm),
and for steel is (4 mm).
• Hand levels may be used to ensure that the tape is horizontal
• Plumb-bobs may be necessary if stepped taping is used.
• Measuring Plates: Measuring plates are necessary in rough ground, to afford a mark
against which the tape may be read
• Tripod: in hard or paved pound tripod is used to support the ranging rods.
Taping procedures

• Site inspection and setup (Range poles may be placed to help define the
measurement line)
• Lining in
• Applying tension
• Plumbing: A plumb-bob is used to locate the measurement point on the tape
vertically above a fixed marker, or to place taping pins to mark tape lengths
• Marking tape length
• Reading the tape
• Recording the distance, temperature, and applied tension
Although taping procedure may appear to be relatively simple, high precision is
difficult to achieve especially for beginners. Taping is a skill that can be best taught
and learned by field demonstration and practice
• Example 1 (on flat ground):- To measure the length of line A which is
100m

• Example 2 (On slopped ground): To measure a distance AB.

Catenary Taping
Still the most accurate method of obtaining relatively short distances
over rough terrain. Corrections need to applied.
Correction to tapes
1. Correction for standard length (Standardization): During a period of use, a tape
will gradually alter in length for a variety of reasons. When the tape is too short the
surveyor will actually measure a distance less than that shown on the graduations.
Hence, a negative correction is needed. Similarly, when the tape is too long, a
distance greater than that shown on the graduations is measured, hence a positive
correction is applied.
The correction can be done by using the following formulas:
Correction to tapes
2.Temperature: Error caused by temperature change may be practically eliminate by either
• Measure temperature and making correction
• Using Invar tape (Nickel-steel alloy tapes) which usually used primarily in high precision taping.

Where:
CT = Temperature correction
Tm = temperature during measurement
T0 = Temperature of standardisation
α = Coefficient of thermal expansion of material, 0.000011/oC for steel, 0.0000005/oC for invar.
L = measured length
• Example: You must lay out two points that are exactly 100m apart. Field conditions indicate that
standard conditions apply except the measured temperature is 27oC. Determine the distance to
be laid out. (Ts=20oc)
• ANS: Ct = 11.2x10-6 /oC (27-20 oC) 100.000 m = +0.00784 m
Correction to tapes
3. Correction For Tension (Pull) : When a steel tape is pulled with a tension greater than its
standard pull, the tape will stretch and become longer than its standard length.

• Cp = Pull Correction
• P0 = standard pull
• P = pull applied during measurement
• A = Area of cross section of the tape (in cm2)
• E = Modulus of elasticity of tape, 210,000 N/mm2 for steel, 154000 N/mm2 for invar
• L = Measured length
Correction to tapes
4.Sag Correction: When the tape is suspended from two support in air, is assumes the shape of centenary.

where
• Cs = correction (m)
• w = weight per unit length (N/m)
• P = tension applied (N)
• L = recorded length (m)
• W is the total weight of the tape
• Example: calculate the horizontal length b/n two
supports, if the recorded length is 30.6m, the tape
weights is 15N/m and applied tension is 20N.(-0.069)
Correction to tapes
5. Slope correction: If the difference in height of the two measuring heads is h, the slope distance L and the horizontal
equivalent D, then

On the relatively short lines involved in taping, the first term –h2/2L will generally suffice. Alternatively if the vertical angle of
the slope of the ground is measured then:
D = L cos (α)
and the correction Cα = L – D.
Cα = L (1 – cosα )
Example: Consider a 50-m tape measuring on a slope with a difference in height of 5 m. The correction for
slope is
• Ch = – h2/2L = –25/100 = –0.250 m
and would constitute a major source of error if ignored. The second-order error resulting from nonuse of the second term
h4/8L3 is less than 1 mm.
Correction to tapes
6.Misalignment: If the tape is not in a straight line between the two points whose
distance apart is being measured, then the error in the horizontal plane will be
equivalent to that of slope in the vertical plane. Taking the amount by which the
end of the tape is off line equal to e, then the resultant error is e2/2L. A 50-m tape,
off line by 0.500 m (an excessive amount), would be in error by 2.5 mm. The error is
systematic and will obviously result in a recorded distance longer than the actual. If
we consider a more realistic error in misalignment of, say, 0.05 m, the resulting
error is 0.025 mm and completely negligible. Thus for the majority of taping,
alignment by eye is quite adequate.
7. Plumbing: If stepped measurement is used, locating the end of the tape by
plumb-bob will inevitably result in error. Plumbing at its best will probably produce
a random error of about ±3 mm
Direct vs Indirect Ranging
There are two cases for measurement distance by Tape
A. If the length is less than tape or chain length for horizontal ground
length is easy.
B. If the length is more than tape or chain length. In this case the
ranging rod process is necessary.
 Direct ranging
• Direct ranging is done when the two ends of the survey lines are
inter-visible. In such cases, ranging can either do by eye or through
some optical instrument.
Indirect or reciprocal ranging
This method is done when both the ends of the survey line are not inter-visible,
either due to high intervening ground or due to long distance between them. We
choose two points M1 and N1 where from N1 we can see M1 and A, also from M1
we can see N1 and B.
Mapping Using Tape
Map is the representation of ground or terrain in our sheet or we can say otherwise
the map is representation not only on sheet but also on a computer screen. We are
bringing the terrain some way into our computer so can we can do various kinds of
works on that terrain.
Procedure
1. Reconnaissance: It is the preliminary inspection of the area to be surveyed in order to
collect preliminary information and executing the survey work in the best possible
way. In reconnaissance, surveyor should prepare rough sketch where survey lines and
salient features are shown.
2. Working from whole to part: Distance AB (survey station points) measurement.
3. Redundancy: AB =(AB)/n
4. Field Book: For recording the measurements taken in the field, a field book
(preferably 20 cm x 12 cm) which opens lengthwise is used. The double line field book,
which is commonly used, the distance along the tape line is entered between the two
lines of the page
5. Taking offsets: take the distances between A&B
6. Plotting survey: using the information in field book in office
7. Checking line : Control the distance by applying checkline
Procedure
Procedure (next is plotting)

Taking the offsets

Recording the information
Offset measurement
The positions of details i.e. boundaries, roads, churches, stream,
bends etc. are located with respect to the chain line by measuring their
distance right or left of the chain lines. Such lateral measurements are
called offset
There are two kinds of offset.
• Perpendicular offsets: - when the lateral measurements are
perpendicular to chain lines.
• Oblique offsets:- when the lateral measurements are made of any
angle to the chain line
Checking
• Now how we are going to establish the provision of check in the
present survey
• If the distance is not equal, then we see what is the difference D is.
We can define D/D in terms of relative error.
Dropping/Setting- out Perpendiculars
1.We can drop perpendicular by using Cross staff.
Dropping perpendicular
• 2. Second way is to use Optical Square
Dropping Perpendicular
• 3. 3-4-5 Method: AB is a chain line; it is required to
draw a perpendicular at C of the chain line. Establish point
D at (3 meter) from C. Put (0 meter and 12 meter of the
tape) at point D and (3 meter of the tape) at point C.
Then the tape should be stretched from point E such that
(7 meter of the tape) locates at C. Finally, the situation
such as what is explained in the figure will be obtained. In this case, CE
is perpendicular to AB.
Dropping perpendicular
4. (Equidistant Method): AB is a chain line. It is
required to erect perpendicular at C on the chain line.
Select two points E and F on the chain line equidistant
from C. Zero end of the chain is held at E, and (10
meter) end at F. Pick up the (5 meter) mark, stretch the
tape tight and establish the point D. Join DC and this
DC at C is perpendicular to the chain line AB.
Oblique offsets
• Oblique distance is always greater than perpendicular distance. All
the offsets which are not taken at the right angle to chain line are
known as oblique offsets.
Obstacles in Taping
• When taping is obstructed , but vision is free
= + + 𝟐= 𝟐− 𝟐
Obstacles in Taping
• When it is not possible to chain round the obstacle, like (a river).

𝑨𝑩/𝑫𝑭 𝑨𝑫/𝑭𝑬
∴𝑨𝑩=𝑫𝑭∗𝑨𝑫/𝑭𝑬
Electronic Method: EDM
(Electronic Distance Measurement)
• The advent of EDM equipment has completely revolutionized all surveying
procedures, resulting in a change of emphasis and techniques. Taping
distance, with all its associated problems, has been rendered obsolete for
all base-line measurement. Distance can now be measured easily, quickly
and with great accuracy, regardless of terrain conditions. A standard
measurement of distance takes between 1.5 and 3 s. Automatic repeated
measurements can be used to improve reliability in difficult atmospheric
conditions
• Known since 1960
• Working Principle: Transmittal sends light to reflector and come back to
Receiver. After picking it up, receiver will measure the time of travel. So, by
measuring this time of travel, (d=c*t/2) ,we know the velocity of light or
velocity of electromagnetic radiation, and if we can measure this time of
travel
EDM

(left) Wild DI 1600 E.D.M (right) Wild DI 1600 top-mounted on the telescope of the Wild T
1000 Electronic theodolite
Classification of instruments
Sun light or artificially generated electromagnetic wave consists of waves of
different lengths. The spectrum of an electromagnetic wave is as shown
below:
1.Infrared EDM
In this instrument amplitude modulated infrared
waves are used. Prism reflectors are used at the
end of line to be measured.
These instruments are light and economical and can be mounted on
theodolite. With these instruments accuracy achieved is ± 10 mm. The range
of these instruments is up to 3 km. These instruments are useful for most of
the civil engineering works. Cannot work in fog, raining or underwater. Can
use for short ranges. No need active reflector. For longer distance we need
passive (prism) reflector. Can measure 0.3 to 20km distance
Classification ..
• 2. Microwave EDMI: use radio wavelengths. Radio waves are weak in
energy, so we need an active reflector. Can use for very large ranges -
25 kilometres to 50 kilometres. one advantage of these microwave
EDMI’s is that advantage is, they can be used in case of rain, fog or in
high-moisture areas.
• 3. very long radio waves with wavelengths of 150 m to 2 km. They are
primarily used for position-fixing systems in hydrographic and
oceanographic surveying (offshore).
EDM - MEASURING PRINCIPLES
Although there is a wide variety of EDM instruments available, there are
basically only two methods of measurement employed, namely the pulse
method and the more popular phase difference method.
1. Pulse/time method: A short, intensive pulse of radiation is transmitted to
a reflector target, which immediately transmits it back, along a parallel path,
to the receiver. The measured distance is computed from the velocity of the
signal multiplied by the time it took to complete its journey. It can be seen
from equation (3.14) that the distance is dependent on the velocity of light
in the medium and the accuracy of its transit time. Taking an approximate
value of 300 000 km/s for the speed of light, 10–10 s would be equivalent to
15 mm of distance.
• how much will be the error? If the least count of EDM is 10-9 s
x=ct=3*108 X 10-9 =0.30 metre, or 30 cm ( it is large)
EDM - MEASURING PRINCIPLES
• Phase method: Phase is a particular point in time on the cycle of a
waveform, measured as an angle in degrees. A complete cycle is 360°.
Phase measurement means, we can measure the phase.
Phase difference method
• Fundamental equation for distances measured with EDM equipment:

Where:
M = the integer number of wavelengths in the medium
δλ = the fraction of a wavelength =(θ/2π)λ and λ = co/nf
K1 = instrument constant
K2 = reflector constant
co = the velocity of electromagnetic waves (light) in a medium (co = 299 792
458 ± 1.2 m/s)
Errors in EDMI
Why errors are important ? There are couple of reasons
• 1- If we know about the errors, we can apply corrections in our
observations, Then only we will get the right kind of measurements
• 2- If we know about the error, we know about the behavior of the
instrument; how the instrument is actually behaving in the field
Also we should know what are the sources -what are the sources of error. In
all the cases, whatever surveying or whatever equipment we are using,
generally we classify these sources in three categories.
• 1 –the error which is because of the human being, the observer.
• 2- due to the instrument
• 3 - Nature. (We assume that it is travelling with the speed of light in
vacuum, but it is not vacuum here)
Errors in EDM
Due to aging of the instrumens, calibration is mandatory and from the point of
view of calibration, the errors have been classified under three main headings
1. Zero (or index) error: a-Zero error results from changes in the instrument
/reflector constant due to ageing of the instrument or as a result of repairs, b-
differences between the electronic centre and the mechanical centre of the EDM.
The additive constant or zero/index correction is an algebraic constant to be
applied directly to every measured distance
2. Scale error: is proportional to the length of the line measured and is caused by
the drift/change in frequency of the quartz crystal oscillator in the instrument
3. Cyclic error: is caused by the non-linearity in amplitude modulation of the carrier
wave and phase measurement. This cyclic error varies across the modulated
wavelength
OPTICAL DISTANCE MEASUREMENT (ODM)
• ODM, in all its forms, has been rendered obsolete by EDM. It is also
possible to measure the height using these equipment. We will see
more on this subject on next lectures.